Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 11 – Pat 1: Slope Stability

Objective:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Determine the stability of slopes with or without seepage.

Content:

A. Introduction

Slopes in soils and rocks are ubiquitous in nature and in man-made structures. Highways,
dams, levees, canals and stockpiles are constructed by sloping the lateral faces of the soil because
slopes are generally less expensive than constructing walls. Natural forces (wind, water, snow, etc)
change the topography on Earth and other planets, often creating unsuitable slopes. Failures of
natural slopes (landslides) and man-made slopes have resulted in much death and destruction. Some
failures are sudden and catastrophic; others are insidious. Some failures are widespread; others are
localized.
Geotechnical engineers have to pay particular attention to geology, surface drainage,
groundwater, and the shear strength of soils is assessing slope stability. However, we are
handicapped by the geological variability of soils and methods of obtaining reliable values of shear
strength. The analyses of slope stability are based on simplifying assumptions and the design of a
stable slope relies heavily on experience and careful site investigation.
A few simple methods of analysis from which you should be able to:
1. Estimate the ability of slopes with simple geometry and geological features.
2. Understand the forces and activities that provoke failures.

3. Understand the effects of geology, seepage and pore water pressures on the stability of slopes.

B. Definitions of Key Terms

1. Slip or failure zone is a thin zone of soil that reaches the critical state or residual state and results
in movement of the upper soil mass.

2. Slip plane or failure plane or slip surface or failure surface is the surface of sliding.

3. Sliding mass is the mass of soil within the plane and the ground surface.

4. Slope angle (αs) is the angle of inclination of a slope to the horizontal. The slope angle is
sometimes referred to as a ratio, for example, 2:1 (horizontal: vertical).

5. Pore water pressure ratio (ru) is the ratio of pore water force on a slip surface to the total
weight of the soil and any external loading.

C. Some Type of Slope Failures

Slope failures depend on the soil type, soil stratification, groundwater, seepage, and the slope
geometry. We will introduce a few types of slope failure that are common in soils. Failure of a slope
along a weak zone of soil is called a translational slide. The sliding mass can travel long distances
before coming to rest. Translational slides are common in coarse-grained soils.
A common type of failure in homogeneous fine-grained soils is a rotational slide that has its
point of rotation on an imaginary axis parallel to the slope. Three types of rotational failure often

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occur. One type, called a base slide, occurs by an arc engulfing the whole slope. A soft layer resting on
a stiff layer of soil is prone to base failure. The second type of rotational failure is the toe slide,
whereby the failure surface passes through the toe of the slope. The third type of rotational failure is
the slope slide, whereby the failure surface passes the slope.
A flow slide occurs when internal and external conditions force a soil to behave like a viscous
fluid and flow down even shallow slopes, spreading out in several directions. The failure surface is ill
defined in flow slides. Multiple failure surfaces usually occur and change continuously as flow
proceeds. Flow slides can occur in dry and wet soils.
Block or wedge slides occur when a soil mass is shattered along joints, seams, fissures, and
weak zones by forces emanating from adjacent soils. The shattered mass moves as blocks and wedges
down the slope.
D. Some Causes of Slope Failure

Slope failures are caused, in general, by natural forces, human misjudgment and activities, and
burrowing animals. Describe below some of the main factors that provoke slope failures.
1. Erosion
2. Rainfall
3. Earthquakes
4. Geological Features
5. External Loading
6. Construction Activities
a. Excavated Slopes
b. Fill Slopes
7. Rapid Drawdown

Essential Points:

1. Geological features and environmental conditions (e.g., external loads and natural forces) are
responsible for most slope failures.
2. The common modes of slope failure in soils are by translation, rotation, flow, and block
movements.

E. Factor of Safety
τf
Fs =
τd
Where:
Fs = factor of safety with respect to strength
𝜏f = average shear strength of the soil
𝜏d = average shear stress developed along the potential failure surface

C + σtan∅
Fs =
Cd + σtan∅d
Where:
C = cohesion
∅ = angle of friction
σ = normal stress on the potential failure surface

1. Factor of safety with respect to cohesion

C
Fc =
Cd
Where:
Fc = factor of safety with cohesion
C = cohesion
Cd = cohesion that develop along the potential failure surface
∅d = angle of friction that develop along the potential failure surface

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2. Factor of safety with respect to friction
tan∅
F∅ =
tan∅d

Where: Fs = Fc = F∅

F. Stability of Infinite Slopes without Seepage for Clay

H { Øc
γ

Ro c k
β

C tan ∅
Fs = +
s Hcos2 tan tan 

Where:
β = angle the soil makes with the horizontal
μ = coefficient of friction between rock and soil
c = cohesion of soil
γs = unit weight of soil
Ø = angle of internal friction
Maximum height of the slope for which critical equilibrium occurs
C
Hcr =
cos2 (tan − tan∅)

G. Stability of Infinite Slopes with Seepage for Clay

H { Øc
γ

Ro c k
β

C ′ tan∅
Fs = +
sat Hcos2 tan sat tan

Where:
γsat = saturated unit weight of soil
’ = effective unit weight of soil

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H. Stability of Infinite Slopes without Seepage for Sand

H { Øc
γ

Ro c k
β

tan∅
FS =
tanβ

I. Stability of Infinite Slopes when there is partial Seepage for Sand

H { Øc
γ h
Ro c k
β

hγw tan∅
FS = [1 − ]
γsat H tanβ

J. Stability of Infinite Slopes when Subjected to Full Seepage for Sand

H { Øc
γ

Ro c k
β

𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − γw tan∅
FS = [ ]
γsat tanβ

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K. Analysis of Finite Soil With Plane Failure Surfaces (Culmann’s Method)

Maximum height of the slope for which critical equilibrium occurs

H 1 − cos( − ∅d )
Cd = [ ]
4 sincos∅d

4C sincos∅
Hcr = [ ]
 1 − cos( − ∅)
L. Modes of Failure of Finite Slope

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1. Slope failure

When the failure occurs in such a way that the surface of sliding intersects the slope at or
above its toe, it is called a slope failure and the failure circle is referred to as a toe circle if it passes
thru the toe of the slope.

2. Slope circle

The failure circle is called a slope circle

a. Shallow slope failure
b. Base failure

When failure occurs in such a way that the surface of sliding passes at some distance
below the toe of the slope, it is called a base failure and the failure circle is called a midpoint.

3. Stability Number

C
m = γ dH
s

where: m = stability number

1 γ H
m
= Cs (stability factor)
d

4. Critical Height of Slope

When: Fs =1, Cd = Cu
Cu
Hcr = γ
sm

Where: Cu = undrained shear strength

γs = unit weight of soil
5. For Critical Equilibrium

Fc = FØ = Fs
Cd = C, H = Hcr
C
Hcr = γs m

C
Fc = Cd
(factor of safety with respect to cohesion)

tanØ
FØ = tanØd
(factor of safety with respect to friction)

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 Problems
1. An infinite slope in shown. The shear strength parameters at the interface of soil and rock are as
follows:  = 1, 900 kg/m3, C = 18 kN/m2 and ∅ = 25o.
a. If H = 8 m and  = 20o, find the factor of safety against sliding on the rock surface.
b. If  = 30o, find the height, H, for which Fs = 1. (Assume no pore water pressure to be zero)

H {Ø
c
γ

Ro c k
β

2. Refer to problem 1.If there were seepage through the soil, and the ground water table coincided
with the ground surface, what would be the value of Fs? Use H = 8 m, sat = 1, 900 kg/m3 and 
= 20o.

H {Ø
c
γ

Ro c k
β

3. A cut is to be made in a soil that has  = 105 lb/ft3, C = 600 lb/ft2 and ∅ = 15o. The side of the cut
slope will make an angle of 45o with the horizontal. What should be the depth of the cut slope
that will have a factor of safety, Fs, of 3?

γ = 105 lb/ft3
H =?
C = 600 lb/ft2
=
∅ = 15o, Fs = 3
45o

4. A finite slope is shown in the figure. Assuming that the slope failure would occur along a plane.
Angle of friction is 20o, cohesion of soil is 25 kPa, unit weight of the soil is 18 kN/m3 and the angle
of slope is 45o.

a. Compute the height of the slope for critical Ø = 20o

equilibrium. Hcr C = 25 kPa
b. Compute the stability number for a factor of
safety of 1. γs = 18 kN/m3
c. Compute the stability factor. β = 45o

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5. A finite slope is shown in the figure. The unit weight of soil is 17. 3 kN/m 3 with a cohesion of 12
kPa and an angle of friction of 10o. The slope makes an angle of 50o with the horizontal. Assuming
the slope failure would occur along AC. B C

a. Compute the height of the slope for critical

equilibrium.
Hcr failure plane
b. Compute the stability number.
d. If BC is 4.8 m, compute the factor of safety ϴ
against sliding A β = 50o

References:
1. Images google.com
2. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
3. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
4. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
5. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
6. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
7. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

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 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 7: Compressibility in Soil

Objectives:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Identify and differentiate the causes of compressibility in soils.

2. Determine the compressibility of the applied loads on soils.

Content:

A. Introduction

When a load is applied to soil mass, deformation may result from (1) immediate elastic and
inelastic deformation of the soil structure, (2) pore water drained from the soil mass, (3) continuous
time dependent or viscous flow under shear stress resulting in reorientation of the of the soil
particles, and (4) a combination of all the above, which in most cases occurs simultaneously.
However, it will depend upon soil types, properties, drainage conditions, stress history and
environmental conditions.

A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads compresses all
layers. The compression is caused by (1) deformation of soil particles, (2) relocations of soil particles,
and (3) expulsion of water or air from the void spaces. Consolidation processes tend to control the
engineering properties of compressible soils, have a dominating influence on their strength, and
govern the rate and magnitude of settlement that occurs when such deposits are subjected to load.
There are three general types of consolidation phenomena in clay deposits existing in the natural
location namely (a) normally consolidation, (b) overconsolidation, and (c) underconsolidation. In
most cases the soil deposit is normally consolidated. An overconsolidated soil deposit has a complex
failure mechanism but is generally desirable from a construction perspective.
Consolidation settlement, also called compression settlement or long – term settlement is
caused mainly by a reduction in the void ratio of compressible soils below the foundation and it is
based on Terzaghi’s consolidation theory.

Soil settlement may be divided into three categories:

1. Initial or immediate consolidation settlement, which is caused by the elastic deformation of dry
soil and of moist soils without any change in the moisture content. Immediate settlement
calculations are generally based on equations derived from the theory of elasticity.
Initial consolidation is defined as a comparatively sudden reduction in volume of soil mass
under an applied load due to principally to expulsion and compression of gas in the soil’s voids
preceding primary consolidation. This term also is referred to as initial compression.

2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive
soils because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.
Primary consolidation is the reduction in volume of a soil mass caused by the application of
a sustained load to the mass and due principally to a squeezing out of water from the void spaces
of the mass and accompanied by a transfer of the load from the soil – water to the soil solids. This
term is also referred to as primary compression or called primary time effect.

3. Secondary consolidation settlement, which is observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the
result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is an additional form of compression that occurs
at constant effective stress.

Secondary consolidation is defined by ASCE (1958) as the reduction in volume of a soil mass
caused by the application of a sustained load to the mass and due principally to the adjustment

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 of the internal structure of the soil mass after most of the load has been transferred from soil –
water to soil – solids. This term is also referred to a secondary compression or called secondary
time effect. Leonards and Ramiah (1959) reported further observations of the consolidation
process, both in the field and in the laboratory which demonstrated that volume changes
continue to occur after excess hydrostatic pressure had essentially dissipated. This process has
been termed secondary or secular consolidation.

B. One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

The one-dimensional consolidation testing laboratory was first suggested by Terzaghi and
this test is performed by a consolidometer or sometimes referred to as an oedometer.

1. Initial compression, which is mostly caused by preloading.

2. Primary consolidation, during which excess pore water pressure is gradually transferred into
effective stress because of expulsion of pore water.

3. Secondary consolidation, which occurs after complete dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure, when some deformation of the specimen takes place because of plastic readjustment of
soil fabric.

C. Normally Consolidated Clays, Overconsolidated Clays and Underconsolidated Soils

1. Normally consolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is the maximum pressure
that the soil was subjected to in the past.

2. Overconsolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is less than that which the soil
experienced in the past. The maximum effective past pressure is called the preconsolidation
pressure.

a. Definition of Overconsolidated Soils

If the maximum past intergranular pressure, Pc, is larger than the present overburden pressure,
Po, (P > Po), then this intergranular pressure is called preconsolidation pressure, Pc, (P = Pc) or past
pressure. The ratio between preconsolidation pressure, Pc, and overburden pressure, Po, is called
overburden ratio (OCR):
Pc
OCR =
Po

Where: OCR = overconsolidated ratio

Pc = preconsolidated pressure
Po = overburden pressure
Note:
 If OCR = 1, then the soil deposit is called normally consolidated
 If OCR > 1, then it is called overconsolidated
 If OCR < 1, it is called underconsolidated

b. Identification of Overconsolidated Clay Deposits

By visual observation, there is no difference between normally consolidated and

overconsolidated clay deposits. However, it can be identified by standard laboratory consolidated
test results on void ratio versus logarithmic pressure curve. It also can be identified by simple
relationships of the following equation. A liquidity index, LI, value less than 0. 4 may also imply that
the clay deposit is overconsolidated (Fang 1997).
LI < 0. 40 is overconsolidated

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c. Classification of Degree of Overconsolidation

The degree of overconsolidation can be classified bases OCR such as:

 Lightly overconsolidated clay: 1 < OCR < 2. 5

 Heavily overconsolidated clay: 8 < OCR

Note: OCR values can be used to indicate the stress history of a given soil deposit.
d. Causes of Preconsolidation Pressure

There are numerous reason and factors causing preconsolidation, including geological features,
changes in pore pressures, changes in soil structure, and changes in environmental conditions. A list
of such factors causing the preconsolidation pressure may be dichotomized according to mechanical
or multimedia energy causes:

 Structural loading
Caused by mechanical energy
 Surcharge loading
 Pore – water pressure
 Ion exchange reaction
Caused by multimedia energy  Freezing – thawing process
 Wet – dry, hot – cold cycles
 Pollution intrusion

e. Engineering Problems of Overconsolidated Deposit

Overconsolidated soils tend to have reduced settlement and greater strength than soils which are
normally consolidated, which is desirable. However, overconsolidated soils are more complicated
than normally consolidated soils due to (a) the variable causes of preconsolidated pressure, (b)
mechanisms of failure are not clearly understood; and (c) the difficulty in predicting the failure,
especially with respect to slope stability.
3. Underconsolidated Soils

In addition to normally and overconsolidated soils, there are Underconsolidated soils as well.
Underconsolidated soils are those in which less than the calculated are those in which a stratum of
clay deposit is found to exhibit a preconsolidation pressure less than calculated existing overburden
pressure. This is the case where a given deposit is undergoing consolidation from a previously
applied load. The deposit has not yet reached an equilibrium condition under the applied overburden
stresses. This situation occurs in areas of newly established landfill. When analyzing the settlement
in an Underconsolidated deposit, both the previous and current load applications must be
considered.

D. Settlement from One - Dimensional Primary Consolidation

1. Basic Settlement Formula

∆e
S =H
1 + eo
Where: S = settlement
∆e = eo – e1
H = thickness of stratum or clay
eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
e1 = void ratio after the vertical load is applied

2. Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils

Cc H Po + ∆P
S= log ( )
1 + eo Po

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 Where: S = settlement
H = thickness of stratum or clay
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
Po = initial vertical effective soil stress at midheight of clay
∆P = increase of vertical pressure for soil stress

3. Primary Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils

a. When (Po + ∆P) < Pc

Cs H Po + ∆P
S= log ( )
1 + eo Po

b. When (Po + ∆P) > Pc

Cs H Pc Cc H Po + ∆P
S= log ( ) + log ( )
1 + eo Po 1 + eo Pc
Where: Cs = swell index
Pc = preconsolidation pressure

4. Overconsolidation Ratio, OCR

Pc
OCR =
Po

Where:
Pc = preconsolidation stress (past maximum vertical effective stress)
Po = overburden effective stress (current vertical effective stress) at midheight of the clay

Note: If OCR = 1, the soil is normally consolidated soil

5. Compression Index, Cc:

Compression index, Cc, is the slope of the linear portion of the pressure – void ratio curve on a
semi – logarithmic plot. This index is used to indicate the degree of compressibility of clays. For
normally consolidated clay, this index can be estimated strongly from liquid limit, or initial moisture
content, and initial void ratio.

a. Terzaghi and Peck (1987)

For remolded clay: Cc = 0.007 (LL − 10)

For undisturbed clay: Cc = 0.009 (LL − 10)

b. Skempton (1944)

For remolded clay: Cc = 0.007 (LL − 7)

For undisturbed clay: Cc = 0.009 (LL − 10)

c. Rendon-Herreo (1983)

1 + eo 2.38
Cc = 0.141G1.2
s ( )
Gs
e1 − e2
Cc = P (Using e-log p curve)
log( 2 )
P1

d. Nishida (1956)

All clays: Cc = 1.15 (eo − 0.27)

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e. Nagaraj and Murty (1985)

LL (%)
Cc = 0.2343 [ ] Gs
100

6. Swell Index, Cs:

The swell index is appreciably smaller in magnitude than the compression index and can be
1 1
generally determined from laboratory tests. In most cases Cs = 5 to 10 Cc

a. Nagaraj and Murty (1985)

LL (%)
Cs = 0.0463 [ ] Gs
100

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 Problems

1. A laboratory consolidation test on a normally consolidated clay showed the following

Pressure Void ratio at the end of

(kPa) consolidation
P1 = 140 e1 = 0. 92
P2 = 212 e2 = 0. 86

1
Compute the value of swell index by using 6 the value of compression index.

2. A concrete wall is to be constructed on a clay layer that overlies impervious rock; thickness of
clay layer is 6 m. A laboratory test that simulated the field conditions shows the void ratio of the
soil before and after application of the load are 0. 91 and 0. 89 respectively. Compute the
settlement of the structure.

3. In a consolidation test on a normally consolidated clay shows that a clay layer 2. 8 m thick and
drained on both sides is subjected to average pressure increase as shown:

Pressure (kPa) Void Ratio

Po = 140 0. 92
Po + ∆P = 212 0. 86

Compression index is 0. 333

Determine the maximum consolidation.

4. A soil profile is shown in the figure. If a uniformly distributed load, ∆P, is applied at the ground
surface, what is the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if
a. The clay is normally consolidated.
C
b. The preconsolidation pressure (Pc) is 190 kPa and use Cs = c.
5
Cc
c. The preconsolidation pressure (Pc) is 170 kPa and use Cs = 5
.

P = 50 kPa

3m Sand dry = 16 kN/m3

Ground Water Table

6m Sand sat = 18.5 kN/m3

6m Clay
sat = 19 kN/m , e = 0.95, LL = 50%
3

Bedrock

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E. Settlement from Secondary Consolidation

Secondary consolidation can be calculated as:

t2
Ss = Cα′ H log ( )
t1
Where: Ss = settlement due to secondary consolidation
Cα = secondary compression index
t1 = time for completion of primary settlement
t2 = time after completion of primary settlement, where settlement is required
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
eo = void ratio
∆e = change in void ratio
H = thickness of clay layer

1. Coefficient of Secondary Consolidation; 𝐂𝛂′ :

Cα
Cα′ =
1 + ep

2. Secondary Compression Index; Cα:

∆e
Cα = t
log (t 2 )
1

Where:
ep = eo − ∆ e

Po + ∆P
∆e = Cc log ( )
Po
3. Coefficient of Compressibility; av:
eo − e1
av =
P1 − Po

Where: eo = initial void ratio

e1 = final void ratio
P1 = final pressure
Po = initial pressure

4. Coefficient of Volume Compressibility; mv:

(eo − e1 )
mv =
(1 + eo )(P1 − Po )
av
mv =
1 + eo

5. Coefficient of Consolidation; Cv
K
Cv =
m v w

Where: K = coefficient of permeability

w = unit weight of water
mv = coefficient of volume of compressibility

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F. Immediate Settlement or Elastic Settlement or Initial Settlement or Contact Settlement or Shear
Strain Settlement

Immediate, or elastic, settlement of foundations occurs directly after the application of a load,
without change in the moisture content. The magnitude of the contact settlement will depend on the
flexibility of the foundation and the type of the material on which it is resting.
It is primarily due to change in shape (distortion) of the soil elements underneath the
foundation.

(1 − 2 )
Si = pB Ip
E

1 1+ √m21 + 1
Ip = [m1 ln ( ) + ln (m1 + √m12 + 1)]
 m1

Where: m1 = length of the foundation or width of the foundation

Si = elastic settlement
p = net pressure applied
B = width of the foundation or diameter of circular foundation
 = Poisson’s ratio
E = modulus of elasticity of soil
Ip = nondimensional influence factor

G. Settlement due to Volume Changes caused by Lateral Yielding or Shear Strain that occurs in the Soil

4QB 2
S=
K v (B + 1)2

2Q 2B 2
S= [ ]
N 1+B

Where: S = settlement
Q = pressure imposed by the foundation
Kv = modulus of sub grade reaction
B = width of the foundation
N = lowest SPT corrected value
Values of Modulus of Elasticity of Soil (E)

E
Type of Soil
Psi kPa
Soft Clay 250 – 500 1, 725 – 3, 450
Hard Clay 850 – 2, 000 5, 865 – 13, 800
Loose Sand 1, 500 – 4, 000 10, 350 – 27, 600
Dense Sand 5, 000 – 10, 000 34, 500 – 69, 000

Values of Poisson’s Ratio ()

Type of Soil Poisson’s Ratio

Loose Sand 0. 2 – 0. 4
Medium Sand 0. 25 – 0. 4
Dense Sand 0. 3 – 0. 45
Silty Sand 0. 2 – 0. 4
Soft Clay 0. 15 – 0. 25
Medium Clay 0. 2 – 0. 5

Problems

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1. For a normally consolidated clay layer in the field, the following are given:

Thickness of clay layer = 8. 5 ft

Void ratio (eo) = 0. 80
Compression index (Cc) = 0. 28
Average effective pressure on the clay layer (Po) = 2, 650 lb/ft2
∆P = 970 lb/ft2
Secondary compression index (Cα) = 0. 02

What is the total settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion of primary
consolidation? (Note: Time for completion of primary settlement = 1. 5 years)

2. A normally consolidated clay layer, 3 m thick, has the following properties:

Initial void ratio, eo = 0. 75

Compression index, Cc = 0. 25
Average effective pressure, Po = 125 kPa
Expected pressure increase, ∆P = 45 kPa
Secondary compression index, Cα = 0. 02
Time for completion of primary settlement = 2 years

What is the total settlement of the clay layer six years after the completion of primary
consolidation settlement?

3. In a laboratory compression test, the void ratio of the test sample changes from 1. 55 to 1. 36 as
the loading increases from 96 kPa to 192 kPa. Compute the value of the coefficient of
compressibility and compression index for this loading range.

4. Compute the value of coefficient of volume compressibility if in a laboratory compression test,

the void ratio changes from 1. 46 to 1. 27 as the loading increases from 80 kPa to 160 kPa.

5. A square footing 10 ft x 10 ft is carrying a load of 280 tons is to be constructed on dry sand.

Standard penetration test (SPT) was conducted on the site and the corrected SPT values that is
the lowest average N value was 31. Compute the maximum settlement of the footing.

6. A rectangular concrete foundation of length of 30 m and width 20 m is to be designed to transmit

a uniform contact pressure of 210 kPa at a depth of 2. 4 m. Laboratory tests have provided the
following soil properties:

Modulus of elasticity (E) = 55 MPa

Poisson’s ratio = 0. 50
Bulk density = 19 kN/m3
Influence factor (Ip) = 1. 358

Calculate the immediate elastic settlement expected at the center of the footing

H. Calculation of Consolidation Settlement Under a Foundation

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 To estimate the one-dimensional settlement of a foundation, we can use the primary
consolidation settlement of normally consolidated fine-grained soils. However, the increase of stress,
∆P, in these equations should be the average increase in the pressure below the center of the
foundation.
P

h1 Sand, 1
L
1
ΔPt
H/2 2 Clay, 2

Cc, e
ΔPm
H

ΔPb

Cc H Po + ∆P
S= log ( )
1 + eo Po

∆Pt + 4∆Pm + ∆Pb

∆P =
6

Where: S = settlement
H = thickness of stratum or clay
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
Po = initial vertical effective soil stress at midheight of clay
∆P = average increase in the pressure below the center of the clay foundation
∆Pt = increase in pressure at the top of clay layer
∆Pm = increase in pressure at the middle of clay layer
∆Pb = increase in pressure at the bottom of clay layer

I. Total Settlement of Foundation

ST = S + Ss + Si

Problem: Compute the settlement of the footing foundation shown due to consolidation if the net soil
pressure at the bottom of the footing is equal to 160 kPa. The footing has a dimension of 2 m x 2 m.

P
MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 10

1m
References:
1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 11

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 3 – Part 2: Soil Structure

Objectives:

After studying these topics students will be able to:

1. Understand the importance of phase relationships, physical sates and soil classification.

2. Know the significance and application soil consistency and classification in determination of the
strength of soil.

Content:

A. Introduction

Soil structure is defined as the geometric arrangement of soil particles with respect to one
another. Among the many factors that affect the structure are the shape, size and mineralogical
composition of soil particles, and the nature of the composition of soil water.

Two Groups Structures of Soils

1. Structures in Cohesion less Soil: Single grained and honeycomb

In single-grained structures, soil particles are in stable positions, with each particle in contact
with the surrounding ones.
Soils that exhibit a honeycombed structure have large void ratios, and they can carry an ordinary
static load. However, under a heavy load or when subjected to shock loading, the structure breaks
down, which results in a large amount of settlement.

2. Structures in Cohesive Soils:

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 1

B. Classification of Soil

A classification scheme provides a method of identifying soils in a particular group that would
likely exhibit similar characteristics. Soil classification is used to specify a certain soil type that is best
suitable for a given application. There are several classification schemes available. Each was device
for a specific use.
1. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Textural Classification Chart. (See figure)

Soil texture is influenced by the size of the individual particles present in it.
Sand size: 2.0 to 0.05mm in diameter
Silt size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter

Formula:
% Sand
Sand Size = x 100%
100 − %Gravel

% Silt
Silt Size = x 100%
100 − %Gravel
% Clay
Clay Size = x 100%
100 − %Gravel

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2. Classification by Engineering Behavior

Textural Classification is based entirely on the particle size distribution.

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3. American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASSHTO) Classification System.
( See figure )

Essential points:

1. A sieve analysis is used to determine the grain size distribution of coarse-grained soils.
2. For fine-grained soils, a hydrometer analysis is used to find the particle size distribution.
3. Particle size distribution on a semi logarithmic plot of % finer (ordinate, arithmetic scale) versus
particle size (abscissa, logarithm scale).
4. The particle size distribution plot is used to delineate the different soil textures (percentages of
gravel, sand, silt and clay) in a soil.
5. The effective size, D10, is the diameter of the particles of which 10% of the soil is finer, D10 is an
important value in regulating flow through soils and can significantly influence the mechanical
behavior of soils.
6. D50 is the average grain size diameter of the soil.
7. Two coefficients-the uniformly coefficient and the coefficient of curvature- are used to
characterize the particle size distribution. Uniform soils have uniformity coefficients <4 and
steep gradation curves. Well-graded soils have uniformity coefficients >4, coefficients of
curvature between 1 and 3, and flat gradation curves. Gap-graded soils have coefficients of
curvature <1 or >3, and one or more humps on gradation curves.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 4

 Problems
1. Classify the following soils by using the USDA’s textural classification chart.

Particle Size Distribution in %

Soil
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
A 15 20 35 30
B 20 40 22 18
C 14 50 20 16
D 18 52 22 8
E 15 32 25 28

2. Classify the following soils according to the AASHTO classification system and give the group
indices.

Sieve Analysis % Finer Liquid Plastic

Soil No. 10 N0. 40 No. 200 Limit Limit
A 100 82 38 42 23
B 100 71 46 32 18
C 92 81 51 29 16
D 100 58 32 32 14
E 95 69 30 42 24

3. A particle size analysis on a soil sample yields the following data. Determine the % finer and %
retained in the No. 200 Sieve.

Weight
Sieve Accumulated Percent
Retained
No. Weight Finer (%)
(N)
4 3. 1
10 5. 8
20 3. 8
60 2. 6
200 6. 8
Pan 2. 1
Total

References:
1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com
2. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
3. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
4. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
5. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
6. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
7. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 5

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)
Module 9: Lateral Earth Pressure
Objectives:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Determine the pressure exerted by the soil on a retained structures.
2. Identify the different cases and theories in the calculation of pressures applied by the earth on
different structures.

Content:

A. Introduction

Retaining structures such as retaining walls, basement walls, and bulkheads are commonly
encountered in foundation engineering, and they may support slopes of earth masses. Proper design
and construction of these structures require thorough knowledge of lateral forces that act between
the retaining structures and the soil masses being retained. These lateral forces are caused by lateral
earth pressure.

Lateral earth pressure is the force exerted by the soil mass upon an earth – retaining structure
such as a retaining wall. The magnitude and distribution of the lateral pressure acting on retaining
structures or foundations are important for the design of excavation bracing, retaining walls,
waterfront, and near shore structures. There are two general types of lateral earth pressure or force,
the earth pressure and environmental force.

Earth pressure is the major contribution to overall lateral pressure, and it can be divided into
three scenarios such as follows: active earth pressure, passive earth pressure, and earth pressure at
rest. The stages of earth pressure and their applications are (a) active earth pressure including all
types of retaining walls; (b) active – passive earth pressure including sheet piling and deep
excavation; (c) passive earth pressure including basement wall, underwater down slope, and
roadway sign; and (d) earth pressure at rest including pile foundation and bridge pier.
Environmental forces such as wind, wave, current, and earthquakes are closely related to the stability
of geotechnical engineering structures.

B. Characteristics of Lateral Earth Pressure

1. Earth Pressure at Rest

The rigid wall may have two directions of motion, into the bank or away from the bank. The
soil first undergoes first elastic deformation, then elastic plastic deformation, and finally uncontained
plastic flow. In simple terms, if no wall movement occurs, the lateral earth pressure is referred to as
earth pressure at rest.
2. Active Earth Pressure

The soil exerts a push against a wall by virtue of its tendency to slip laterally and seek its
natural slope or angle of repose, this making the wall to move slightly away from the backfill soil
mass. This kind of pressure is known as the “active earth pressure” of the soil.
3. Passive Earth Pressure

The retaining wall or the earth – retaining structure is the actuating element and soil provides
the resistance with soil develops in response to the movement of the structure toward it is called the
“passive earth pressure”, or more appropriately “passive earth resistance” which may be very much
greater than the active earth pressure. The surface over which the sheared – off soil wedge tends to
slide is referred to as the surface of “sliding” or “rupture”.

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C. Earth Pressures Coefficient

The coefficient of earth pressure is the principal stress ratio at a point in a soil mass. The
characteristics of the coefficient of earth pressures are given in terms of three types: active, passive,
and at rest.

1. Active earth pressure coefficient (Ka) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal
effective stresses when an earth retaining structure moves away (by a small amount) from the
retained soil.

2. Passive earth coefficient (Kp) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal effective
stresses when an earth retaining structure is force against a soil mass.

3. Coefficient of earth pressure at rest (Ko) is the ratio of the minor principal stress to the major
principal stress. This is applicable when the soil mass is in natural state without having been
permitted to yield or without having been compressed.

D. Methods for Analysis of Lateral Earth Pressure

There are two basic approaches for estimating lateral earth pressures, the theoretical and
empirical approaches.

1. Theoretical approaches

Theoretical approaches for estimation of lateral earth pressure include (a) Coulumb’s earth
pressure theory, (b) Rankine earth’s theory, (c) limit analysis, and (d) elasticity theory.

2. Empirical approaches

Empirical approaches are for the design of indeterminate foundation structures such as
bracing excavation and anchored bulkhead.

E. Retaining Walls

A retaining wall may be defined as a structure whose primary purpose is to prevent lateral
movement of earth or some other material. For some special cases, as in basement walls or bridge
abutments, a retaining wall may also have function of supporting vertical loads.

Types of Retaining Walls

1. Gravity retaining wall is a massive concrete wall relying on its mass to resist the lateral forces
from the retained soil mass.

2. Semi – gravity wall is in essence of gravity wall that has been given a wider base (a toe or heel or
both) to increase its stability. Some reinforcement is usually necessary for this type of wall.

3. Flexible retaining wall or a sheet pile wall is a long slender wall relying on passive resistance and
anchors or props for its stability.

4. Mechanical stabilized earth is a gravity type retaining wall in which the soil is reinforced by thin
reinforcing elements (steel, fabric, fibers, etc.).

5. T – Shaped wall is perhaps the most common cantilever wall. For this type of wall, the weight of
the earth in the back of the stem (the backfill) contributes to its stability.

6. L – Shaped wall is frequently used when properly line restrictions forbid the use of T – Shaped
wall. On the other hand, when it is not feasible (due to construction limitation) to excavate for a
heel, a reversed L – Shape may serve the need.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 2

7. Counterfort retaining wall consists of three main components: base, stem and intermittent
vertical ribs called counterforts, which tie the base and the stem together. These ribs, which act
as tension ties, transform the stem and heel into continuous slabs supported on three sides – at
two adjacent counterforts and at the base stem.

8. Buttressed wall is constructed by placing the ribs on the front face of the stem where they act in
compression.

9. Bridge abutment is a retaining wall, generally short and typically accompanied by wing walls.

F. Basic Concepts on Lateral Earth Pressures

1. The earth retaining wall is vertical.

2. The interface between the wall and soil is frictionless.

3. The soil surface is horizontal and no shear acts on horizontal and vertical boundaries.

4. The wall is rigid and extends to an infinite depth in a dry, homogenous, isotropic soil mass.

5. The soil is loose and initially in an at-rest state.

G. Earth Pressure at Rest

If a retaining structure does not move either to the right or to the left of its initial position,
the soil mass will be in a state of elastic equilibrium, meaning, the horizontal strain is zero. The ratio
of the horizontal stress to the vertical stress is called the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, Ko.
σh
Ko = = 1 − sin∅
σv

Where: ∅ is the drained friction angle

1. For dense sand backfill:

K o = (1 − sin ∅) + [ d − 1] 5.5
dmin

Where: d = actual compacted dry unit weight of the sand behind the wall
dmin = dry unit weight of the sand in the loosest state

2. For fine – grained normally consolidated soils:

PI%
K o = 0.44 + 0.42 ( )
100
3. For Overconsolidated clays:

K o(overconsolidated) = K o(normally consolidated) √OCR

Preconsolidated pressure
OCR =
Present effective overburden pressure

H. Rankine Earth Pressure Theory

Principles and Assumptions

Rankine in 1857 proposed a procedure for cohesionless soils based on the Coulumb’s method
for horizontal ground surface, dry cohesionless soils, and smooth walls. The assumptions for
Rankine’s theory are virtually the same as those noted in Coulumb’s theory with the exception that
wall friction is neglected. As such, the resultant of the normal and shear forces are assumed to act
parallel to the ground surface. The theory was later extended by Resal (1910) and Bell (1915) to be
applicable to cohesive soils

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 The followings are the important assumptions in Rankine’s theory

a. The soil mass is semi – infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless.

b. The ground surface is a plane which may be horizontal or inclined.

c. The face of the wall in contact with the backfill is vertical and smooth. In other words, the friction
between the wall and the backfill is neglected (this amount to ignoring the presence of the wall).

d. The wall yields about the base sufficiently for the active pressure conditions to develop; if it is
the passive case that is under consideration, the wall is taken to be pushed sufficiently towards
the fill for the passive resistances to be fully mobilized. (Alternatively, it is taken that the soil
mass is stretched or gets compressed adequately for attaining these states, respectively. Friction
between the wall and fill is supposed to reduce the active earth pressure on the wall and increase
the passive resistance of the soil. Similar is the effect of cohesion of the fill soil).

Thus it is seen that, by neglecting wall friction as also cohesion of the backfill, the geotechnical
engineer errs on the safe side in the computation of both the active pressure and passive resistance.
Also, the fill is usually of cohesionless soil, wherever possible, from the point of view of providing
proper drainage.

1. Vertical Face and Inclined Backfill

α α

h
Fa

h/3 Fp h/3

Active Case Passive Case

a. Coefficient of Active Pressure

cos α − √cos 2 α − cos2 ∅

K a = cos α
cosα + √cos 2 α − cos2 ∅

Where: α = angle that the backfill makes with the horizontal

∅ = angle of friction of soil

b. Coefficient of Passive Pressure

cos α + √cos 2 α − cos2 ∅

K p = cos α
cosα − √cos 2 α − cos 2 ∅

2. Vertical Face and Horizontal backfill

h
Fa Fp
h/3 h/3

Active Case Passive Case

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 4

a. Coefficient of Active Pressure
1 − sin∅
Ka =
1 + sin∅
b. Coefficient of Passive Pressure
1 + sin∅
Kp =
1 − sin∅

I. Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory or Wedge Theory

Principles and Assumptions

The earliest analytical solution was the Coulumb method developed in 1776. It is also called
the wedge theory. Assumptions of the wedge theory include (a) backfill material is cohesionless soil,
(b) the failure surface and applied pressure surface are planes, (c) friction exists between the wall
and the soil, (d) the failure wedge may be treated as a rigid body, (e) failure is two – dimensional,
and (f) the soil is isotropic and homogeneous.

α α

F F
h a h p

h/3 h/3
β 

Wall Sloping Face (Active Case) Wall Sloping Face (Passive Case)

1. Active Pressure Coefficient

cos 2 (∅ − )
Ka = 2
sin(∅ + δ) sin(∅ − α)
cos2  cos( + δ) [1 + √ ]
cos( + δ) cos( − α)
2. Passive Pressure Coefficient
cos2 (∅ + )
Kp = 2
sin(∅ + δ) sin(∅ + α)
cos 2  cos( − δ) [1 − √ ]
cos( − δ) cos( − α)

Where:  = angle at the back face inclined with the horizontal

δ = wall friction angle
∅ = angle of internal friction

J. Factors of Safety

The structural elements of the wall should be so proportioned that the following safety
factors are realized:

1. Factor of Safety against Sliding:

Resisting Forces
FSs =
Active Forces
For granular backfill, FSs ≥ 1. 5
For cohesive backfill, FSs ≥ 2. 0

2. Factor of Safety against Overturning about the Toe:

Stabilizing Moments
FSo =
Overturning Moments
For granular backfill, FSo ≥ 1. 5

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 5

 For cohesive backfill, FSo ≥ 2. 0

The horizontal components of the lateral forces tend to force the wall to slide along its base.
The resisting force is provided by the horizontal forces composed of friction and adhesion, and by
passive resistance of soil in front of the wall. The passive resistance is not to be counted on if there is
a chance that the soil in front of the wall may be eroded or excavated during the life of the wall.

Problems

1. A vertical retaining wall having a height of 6 m supporting a horizontal ground level at the top
and the soil beneath the ground surface has a unit weight of 15.74 kN/m3 and an angle of internal
friction of 30o. Compute the Rankine active force acting on the wall

2. A retaining wall having a smooth vertical back is to retain a drained cohesion less soil with a
horizontal surface to a depth of 9 m. The soil has an angle of internal friction of 30 o and a unit
weight of 19.8 kN/m3. Determine the total active thrust acting on the wall when there is a uniform
surcharge on the soil surface of 50 kN/m2.

3. Determine the active pressure at the bottom of the wall 4 m high which retains soil having an
angle of internal friction of 30o and cohesion of 4 kN/m2. Unit weight of soil is 18 kN/m3. Assume
no tension cracks occur in the soil.

4. A vertical retaining wall has a height of 5 m and supports a horizontal backfill on level with the
top of the wall. The water table is located 2.5 m below the top of the wall. The unit weight of soil
above the water table is 16.5 kN/m3 with an angle of internal friction of 30o. The saturated unit
weight of soil below the water table is 19.3 kN/m3 and an angle of internal friction of 30o.
Compute the lateral earth pressure at rest acting perpendicular to the wall and the overturning
moment.

5. A retaining wall is required to retain a soil mass having a depth of 10 m. Determine the Rankine
active force on the wall. Angle of internal friction of dry sand is 30o. Ground water table is located
4 m below the ground level surface. Dry unit weight of soil is 15. 60 kN/m3, the angle of internal
friction for the layer sand below the water table is 35o with a saturated unit weight of 17. 4 kN/m3.

6. A vertical retaining wall with a horizontal backfill has a height of 6 m and backfill having a unit
weight of 17.5 kN/m3, an angle of internal friction of 35o, angle of wall friction is 10o. Determine
the passive force on the wall using Coulomb’s theory.

7. A 6m cantilever wall retains soil that has the following properties: angle of internal friction 30o
and soil weighs 19.2 kN/m3. The ground surface behind the wall is inclined at a slope of 3
horizontal to 1 vertical and the wall has moved sufficiently to develop the active condition.
Determine the normal force acting on the wall using Rankine’s theory.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 6

K. Cantilever Sheet Piles

Pa
d Pp h+d
d 3
3
A

γs (h + d)2 K a
Pa =
2

γs d2 k p
Pp =
2

1 − sinØ
Ka =
1 + sinØ

1 + sinØ
Kp =
1 − sinØ

ƩMA = 0

d h+d
Pp ( ) = Pa ( )
3 3

Where: Ø = angle of internal friction

Pa = active force
Pp = passive force
Ka = active pressure coefficient
Kp = passive pressure coefficient

L. Braced Sheeting

1. Cuts in Sand (Non Cohesive Soil)

Pa = 0.65γHK a
strut
Where: s
Pa = pressure in kPa
γ = unit weight of sand in kN/m3 A
RA
H = height of cut wales anchored
Ka = Rankine active pressure coefficient B
H RB at hinged
Ø = angle of internal friction
Note: The sheet piles are assumed to be C
RC
hinged at the strut levels, except for the
top and bottom ones. sheet pile
Pa
Pecks Apparent

Pressure envelope for

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 7

 2. Cuts in Clay (Cohesive Soil)

Case 1:
γH strut
when >4
c s

A
Pa = γH − 4C RA 0.25H
wales anchored
Pa = 0.3γH B
H RB at hinged

Where: C 0.75H
Pa = pressure in kPa RC
γ = unit weight of sand in kN/m3 sheet pile
C = cohesion of clay Pa
1 Pecks Apparent
C = qu
2 Pressure envelope for
qu = unconfined compressive strength
strut
s

A
RA 0.25H
Case 2: wales anchored
γH B
when <4 RB at hinged
c
H C 0.50H
Pa = 0.3γH RC

sheet pile
RD
0.25H

Pa
Pecks Apparent

Pressure envelope for

3. Cuts in Layered Clay with Different Properties

Convert the average values of cohesion and unit struts

weights the pressure envelopes in clay can be
used.
A Clay
H1 γ1
Average value of cohesion: wales C1
B
C1 H1 + C2 H2 H Clay
C=
H H2 C
γ2
Average unit weight of clay: C2

sheet pile
γ1 H1 + γ2 H2
γ=
H
Note: Then check: Case 1 (whichever is bigger) and Case 2

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 8

 Problems
1. A vertical sheet pile supports a horizontal backfill having a height of 4. 5 m. The backfill has a unit
weight of 19. 67 kN/m3 and an angle of internal friction of 35o.

a. Compute the required depth of penetration. 4.5m γsat = 19. 67 kN/m3

b. Compute the total active force on the sheet
Ø = 35o
pile.
c. Compute the maximum bending moment in
the cantilever sheet pile. h

2. A cantilever sheet pile is 8. 2 m. Angle of friction of the soil supported by the sheet pile is 34o and
has a unit weight of 18. 74 kN/m3. There is water table below the base of the sheet pile.

a. Compute the active force acting on the sheet

pile. 5m
γsat = 18. 74 kN/m3
b. Compute the passive force acting on the sheet
pile. Ø = 34o
c. Compute the theoretical passive force that
3.2m
must be mobilized to ensure stability.

3. An anchored bulk head is to be constructed as shown in the figure, with the anchor bolt placed at
0.8 m below the ground surface.

0.8m Sand
T
Anchor bolt
a. Compute the total active force of soil and
2.4m γ = 18.70 kN/m3
water acting on the bulk head.
b. Compute the total passive resistance force of Ø = 32o
soil and water acting on the bulk head.
c. Compute the tension on the anchor bolt using
a factor of safety of 1. 5. Spacing of the anchor Sand
bolts is 3 m on centers. 2.8m
γsat = 18.92 kN/m3
Ø = 34o

4. A 7 m deep braced cut in sand is shown. In the plan the struts are placed at a spacing 0f 2 m on
center to center. Using Peck’s empirical pressure diagram.
strut
s
A 1m
a. Compute the strut load at level A. Sand RA
b. Compute the strut load at level C. wales 2m
γ = 16 kN/m3
c. Compute the strut load at level B. B
RB
7m 2m
C
RC
2m
sheet pile

Pa
Peck’s Pressure
Diagram for Sand

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 9

5. A braced sheet pile to be used in an open cut in a sand is shown in the figure. Struts are spaced
longitudinally at 2. 5 m center to center. Unit weight of sand is 18. 24 kN/m3 and angle of internal
friction is 35o.
strut
s
A 1m
Sand RA
wales 2m
γ = 18.24 kN/m3
a. Compute the reaction at strut A. B
RB
b. Compute the reaction at strut D. 2m
c. Compute the reaction at strut B. 8m C
RC
2m
sheet pile D
RD
1m

Pa
Peck’s Pressure
Diagram for Sand
References:

1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012

2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 10

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 2: Weight and Volume Relationships of Soil

Objectives:

After studying these topics students be able to:

1. Understand the significance of weight and volume relationships of soils.

2. Know the importance and application of weight and volume relationships of soils in
determination of the properties of soils.

Content:
A. Introduction

The soil mass consists of solids and voids. The voids may be partially or wholly filled with water
or air. Although the solids and voids in a sample of soil do not occupy separate volumes.

Va Air Wa
Vv
V Ww W
Vw Water

Solid Ws
Vs Particles

Where: V = total volume of soil e = void ratio

Va = volume of air n = porosity
Vw = volume of water S = degree of saturation
Vs = volume of solids  = moisture content or water content
Vv = volume of voids  = unit weight of soil
W = total weight of soil d = dry unit weight of soil
Wa = weight of air Gs = specific gravity of soil
Ww = weight of water w = unit weight of water
Ws = weight of solids sat = saturated unit weight of soil
sub = submerged unit weight of soil
Note: w = 9. 81 kN/m3 = 9, 810 N/m3 = 1, 000kg/m3 = 1 g/cc = 62. 4 lb/ft3

B. Basic Formulas

1. Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.

vv
e=
Vs
n
If n is given, e =
1−n

2. Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume.

Vv
n=
V
e
If e is given, n =
1+e

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 1

 e−  Gs
Where: Air void ratio =
1+e

3. Degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids.

Vw
S= x 100%
Vv
 Gs
If , Gs and e are given, S =
e

For fully saturated soil where S = 100%, e =  Gs

4. Moisture content or water content () is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight
of solids in a given volume of soil.
Ww
 = x 100%
Ws

5. Unit weight or Bulk unit weight () is the weight of soil per unit volume.

W
 =
V

6. Dry unit weight (d) is defined as weight of soil solids per unit volume.

Ws
d =
V

7. Density of soil (ρ) is defined as the mass of soil per unit volume.

m
 =
V

8. Dry density of soil (ρd) is defined as mass of soil solids per unit volume.

ms
d =
V

9. Specific gravity (Gs) is defined as the unit weight soil per unit weight of water.

s
Gs =
w

10. Effective unit weight or Buoyant unit weight (’) is the weight of a saturated soil, surrounded by
water, per unit volume of soil or is the weight of soil solids in a submerged soil per unit volume.

 ′ = sat − w

(Gs − 1)w
′ =
1+e

[Gs – 1 − e (1 − S)]w
′ =
1+e

11. Specific volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of solids.

V
V′ =
Vs

V′ = 1 + e

12. Saturated unit weight (sat) is the weight of a saturated soil per unit volume.

Wsat
sat =
V

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 2

C. Various Forms of Weight and Volume Relationships

1. Moist unit weight ()

Va Air Wa
Vv
V Ww W
Vw Water

Solid Ws
Vs Particles

Given Relationship
( 1 +  )Gs w
, Gs, e
1+e
( Gs + Se )w
S, Gs, e
1+e
( 1 +  )Gs w
, Gs, S  Gs
1+
S
, Gs, n Gs w ( 1 − n)( 1 +  )

S, Gs, n Gs w ( 1 − n ) + nSw

2. Dry unit weight (d)

Vv = Va Air Wa
V W

Solid Ws
Vs Particles

Given Relationship
,  
1+ 
Gs w
G s, e
1+e
Gs, n Gs w ( 1 − n)

Gs, , S Gs w
 Gs
1+
S
e S w
S, e, 
( 1 + e )
e w
sat,, e sat –
1+e

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 sat,, n sat − nw
( sat − w )Gs
sat, Gs
Gs − 1

3. Saturated unit weight (sat)

Vv = Vw Water Ww
V W

Solid Ws
Vs Particles

Given Relationship
( Gs + e )w
G s, e
1+e
Gs, n [(1 − n)Gs + n]w

( 1 + sat )Gs w
Gs, sat
(1 + satGs )
(e)( 1 + sat )(w )
sat, e
(sat )( 1 + e)
(1 + sat )nw
sat , n
sat
e w
d, e d +
1+e
d, n d + n w
1
d, S (1 − )  + w
Gs d

d, sat d ( 1 + sat )

Typical Values of Unit Weight for Soils

Soil Type sat ( kN/m3 ) d ( kN/m3 )

Gravel 20 – 22 15 – 17
Sand 18 – 20 13 – 16
Silt 18 – 20 14 – 18
Clay 16 – 22 14 – 21

Relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ denseness or looseness of granular soil or is
an index that quantifies the degree of packing between the loosest and densest possible state of
coarse-grained soils as determined by experiments.
emax − e
Dr =
emax − emin

Where: Dr= relative density, usually given as a percentage

e = in situ void ratio of the soil

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 emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state

Gs − min
w
emax = min
−1
w
emin = void ratio of the soil in the densest state

Gs − min

w
emin = max
− 1
w
nmax nmin
emax = emin =
1− nmax 1− nmin
( 1− nmin )( nmax − n )
Dr = ( nmax − nmin )( 1−n )
d − d(min) d(max)
Dr = [ ][ ]
d(max) − d(min) d
1 1
− 
d(min) d
Dr = 1 1
−
d(min) d(max)

Where: d = in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio of e)

d(max) = dry unit weight in the densest condition (at a void ratio e min)
d(min) = dry unit weight in the loosest condition (at a void ratio of emax)
Qualitative Description of Granular Soil

Relative Density % Description of Soil Deposit

0-15 Very loose
15-50 Loose
50-70 Medium
70-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense

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 Problems
1. Prove the following forms of weight and volume relationships:

(1+ω)Gs γw
a. γ = , Given: ω, Gs , , e
1+e

b. γ = Gs γw (1 − n)(1 + ω), Given: ω, Gs , n

Gs γw
c. γd = , Given: Gs , e
1+e

d. γd = Gs γw (1 − n), Given: Gs , n
eγw
e. γd = γsat − , Given: γsat , e
1+e

(Gs +e)γw
f. γsat = , Given: Gs, e
1+e

g. γsat = [(1 − n)Gs + n]γw , Given: Gs , n

(e)(1+ωsat )γw
h. γsat = , Given: ωsat , e
(ωsat)(1+e)

2. The moist unit weight of a soil is 19.2 kN/m3. Given that Gs = 2. 69 and ω =9.8%, determine

a. Dry unit weight

b. Void ratio
c. Porosity
d. Degree of saturation

3. The unit weight of a soil is 96 lb/ft3. The moisture content of this soil is 17% when the degree of
saturation is 60%. Determine

a. Void ratio
b. Specific gravity of solids
c. Saturated unit weight

4. For a moist soil, the following are given: V = 0.25 ft 3, W = 30.75 lb, ω = 9.8%, and Gs = 2.66.

Determine

a. Unit weight
b. Dry unit weight
c. Void ratio
d. Porosity
e. Degree of saturation
f. Volume occupied by water

5. For a sandy soil, emax = 0.72, emin = 0.46, and Gs = 2.68. What is the moist unit weight of
compaction (kN/m3) in the field if Dr = 78% and ω = 9%?

References:
1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

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 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 5: Flow of Water and Flow Nets in Soil

Objectives:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Know the effect of water to the state of soil.

2. Determine the permeability of soil in the laboratory test.
3. Learn the different methods in determining the permeability of soil in the field.
4. Know the importance of permeability in the civil engineering construction.
5. Apply the principles of permeability in the solution of practical problems.
Content:

I. Flow of Water in Soil

A. Introduction

Soils have interconnected voids through which water can flow from points of high energy to
points of low energy. The study of flow of water through porous soil; media is important in soil
mechanics. It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage under various
hydraulic conditions, for investigating problems involving the pumping of water underground
construction, and for making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining structures that are
subject to seepage forces.

B. Definition of Key Terms

1. Groundwater is water under gravity in excess of that required to fill the soil pores.
2. Head ( H ) is the mechanical energy per unit weight.
3. Coefficient of permeability ( k ) is the proportionality constant to determine the flow velocity
of water through soils.
4. Maximum dry unit weight ( d(max) ) is the maximum unit weight that a soil can attain using a
specified means of compaction.
5. Optimum water content ( opt ) is the water content required to allow a soil to attain its
maximum dry unit weight.

C. Bernoulli’s Equation: From fluid mechanics- the total head at a point in water under motion can
be given by the sum of the pressure velocity and elevation head.

h
uA
w uB
Flow
w
hA
hB

ZA
L ZB

Datum

u v2
h= + + Z
w 2g

Pressure Velocity Elevation

head head head

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 Where: h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
w= unit weight of water

1. Darcy’s law: In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge velocity of water
through saturated soils, which may be expressed as
v=ki
Where: v = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in unit time through a unit gross
cross-sectional area of soil at right angles to the direction of flow
k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as coefficient of permeability)
i = hydraulic gradient
h
i =
L
∆h = headloss between points A and B
L = distance between A and B
The flow of water is:
Q = Akit

Where: ∆h = hA – hB
A = cross-sectional area of flow path
Q = quantity of flow in unit time
t = elapsed time

2. Flow Rate
q = KiA
Where: q = flow rate
A = cross sectional area of soil
i = hydraulic gradient

3. Critical hydraulic gradient

Gs − 1
ic =
1+e
Where: ic = critical hydraulic gradient
Gs = sp. gr. gr. soil
e = void ratio

4. Seepage velocity or Interstitial Velocity

V(1+e)
Vs =
e
Where: V = discharge velocity
Vs= seepage velocity
e = void ratio

5. Coefficient of Leakage
K′
Le =
b′

Where: Le = coefficient of leakage

K’ = coefficient of permeability of semipervious layer of thickness b’

6. Retardation Coefficient
K
a=
K′
b′

Where: K = coefficient of permeability of aquifer of thickness b’

a = retardation coefficient

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7. Leakage Factor

Kb
B= √
K′
b′

Where: B = leakage factor

K = coefficient of permeability of aquifer of thickness b
K’ = coefficient of semipervious layer of thickness b’

D. Hydraulic Conductivity: Hydraulic conductivity of soils on several factors such as fluid viscosity,
pore-size distribution, grain-size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles and
degree of soil saturation.

1. Absolute Permeability
K
k̅ =
w

Where: k̅ = absolute permeability

w = unit weight of water
 = viscosity of water
K = hydraulic conductivity or permeability

2. Transmissivity of Soil Stratum

T = k̅b
Where: T = transmissivity of soil stratum
k̅ = average coefficient of permeability
b = thickness of aquifer

3. Typical Values of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soils

Soil Type K ( cm/sec ) K ( ft/min )

Clean gravel 1.0 – 100 2.0 – 200
Coarse sand 1.0 – 0. 01 2.0 – 0. 02
Fine sand 0. 01 – 0. 001 0. 02 – 0. 002
Silty clay 0. 001 – 0. 00001 0. 002 – 0. 00002
Clay < 0. 000001 < 0. 000002

Essential points:
1. The flow of water through soils is governed by Darcy’s law, which states that the average flow
velocity is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
2. The proportionality coefficient in Darcy’s law is called the coefficient of permeability or
hydraulic conductivity, k.
3. The value of k is influenced by the void ratio, particle size distribution, and the wholeness of the
soil mass.
4. Homogenous clays are practically impervious while sands and gravels are pervious.

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E. Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity: Coefficient of Permeability“ K “

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil; the
constant head test and the falling head test. A brief description of each follows:
𝐐𝐋
1. Constant head permeability test : 𝐊 =
𝐀𝐡𝐭

Water

Porous stone

Soil specimen
L
Porous stone

The constant-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained

soils. A typical constant-head apparatus is shown in the figure. Water is allowed to flow through a
cylindrical sample of soil under a constant head (h). The outflow (Q) is collected in graduated
cylinder at a convenient duration (t).
In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that
the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test period. After
a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a graduated flask for a known duration.

The total volume of water collected may be expressed as

Q = Avt = A (ki ) t

QL
K=
Aht
q = KiA

Where: Q = volume of water collected in a graduated flask

A = area of cross section of the soil specimen
t = duration of collection of water
L = length of specimen
i = hydraulic gradient
h
i=
L

Temperature Correction

R T = 2.42 − 0.475 lnT

Corrected K 20oC = R T K

Where: RT = temperature correction

T = temperature in oC at which measurement was made
Baseline temperature is 20oC

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 aL h
2. Falling head test: K = ln [ 1 ]
A(t2 −t1 ) h2

Area = a
Standpipe

h1
h2 Porous stone

Soil specimen

Porous stone

The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water through these
soils is too slow to get reasonable measurements from the constant head test. A compacted soil
sample or a sample extracted from the field is placed in a metal or acrylic cylinder (shown in the
figure). Porous stones are positioned at the top and bottom faces of the sample to prevent its
disintegration and to allow water to percolate through it. Water flows through the sample from a
standpipe attached to the top of the cylinder. The head of water (ho changes with time as flow occurs
through the soil. At different times, the head of water is recorded.
In this test the water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The initial head difference, h 1,
at time t = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the soil specimen such that the head
difference at time t = t2 is h2.
aL h1
K = 2.303 log10
At h2

Where: a = cross sectional area of standpipe

L = length of specimen
A = cross sectional area of soil specimen
(t2 – t1) = time interval between the head difference h1 and h2
h1 = initial head
h2 = final head

Temperature Correction

R T = 2.42 − 0.475 lnT

Corrected K 20oC = R T K

Where: RT = temperature correction

T = temperature in oC at which measurement was made
Baseline temperature is 20oC

Essential points:

1. The constant-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained

soils.
2. The falling-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of fine-grained soils.

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F. Permeability of Loose Filter Sands - Allen Hazen’s Formula

K = c (D10)2
Where: c = 100 cm/sec

G. Relation of Coefficient of Permeability and Void Ratio

K1 e21
Casagrande Equation: =
K2 e22

Where: K1 = coefficient of permeability at void ratio e1

K2 = cefficient permeability at void ratio e2

Casagrande Equation: K = 1.4e2 K 0.85

Where: K = hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio e

e = void ratio
K0.85 = corresponding value at a void ratio of 0. 85

e3
1
K1 1+ e1
Kozeny-Carman equation: = e3
K2 2
1+ e2

H. Equivalent Permeability in Stratified Soil

In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given direction
changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be computed to simplify
calculations. The following derivations relate to the equivalent hydraulic conductivities for flow in
vertical and horizontal directions through multilayered soils with horizontal stratification.

The figure shows n layers of soil with flow in the horizontal direction. Let us consider a cross
section of unit length passing through the n layer and perpendicular to the direction of flow

H
K v(eqv) =
h1 h2 h
+ + 3
K v1 K v2 K v3

K h1 h1 + K h2 h2 + k h3 h3
K h(eqv) =
H

I. Field Determination of Permeability of Soil - Pumping from Hydraulic Wells

In some compaction work in clayey soils, the compaction must be done in a manner so that a
certain specified upper level of hydraulic conductivity of the soil is achieved. Examples of such works
are compaction of the core of an earth dam and installation of clay liners in solid-waste disposal sites.
Underground water constitutes an important source of water supply. The stratum of soil in
which this water is known as aquifer. On the basis of their hydraulic characteristics, wells are divided
into two categories: gravity or water table wells, and artesian or pressure wells. If the pressure at the
surface of the surrounding underground water is atmospheric, the well is of the gravity type; if the

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pressure is above atmospheric because of an impervious soil stratum overlies the aquifer, the well is
artesian.
Assume that the water surrounding a well has a horizontal surface under static conditions.
The lateral flow of water toward the well requires the existence of hydraulic gradient, this gradient
being caused by a difference in pressure. To create this difference in pressure, the surface of the
surrounding water assumes the shape of an inverted “cone” during pumping of the well, as shown in
the figure. This cone is known as the cone of depression, the cross section of the cone at the water
surface is called the circle of influence, and the distance through which the water surface is lowered
at the well is termed drawdown. The discharge corresponding to a drawdown 1 m is called specific
capacity of the well.

r2

1. Permeability test by pumping from wells

Pumping test from a well in an unconfined permeable layer underlain by an impermeable

stratum

r
2.303 Q log10 ( 1 )
r2
K= 2 2)
л(h1 − h2

r
Q ln ( 1 )
r2
K=
л(h1 − h22 )
2

r
Q log10 ( 1 )
r2
K=
2.727 H(h1 − h2 )

Where: Q = pumping discharge

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 7

 Pumping test from a well penetrating the full depth in a confined aquifer

r
Q ln ( 1 )
r2
K=
2л H(h1 − h2 )

Where: H = depth of confined aquifer

(G− G′ )
2. Settling velocity: V =
18n

л
3. Capillary tubes: hc ( ) d2 Gs = лdσ
4

Where: hc = height of water will rise

d = diameter of tube
σ = surface tension of water

J. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity from Auger Holes

Hydraulic conductivity can also be estimated in the field from single auger holes. These three
types of tests are often called slug tests. Holes are made in the field that extends to a depth L below
the groundwater table. Water is first bailed out of the hole. This creates a flow of groundwater into
the auger hole through its perimeter and from the bottom. The rise of water level in the auger hole
with time is recorded. The hydraulic conductivity can be calculated from these readings as,

40 r y
K=
(20 + ) (2 − ) y t
L y
r L

Where: r = radius of the auger hole (m)

y = average value of the distance of the water level in the auger hole
measured from the groundwater table during a time interval of t (m)

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 Problems

1. For a constant head laboratory permeability test on a fine sand, the following values are given
(refer to constant head figure).

 Length of specimen = 10 in
 Diameter of specimen = 2. 5 in
 Head difference = 18 in
 Water collected in 2 minutes = 0. 031 in3

Determine

a. Hydraulic conductivity of the soil in in/min

b. Discharge velocity in in/min
c. Seepage velocity in in/min

The void ratio of the soil specimen is 0. 46.

2. For a variable head permeability test, the following are given: length of specimen = 15 in, area of
specimen = 3 in2, and k = 0. 0688 in/min. What should be the area of the standpipe for the head
drop from 25 to 12 in in 8 min?

3. The hydraulic conductivity of a clayey soil is 3 x 10 -7 cm/sec. The viscosity of water at 25oC is 0.
0911 x 10-4 g.sec/cm2. Calculate the absolute permeability.

4. Compute the critical hydraulic gradient of coarse gravel with a coefficient of permeability k = 10
cm/sec with a specific gravity of 2. 61 and void ratio e = 0. 65.

5. The coefficient of permeability of sand at a void ratio of 0. 62 is 0. 03 cm/sec. compute the

coefficient of permeability at a void ratio of 0. 48.

6. Sand with rounded grains has an effective size of 0. 080 mm and a uniformity coefficient of 3. 5.
Estimate its coefficient of permeability.

7. For a sandy soil, the following are given:

Maximum void ratio = 0. 70
Minimum void ratio = 0. 46
Hydraulic conductivity of sand at a relative density of 80% is 0. 006 cm/sec
Determine the
a. Void ratio at a relative density of 80%.
b. Void ratio at a relative density of 50%.
c. Hydraulic conductivity of the sand at a relative density of 50%.

8. From the figure shown:

H1=3m K1= 2x10-4cm/sec

H2=3m K2= 1x10-5cm/sec

H
H3=3m K3= 2x10-3cm/sec

H4=3m K4= 1x10-3cm/sec

Determine the

a. Equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction.

b. Equivalent coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction.
c. Ratio of equivalent permeability.
d. Flow if i = 0. 70.

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9. A confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer as shown in the figure.

3.5m K1=35m/day

5.5m
3.5m 4.2m
K2=20m/day

2km
Compute the
a. Equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability.
b. Hydraulic gradient.
c. Flow rate from one stream to another per meter width.

10. The bottom of a stream consists of silty clay has a coefficient of permeability of 0. 06 m/day and
has an average depth of 2.0 m. The underlying aquifer of fine sand has an average thickness of 20
m. Coefficient of permeability of fine sand is 3m/day.

2m K = 0.06 m/day

Fine Sand
20m
K = 3 m/day

Determine the
a. Coefficient of leakage.
b. Retardation coefficient.
c. Leakage factor.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 10

II. Flow Nets in Soil

A. Introduction

The continuity equation of an isotropic medium represents two orthogonal families of curves,
the flow lines and equipotential lines. A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential
lines is called a flow net. Flow nets are constructed for the calculation of groundwater flow and the
evaluation of heads in the media.
To complete the graphic construction of a flow net, one must draw the flow and equipotential
lines in such a way that
1. The equipotential lines intersects the flow lines at right angles.
2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares.

B. Definition of Terms

1. Flow line is a line along which a water particle will travel from upstream to the downstream side
in the permeable soil medium.

2. Equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all points is equal.

3. Flow net is a combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines.

4. Seepage stress is the stress (similar to frictional stress in pipes) imposed on a soil as water flows
through it.

5. Static liquefaction is the behavior of a soil as viscous fluid when seepage reduces the effective
stress to zero.

To complete the graphic construction of a flow net, one must draw the flow and equipotential
lines in such a way that

a. The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right angles.

b. The flow elements formed are approximate squares.

Drawing a flow net takes several trials, while constructing the flow net and keep the boundary
conditions in mind.

Essential points:

1. Streamlines or flow lines represent flow paths of particles of water.

2. The area between two flow lines is called a flow channel.
3. The rate of flow in a flow channel is constant.
4. Flow cannot occur across flow lines.
5. The velocity of flow is normal to the equipotential line.
6. Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal (perpendicular) to each other.
7. The difference in head between two equipotential lines is called the potential drop or head loss.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 11

C. Characteristics of a Flow Net

1. The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right angles.

2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares

D. Rate of Seepage through the Foundation

KHNf n
1. For isotropic soils: Q = (rate of seepage from a flow net)
Nd

Where: Kx = Kz = K = coefficient of permeability

Nf = number of flow channels
Nd = number of potential drops

√Kx Kz H Nf
2. For non-isotropic soils: Q =
Nd

Where: Kx = Kz Where: K = KxKz

Uplift Pressure under Hydraulic structures

There are 7 equipotential drops: Nd = 7
Loss of head for each potential: H

Seepage through an Earth Dam on an Impervious Base

KHNf
a. Q =
Nd

Where: Q = seepage through the earth dam

K = coefficient of permeability

K(h21 − h32 )
b. Q =
2L

c. Q = KL tanθ sinθ

d d2 H2
L= − √ 2 −
cosθ cos θ sin2 θ

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 12

Seepage through the foundation

Weighted Creep Ratio

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 13

 Problems
1. Calculate the seepage loss per meter length of the sheet pile (at right angle to the cross section
shown). K = 6.5x10-6 m/sec.

2. From the figure shown,

Compute the

a. Uplift pressure at C.
b. Uplift force per unit length along the axis of the weir.
c. Seepage through the foundation.

3. The depth of water outside the cofferdam is 10 m and the penetration of the sheet piles below
the original surface of the sand is 18 m. The water level in the ditch is 20 m below the outside
water level. If the coefficient of permeability k = 0. 005 m/sec, what will be the seepage into the
ditches per meter of length of the entire cofferdam.

10m
20m

18m
8m
A B

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4. From the given cross – section of a dam, compute the weighted creep ratio for the safety of the
structure against piping.

h1=40
m
h2=40
m

20m 70m
10m
Sheet pile

References:
1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 15

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)
Module 10: Soil Bearing Capacity for Shallow Foundations
Objectives:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Know the importance of soil bearing capacity in foundation analysis,
2. Determine the suitable foundation for shallow foundation with given soil bearing capacity base
on soil profile.

Content:

A. Introduction

The bearing capacity of soil is its ability to withstand an applied loading condition. If the
supporting power of ground is greater than the structural load, then the condition is safe. This
supporting power used in geotechnical engineering is referred to as the bearing capacity or the
ultimate bearing capacity of ground soil.
The characteristics of the soil bearing capacity of soil belongs to the multimedia energy field,
because it is not only controlled by the load applied, but also is influenced by local environmental
conditions such as soil types, location of ground water table, frost penetration depth, and
characteristics of pollution intrusion. Current practice assesses the bearing capacity in terms of the
load or pressure which develops under a foundation, relative to the maximum allowed. Bearing
capacity may be considered in terms of either shallow or deep foundations.
The shallow foundation is defined as the foundation width, B, being larger than the depth of
the foundation, D, such as footings and mat foundations. Deep foundations may be defined as
elements in which the depth is larger than the width, such as caissons and pile foundations.
The subject of bearing capacity is perhaps the most important of all the aspects of
geotechnical engineering, loads from buildings are transmitted to the foundation by columns, by load
– bearing walls or by such other load – bearing components of the structures.
Sometimes the material on which the foundation rests is ledge, very hard soil or bed – rock,
which is known to be much stronger than is necessary to transmit the loads from the structure such
as a ledge, or rock, or other stiff material may not be available at reasonable depth and it becomes
invariably necessary to allow the structure to bear directly on soil, which will furnish a satisfactory
foundation, if the bearing members are properly designed.
The lowest part of a structure is generally referred to as the foundation. Its function is to
transfer the load of the structure to the soil on which it is resting. A properly designed foundation
transfers the load throughout the soil without overstressing the soil. Overstressing the soil can result
in either excessive settlement or shear failure of the soil, both of which cause damage to the structure.
Thus geotechnical and structural engineers who design foundations must evaluate the bearing
capacity of soils.
B. Definition of Terms

1. Foundation is a structure that transmits loads to the underlying soils.

2. Foundation soil or bed is the soil or bed to which loads are transmitted from the base of the
structure.

3. Footing is a foundation consisting of a small slab for transmitting the structural load to under
lying soil.

4. Shallow foundation is one in which the ratio of the embedment depth to the minimum plan
dimension, which is usually the width, is (Df/B) < 2. 5.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 1

5. Embedment depth (Df) is the depth below the ground surface where the base of the foundation
rests.

6. Bearing capacity is the load carrying capacity of foundation soil or rock which enables it to bear
and transmit loads from a structure.
7. Ultimate bearing capacity is the maximum pressure that the soil can support or is the maximum
pressure which a foundation can withstand without the occurrence of shear failure of the
foundation.

8. Ultimate net bearing capacity (qult) is the maximum pressure that the soil can support above its
current overburden pressure.

9. Gross bearing capacity is the bearing capacity inclusive of the pressure exerted by the weight of
the soil standing on the foundation, or the “surcharge” pressure, as it is sometimes called.

10. Net bearing capacity is gross bearing capacity minus the original overburden pressure or
surcharge pressure at the foundation level; obviously, this will be the same as the gross capacity
when the depth of foundation is zero, i. e., the structure is founded at ground level.

11. Allowable bearing capacity or Safe bearing capacity (qa) is the ultimate bearing capacity divided
by the factor of safety. The factor of safety in foundation may range from 2 to 5, depending upon
the importance of the structure, and the soil profile at the site. This factor of safety should be
applied to the net ultimate bearing capacity and the surcharge pressure due to depth of the
foundation should then be added to get the safe bearing capacity or is the working pressure that
would ensure a margin of safety against collapse of the structure from shear failure. The
allowable bearing capacity is usually a fraction of the ultimate net bearing capacity.
It is thus the maximum intensity of loading which can be transmitted to the soil without the risk
of shear failure, irrespective of the settlement that may occur.

12. Factor of safety or safety factor (FS) is the ratio of the ultimate net bearing capacity to the
allowable bearing capacity or to the applied maximum vertical stress. In the geotechnical
engineering, a factor of safety between 1. 5 and 5 is used to calculate the allowable bearing
capacity.

13. Ultimate limit state defines a limiting shear stress that should not be exceeded by any conceivable
or anticipated loading during the design life of a foundation or any geotechnical system.

14. Serviceability limit state defines a limiting deformation or settlement of a foundation, which, if
exceeded, will impair the function of the structure that it supports.

C. Bearing Capacity

The conventional design of a foundation is based on the concept of bearing capacity or

allowable bearing pressure.

Criteria for the Determination of Bearing Capacity

The criteria for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation are based on the
requirements for the stability of the foundation. These are stated as follows:

1. Shear failure of the foundation or bearing capacity failure, as it is sometimes called, shall not
occur. (This is associated with plastic flow of the soil material underneath the foundation and
lateral expulsion of the soil from underneath the footing of the foundation); and

2. The probable settlements, differential or well as total, of the foundation must be limited to safe,
tolerable or acceptable magnitudes.

In other words, the anticipated settlement under the applied pressure on the foundation
should not be detrimental to the stability of the structure.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 2

 These two criteria are known as the shear strength criterion, and settlement criterion,
respectively. These are independent criteria and hence require independent investigation. The
design value of the safe bearing capacity, obviously, would be the smaller of the two values, obtained
from these two criteria. This has already been defined as the allowable bearing pressure.

D. Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity is governed by a number of factors. The following are some of the more
important ones which affect bearing capacity.

1. Nature of soil and its physical and engineering properties.

2. Nature of the foundation and other details such as size, shape, depth below the ground surface
and rigidity of the structure.

3. Total and differential settlements that the structure can withstand without functional failure.

4. Location of the ground water table relative to the level of the foundation; and

5. Initial stresses, if any.

In view of the wide variety of factors that affect bearing capacity, a systematic study of the
factors involved in a logical sequence is necessary for proper understanding.

E. Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity

The following methods are available for the determination of bearing capacity of a
foundation:

1. Bearing capacity tables in various building codes

Bearing capacity tables have been evolved by certain agencies and incorporated in building
codes. They are mostly based on past experience and some investigations.

2. Analytical methods

A number of analytical approaches, based on the work of Rankine, Fellenius, Housel, Prandtl,
Terzaghi, Meyerhof, Skempton, Hansen and Bella may be used. Some of these would be dealt with
in later sections.

3. Plate bearing tests

Plate bearing tests are load tests conducted in the field on a plate. These involve effort and
expense. There are also certain limitations to their use.

4. Penetration tests

Penetration tests are conducted with devices known as “Penetrometers”, which measure the
resistance of soil to penetration. This is correlated to bearing capacity.

5. Model tests and prototype tests

Model and prototype tests are very cumbersome and costly and are not usually practicable.
Housel’s approach is based on model tests.

6. Laboratory tests

Laboratory tests which are simple may be useful in arriving at bearing capacity, especially of
pure clays.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 3

 Safe Bearing Capacity (IS: 1904 – 1986 Revised)

Safe Bearing
Types of Rock or Soil Capacity Remarks
kN/m2 (t/m2)
I. Rocks

1. Rocks without laminations and 3240 (330)

defects – e.g., granite, trap, diorite

2. Laminated rocks, e.g., sand – 1620 (165)

stone and limestone, in sound
condition
880 (90)
3. Residual deposits of shattered
and broken bed rock and hard
shale, cemented material
440 (45)
4. Soft rock

II. Cohesionless Soils

5. Gravel, sand and gravel, compact 440 (45) See note 2

and offering high resistance to
penetration when excavated by
tools

6. Coarse sand, compact and dry 440 (45) Dry means that the GWL is at a
depth not less than width of the
foundation below the base of the
7. Medium sand, compact and dry 245 (25) foundation.

8. Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily 150 (15)

pulverized by fingers)

9. Loose gravel or sand – gravel 245 (25)

mixture; loose coarse to medium See note 2
sand, dry

10. Fine sand, loose and dry 100 (10)

III. Cohesive Soils

11. Soft shale, hard or stiff clay, dry 440 (45) Susceptible to long – term
consolidation settlement
12. Medium clay, readily indented 245 (25)
with a thumb nail

13. Moist clay and sand – clay 150 (15)

mixture which can be indented
with strong thumb pressure

14. Soft – clay indented with 100 (10)

moderate thumb pressure

15. Very soft clay which can be 50 (5)

penetrated easily with the thumb

16. Black cotton soil or other - See note 3. To be determined after

shrinkable or expansive clay in investigation
dry condition (50% saturation)

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 4

 IV. Peat

17. Peat - See note 3 and note 4. To be

determined after investigation
V. Made – Up Ground

18. Fills or made – up ground - See note 2 and note 4. To be

determined after investigation

Note 1: Values listed in the table are from shear consideration only.

Note 2: Values are very much rough for the following reasons:
a. Effect of characteristics of foundations (that is, effect of depth, width, shape,
roughness, etc…) has not been considered.
b. Effect of range of soil properties (that is, angle of internal friction, cohesion, water
table, density, etc.) has not been considered.
c. Effect of eccentricity and inclination of loads has not been considered.

Note 3: For non – cohesive soils, the values listed in the table shall be reduced by 50%, if the water
table is above or near the base of footing.

Note 4: Compactness or looseness of non – cohesive soils may be determined by driving the cone
of 65 mm diameter and 60o apex angle by a hammer of 65 kg falling from 75 cm. If corrected
number of blows (N) for 30 cm penetration is less than 10, the soil is called loose, if N lies between
10 and 30, it is medium, if more than 30, and the soil is called dense.

F. Limitations of Bearing Capacity Values for Building Codes

The following are the limitations of the bearing capacity values specified in building codes:

1. By specifying a value or a range for bearing capacity, the concept is unduly oversimplified.
2. The codes tacitly assume that the allowable bearing capacity is dependent only on the soil type.
3. The effects of many soil characteristics which are likely to influence the bearing capacity are
ignored.
4. The codes do not indicate the method used to obtain the bearing capacity values.
5. The codes assume that the bearing capacity is dependent of the size, shape and depth of
foundation. All these factors are known to have significant bearing on the values.
6. Building codes are usually not – up – to date.

However, the values given in codes are used in preliminary design foundations.

G. Analytical Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity

The following analytical approaches are available:

1. The theory of elasticity – Schleicher’s Method

2. The classified earth pressure theory – Rankine’s Method, Pauker’s Method and Bell’s Method
3. The theory of plasticity – Fellenius’ Method, Prandtl’s Method, Terzaghi’s Method, Meyerhof’s
Method, Skempton’s Method, Hansen’s Method and Bella’s Method

Types of Footings

A footing is that part of a structure which serves to transmit the weight of the structure to the
natural deposits.
1. Isolated footing or Spread footing is a footing that supports a single column.
2. Combine footing is the one that supports a group of columns.
3. Continuous or Strip footing is the one that supports a wall.
4. Mat foundation is an entire structure over a concrete pad.
5. Pile and drilled shaft foundations are used for heavier structures when great depth is required for
supporting the load.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 5

 Spread footings and mat foundations are generally shallow foundations, whereas pile and
drilled shaft foundations are classified deep foundations.

(a) Spread Footing (b) Mat Foundation

(c) Pile Foundation (d) Drilled Shaft Foundation

H. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Equations

Considering the effects of unit weight of soil, cohesion and surcharge

1. General Shear Failure

 B N
qu = CNc + qNq +
2
where : qu = ultimate bearing capacity of soil
Nc, Nq and Nγ = bearing capacity factors
γ = unit weight of soil
q = surcharge
c = cohension

a. For square footing

qu = 1.3CNc + qNq + 0.40BN

B = width of footing
b. For circular footing
qu = 1.3CNc + qNq + 0.30BN

B = diameter of footing
2. For Local Shear Failure
BN′
q′u = C ′
Nc′ + qNq′ +
2
2C
C′ =
3
2tan∅
tan∅′ =
3
a. Square footing

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 6

 q′u = 1.3C′ Nc′ + qNq′ + 0.40BN′

b. Circular footing
q′u = 1.3C′ Nc′ + qNq′ + 0.30BN′

3. Effect of Ground Water Table

Case I: If the groundwater table is located at a distance D above the bottom of the foundation, the
magnitude q in the second term of the bearing capacity should be calculated as

Df Ground water
D table

q = (Df − D) + (sat − w )D; q = Df

q = (Df − D) + ′ D
Case II: If the groundwater table coincides with the bottom of the foundation, the magnitude of q is
equal to γDf. However, the unit weight, γ, in the third term of the bearing capacity equations should
be replaced by γ’.

Df Ground water
table
B
Case III: When the groundwater table is at a depth D below the bottom of the foundation, q = γDf. The
magnitude of γ in the third term of the bearing capacity equations should be replaced by γav.

Df
B D Ground water
table

[D + ′ (B − D)]
AV = (for D ≤ B)
B
AV =  (for D > 𝐵)

Note: qu = CNc + qNq + (sat − w )BN

4. Allowable Bearing Capacity

qu
qallow =
F. S.

WDL + WF + Ws
qallow =
A
5. Net Allowable Bearing Capacity
qu(net) = qu − q
q = Df

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 7

 qu − q
qallow(net) =
F. S.

6. Allowable Bearing Capacity for friction angle ∅d

BN
qallow = Cd Nc + qNq +
2

where : Nc, Nq and Ny are bearing capacity factors for friction ∅d

tan∅
𝑡an∅d = ; ∅d = developed angle of friction soil
F. S.

7. Ultimate Bearing capacity of Actual Footing using results of field load test

a. For clays
qu(footing) = qu(plate)

b. For sandy soils

(qu(plate) )(Bfooting )
qu(footing) =
Bplate
8. Settlement of footing

a. For clays
[S(plate) ][B(footing) ]
S(footing) =
B(plate)
b. For sandy soil
2
[S(plate) ][2B(footing) ]
S(footing) = 2
[B(footing) + B(plate) ]

Note: Load carried by a footing of area A and perimeter P that rests on a cohesive soil for a given
settlement.
Q = Aq + Ps

where : Q = load carried by footing

A = area of footing
q = compression stress below the footing
Ps = unit shear stress at the perimeter

9. Bearing capacity factors

a. Reissner Equation
∅
Nq = etan∅ tan2 (45o + )
2
b. Prandt Equation
Nc = (Nq − 1)cot∅
c. Caquot and Kerisel equation
N = 2(Nq + 1)tan∅

10. Terzaghi’s Equation

3 ∅
2( − )tan∅
e 4 2
a. Nq = ∅
2cos2 (45o + )
2
3 ∅
2( − )tan∅
cot∅[e 4 2 ]−1
b. Nc =  ∅
2cos2 ( + )
4 2

[kp − 1]tan∅
c. N = 2cos2

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 8

 d. kpy = passive pressure coefficient

11. Modified General Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

qu = c λcs λcd λci N + q λqs λqd λqi Nq + (1/2) ( λys λyd λyi y B Ny )
Where: λcs, λqs and λys = shape factors
λcd, λqd and λyd = depth factors
λci, λqi and λyi = inclination factors

a. Shape factors for rectangular footing

B = width of footings
L = length of footings
λcs = 1 + ( B/L ) ( Nq / Nc )
λqs = 1 + ( B/L ) tan ∅
λys = 1 – 0.4 ( B/L )

b. Shape factors for square and circular footing

λcs = 1 + ( Nq / Nc )
λqs = 1 + tan ∅
λys = 0.60

c. Depth factors for Df /B < 1

λqd = 1 + 2 tan ∅ ( 1 – sin ∅ ) ( Df / B )

λcd = λqd - 1 - λqd
Nq tan ∅
λyd = 1

d. Depth factors for Df /B > 1

λqd = 1 + 2 tan ∅ ( 1 – sin ∅ )2 tan-1 ( Df / B )

λcd = λqd - ( 1 – λqd )
Nq tan ∅
λyd = 1

e. Depth factor for ∅ = 0; when ( Df /B ) < 1

λcd = 1 + 0.4 tan-1 ( Df / B )

f. Depth factor for ∅ = 1; when ( Df /B ) > 1

λcd = 1 + 0.4 tan-1 ( Df / B )

g. Inclination factors

λci = ( 1 – θ/90o )2
λqi = ( 1 – θ/90o )2
λyi = ( 1 – θ/90o )2

Note: The soil bearing capacity equation for a strip footing can be modified for general use by
incorporating the following factors:

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 9

 a. Depth factor: to account for the shearing resistance developed along the failure surface in soil
above the base of the footing.
b. Shape factor: to determine the bearing capacity of rectangular and circular footings.
c. Inclination factor: to determine the bearing capacity of a footing on which the direction of
load application is inclined at a certain angle to the vertical.

I. The Bearing Capacity of Foundation Depends on Several Factors

1. Subsoil stratification
2. Shear strength parameters of the subsoil
3. Location of the ground water table
4. Environmental factors
5. Building size and weight
6. Depth of excavation
7. Type of structure

Hence, the allowable bearing capacity at a given site must be determined on the basis of the
findings of soil exploration at the site, past experience of foundation construction and fundamentals
of geotechnical engineering theories for bearing capacity.
Excessive settlement usually causes the building to crack, which may ultimately lead to
structural failure. Uniform settlement of a structure does not produce cracking; on the other hand,
differential settlement may produce cracks and damage to building.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 10

 Problems
1. A continuous footing is shown. Using Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors, determine the gross
allowable load per unit area (qall) that the footing can carry. Given:  = 115 lb/ft3, c = 400 lb/ft2,
∅ = 25o, Df = 2 ft, B = 2. 5 ft and factor of safety = 4. Assume general shear failure. From the table,
for ∅ = 25o, Nc = 25. 13, Nq = 12. 72 and N = 8. 34

Df

2. Refer to problem 1

a. Determine the net allowable bearing capacity with a factor of safety of 4.

b. Determine the gross allowable bearing capacity with a factor of safety of 4 with respect to
shear failure.

3. A square footing is shown. The footing will carry a gross load of 60, 000 lb. Using a factor of safety
of 3; determine the size of the footing – that is, the size of B. From the table, for ∅ = 35o, Nc = 57.
75, Nq = 41. 44 and N = 45. 41.

γ = 110 lb/ft3

Ø = 35o Df = 2 ft

4. A square footing is shown. Determine the gross load (factor of safety of 3) that the footing can
carry.

γ = 16 kN/m3
0.5m o
c = 0, water
Ground Ø = 32table

γsat = 19.5 kN/m3

0.5m

1.20m

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 11

J. Piles
Qall
1. Piles on Clay (Cohesive Soil)

a. Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Piles

σb = C Nc A p L

Where:
σb = ultimate bearing capacity
C = cohesion of soil σb
1
C = 2 qu
D
qu = unconfined compressive strength of soil
x
Nc = bearing capacity factor x
Ap = area of pile at the tip

b. Ultimate Frictional Capacity of Piles

 α Method

σf = α C P L

Where:
σf = ultimate frictional capacity of pile
α = adhesion factor or frictional constant
C = cohesion of soil
1
C = qu
2
qu = unconfined compressive strength of soil
P = perimeter of pile
L = length of pile

 λ Method

σf = P L λ (σv + 2C)

Where:
σf = ultimate frictional capacity of pile
P = perimeter of pile
L = length of pile
λ = frictional coefficient
σv = average vertical pressure at mid-height of the pile being analyzed
L
σv = γs ( )
2
C = cohesion of soil
1
C = 2 qu
qu = unconfined compressive strength of soil

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 12

 Qall

L
2
L
σf

σb
D
x
x

 β Method

σf = P L β σv Qall

Where:
σf = ultimate frictional capacity of pile L
P = perimeter of pile 2
β = frictional coefficient
L
β = (1 – sinØR) tanØR for normally consolidated clay
σf
β = (1 – sinØR) tanØR √OCR for over consolidated clay
σv = average vertical pressure at mid-height of the pile being analyzed
L
σv = γs (2)

c. Allowable or Design Load Capacity of Pile

σb + σf
σall =
F. S.

Where:
σall = allowable load capacity of pile
σb = ultimate bearing capacity
σf = ultimate frictional capacity of pile
F.S. = factor of safety

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 13

 Problems
1. Compute the frictional capacity of pile for two or more layers of clay.

a. α Method

Qall

γs = 18 kN/m3
L1 = 4m σf1
α1 = 0. 40

γsat = 20 kN/m3
L2 = 6m σf2
α2 = 0. 50

0.30
0.30

b. λ Method

Qall

γs = 18 kN/m3
L1 = 4m σf1
λ1 = 0. 12

γsat = 20 kN/m3
L2 = 6m σf2
λ2 = 0. 14

0.30
0.30

c. β Method
Qall

γs = 18 kN/m3
L1 = 4m σf1
ØR = 20o
γsat = 20 kN/m3
L2 = 6m σf2
ØR = 25o

0.30
0.30

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 14

2. A 0.36 m square prestressed concrete pile is to be driven in a clayey soil as shown in the figure.
The design capacity of the pile is 360 kN and with a factor of safety of 2.

a. Compute the end bearing capacity of the pile. Qall = 360 kN

b. Compute the skin friction expected to develop
along the shaft of the pile.
c. Compute the length of the pile if α = 0.76. qu = 110 kN/m2
(unconfined compressive
L stress)

γ = 18.10 kN/m3

0.36m
0.36m

3. A 0.36 square prestressed concrete pile is to be driven in a clayey soil having an unconfined
compressive strength of 110 kPa and unit weight of clay is 18 kN/m3. Design capacity of pile is
360 kN, factor of safety is 2 and bearing capacity factor is 9.
Qall = 360 kN

a. Compute the length of the pile using α method if α = 0.76.

b. Compute the length of the pile using λ method if λ = 0.14. qu = 110 kN/m2
c. Compute the length of the pile using β method if ØR = 30o
and the clay has an over consolidation ratio of 3. (unconfined compressive
L stress)

γ = 18.10 kN/m3

σb

0.36m
0.36m

References:
1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 15

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 11 – Part 2: Soil Stabilization

Objective:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Know how to stabilize soil by using different methods in soil reinforcement.

Content:

A. Introduction

Soil stabilization, in the broadest sense, refers to the procedures employed with a view to
altering one or more properties of a soil so as to improve its engineering performance.
Soil stabilization is only one of several techniques available to the geotechnical engineer and its
choice for any situation should be made only after a comparison with other techniques indicates it to
be the best solution to the problem.

It is a well-known fact that, every structure must rest upon soil or be made of soil. It would
be ideal to find a soil at a particular site to be satisfactory for the intended use as it exists in nature,
but unfortunately, such a thing is of rate of occurrence.

The alternatives available to a geotechnical engineer, when an unsatisfactory soil is met with,
are (a) to bypass the bad soil (e.g., use of piles), (b) to remove the bad soil and replace with good one
(e. g., removal of peat at a site and replacement with selected material), (c) redesign the structure (e.
g., floating foundation on a compressible layer), and (d) to treat the soil to improve its properties.

The last alternative is termed soil stabilization. Although certain techniques of stabilization
are of a relatively recent origin, the art itself is very old. The original objective of soil stabilization
was, as the name implies, to increase the strength or stability of soil. However, techniques have now
been developed to alter the strength and/or to reduce its sensitivity to moisture changes.
The most common application of soil stabilization is the strengthening of the soil components of
highway and airfield pavements.

B. Classification of the Methods of Stabilization

A completely consistent classification of soil stabilization techniques is difficult.

Classifications may be based on the treatment given to soil, on additives used, or on the process
involved. Broadly speaking, soil stabilization procedures may be brought under the following two
heads: Stabilization without additives and Stabilization with additives.

Stabilization without additives may be ‘mechanical” – rearrangement of particles through

compaction or addition or removal of soil particles. It may be by “draining” – drainage may be
achieved by the addition of external load, by pumping, by electro – osmosis, or by application of a
thermal gradient – heating or cooling.

Stabilization with additives may be cement stabilization (that is, soil cement), bitumen
stabilization, or chemical stabilization (with fly ash, lime, calcium or sodium chloride, sodium silicate,
dispersants, physico – chemical alteration involving ion – exchange in clay – minerals or injection
stabilization by grouting with soil, cement or chemicals).

The appropriate method for a given situation must be chosen by the geotechnical engineer
based on his experience and knowledge. Comparative laboratory tests followed by limited field tests
should be used to select the most economical method that will serve the particular problem on hand.
Field – performance data may help in solving similar problems which arise in future.

It must be remembered, however, that soil stabilization is not always the best solution to a
problem.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 1

C. Stabilization of Soil without Additives

Some kind of treatment is given to the soil in this approach; no additives are used. The
treatment may involve a mechanical process like compaction and a change of gradation by addition
or removal of soil particles.

1. Mechanical Stabilization

“Mechanical stabilization” means improving the soil properties by rearrangement of particles

and densification by compaction, or by changing the gradation through addition or removal of soil
particles.

a. Rearrangement of particles – compaction

b. Change of gradation – addition or removal of soil particles
c. Mehra’s method of stabilization

2. Stabilization by Drainage

Generally speaking, the strength of soil generally decreases with an increase in pore water
and in the pore water pressure. Addition of water to clay causes a reduction of cohesion by increasing
the electric repulsion between particles. The strength of saturated soil depends directly on the
effective or the intergranular stress. For a given total stress, an increase in pore water pressure
results in decrease of effective stress and consequent decrease in strength.

Thus, drainage of a soil is likely to result in an increase in strength which is one of the primary
objectives of soil stabilization.

The methods used for drainage for this purpose are:

a. Application of external load to the soil mass,

b. Drainage of pore water by gravity and/or pumping, using well – points, sand – drains, etc.
c. Application of an electrical gradient or electro – osmosis; and
d. Application of thermal gradient

D. Stabilization of Soil with Additives

Stabilization of soil with some kind of additive is very common. The mode and degree of
alternation necessary depend on the nature of the soil and its deficiencies. If additional strength is
required in the case of cohesionless soil, a cementing or a binding agent may be added and if the soil
is cohesive, the strength can be increased by making it moisture – resistant, altering the absorbed
water films, increasing cohesion with a cement agent and adding internal friction.

Compressibility of a clay soil can be reduced by cementing the grains with a rigid material or
by altering the forces of the absorbed water films on the clay minerals. Swelling and shrinkage may
also be reduced by cementing, altering the water absorbing capacity of the clay mineral and by
making it moisture – resistant. Permeability of a cohesionless soil may be reduced by filling the voids
with an impervious material or by preventing flocculation by altering the structure of the absorbed
water on the clay mineral; it may be increased by removing the fines or modifying the structure to an
aggregate one.

A satisfactory additive for soil stabilization must provide the desired qualities and, in
addition, must meet the following requirements: Compressibility with the soil material, permanency,
easy handling and processing, and low cost. Many additives have been employed but with varying
degrees of success. No material has been found to meet all the requirements, and most of the
materials are expensive.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 2

1. Types of Additives Used

The various additives used fall under the following categories;

a. Cementing materials: Increase in strength of the soil achieved by the cementing action of
additive. Portland cement, lime, fly ash and sodium silicate are examples of such additives.

b. Water – proofers: Bituminous materials prevent absorption of moisture. These may be used
if the natural moisture content of the soil is adequate for providing the necessary strength.
Some resins also fall in this category, but are very expensive.
c. Water – retainers: Calcium chloride and sodium chloride are examples of this category.

d. Water – repellents or retarders: Certain organic compounds such as stearates and silicones
tent to get absorbed by the clay particles in preference to water. Thus, they tend to keep off
water from the soil.

e. Modifiers and other miscellaneous agents: Certain additives tend to decrease the plasticity
index and modify the plasticity characteristics. Lignin and lignin – derivatives are used as
dispersing agents for clays.

2. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

The strength of the sub grade is an important factor in the determination of the thickness
required for a flexible pavement. It is expressed in terms of its “California Bearing Ratio”, usually
abbreviated as “CBR”.

The CBR test is usually carried out in the laboratory either or undisturbed samples or on
remolded samples, depending upon the condition in which the sub grade soil is likely to be used.
Efforts shall be put in to simulate in the laboratory the pressure and moisture conditions to which
the sub grade is expected to be subjected in the field.

E. Reinforced Earth and Geosynthetics

1. Reinforced Earth: The idea of retaining earth behind a metallic facing element connected to
anchor or tieback elements, which may be a thin metal strips, or strips of wire mesh, is of
relatively recent origin. The resulting structure is known as “reinforced earth”.

2. Geosynthetics

Geotextile” means a textile used in geotechnical practice and are relatively recent
origin. A brief treatment of the evolution, functions, and applications of Geosynthetics in Civil
Engineering practice is given herein:

Forms of geotextiles have been have been used since time memorial. The Chinese
have used wood, bamboo and straw to strengthen soils; even the Great Wall included
reinforced soil structures in some of its portions. The Dutch, in their old battle with the sea,
have extensively used willow fascines to reinforce dikes and protect them from wave action.
The Romans used reed and wood for soil reinforcement; even animal hides were used in the
Middle Ages. Cotton fabrics were tried for strengthening road pavements in the U.S.A.
between 1926 and 1935 A.D.

During the Second World War, the British Army used rolls or fascines or canvas to
strengthen the ground during the invasion of France. The advent of synthetic fibers in the
twentieth century spurred geotextile techniques – the first synthetic fiber, made from Poly
Vinyl Chloride (PVC) in 1913, the advent of nylon in 1930, polyester fiber in 1949, and
polypropylene fiber in 1954 have all contributed to this. Another major advance was the
development in mid – 1960’s of manufacturing process for non-woven fibers made from
continuous synthetic filament (Spun – bonded non – woven fabrics) in France, the U.K., and
the U.S.A.

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 The term “Geosynthetics” has been proposed by J. E. Fleut, Jr. in 1983 to encompass
all these synthetics materials, including geomembranes. Systematic applications followed
the advent of synthetic fiber capable of resisting rot. Today geosynthetics are being widely
used in a number of applications in geotechnical practice the world over.

Geosynthetics are classified in the following:

a. Geotextiles: These are permeable textiles – woven or non – woven synthetic polymers.
Woven fabrics consists of two threads (warp and weft) combined systematically by
making them cross each other perpendicularly. Threads could be multi – filaments or
thick monofilaments, or tape threads got by splitting a plastic film. Multi – filament
threads are made of polyester and polyamide; polypropylene and polyethylene are used
to make fabrics.
Non – woven fabrics consists of randomly placed short fibers (60 – 150 mm) or
continuous filaments. First, randomly placed fibers from a web with no strength. In the
second stage, strength is obtained by mechanical bonding through needle punching, by
chemical bonding, or by thermal bonding.

b. Geogrids: These are relatively stiff net – like materials with large open spaces between
the ribs that make up the structure. They can be used to reinforce aggregate layers in
bituminous pavements and construction for geo – cells improvement of bearing capacity.

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c. Geomembranes: A continuous membrane – type liner composed of asphaltic, polymeric
materials with sufficiently low permeability as to control fluid migration.

d. Geocomposites: These are various combinations of geotextiles, Geogrids, geomembranes

and/or other materials to serve all the primary functions with better performance.

Functions of Geosynthetics

Geosynthetics are increasingly being used in many fields of geotechnical engineering.

Different functions or specialized actions of geosynthetics are to be distinguished.

a. Fluid Transmission: A geosynthetics provides fluid transmission when it collects a liquid

or a gas and conveys it towards an outlet within its own plane. Permeability is the key
property of geosynthetics here.

b. Filtration: A geosynthetic acts as a filter when it allows liquid to pass normal to its own
plane, while preventing most soil particles from being away by the liquid current.
Permeability and continuity are the key properties of geosynthetic here.

c. Separation: A geosynthetic acts as a separator when placed between a fine soil and a
coarse material. It prevents the fine soil and the coarse material from mixing under the
action of repeated applied loads. “Continuity” is the key property of geosynthetic here.

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d. Protection: A geosynthetic protects a material when it alleviates or distributes stresses
and strains transmitted to the protected material. Two cases may be considered – (a)
surface protection – a geotextile, placed on the soil prevents its surface being damaged
by weather, light traffic, etc. (b) Interface protection – a geotextile, placed between two
materials (such as asphalt overlay/cracked pavement, or geomembranes/stony ground)
from being damaged by the large stresses or strains imposed by the other material.
Continuity is the key property of geotextile here.

e. Reinforcement: A geosynthetic can provide tensile strength to a soil through interface

shear strength (i.e., friction, cohesion/adhesion, and/or interlocking between geotextile
and the soil). It can also act as a tensioned membrane when it is placed between two
materials, it is tension balancing the pressure between them; this, in effect, is the
reinforcement function of the geosynthetic, the key property being its tensile strength.

f. Wrapping: Specially fabricated geosynthetics, filled with sand, act as a construction

elements using the soil material at the site. This is the wrapping function, the key
property being again the tensile strength.

Applications of Geosynthetics

The following is a brief list of the broad fields of application

a. Hydraulic Works: Coastal works, bank and shore protection, canal and river works, and
earth dams.
b. Earth Works: Dams on poor foundation, erosion control and retaining structures.
c. Traffic Structures: Paved and unpaved roads on poor subgrades, highway embankments,
railway structures, and tunnels.
d. Pollution Control: Pond linings, and solid waste disposal: and
e. Drainage: Agriculture, soil stabilization, and vertical drains.

References:

1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com

2. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
3. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
4. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
5. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
6. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
7. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 6

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 8: Shear Strength of Soil

Objectives:
After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Know the importance of cohesion and angle of internal friction of a soil.

2. Determine the shear strength of a soil in the laboratory.

Content:

A. Introduction
The safety of geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of soil. If the soil fails, a
structure founded on it can collapse, endangering lives and causing economic damage. The strength
of soils is therefore of paramount importance to geotechnical engineers. The word strength is used
loosely to mean shear strength, which is the internal frictional resistance of a soil to shearing forces.
Shear strength is required to make estimates of the load bearing capacity of soils, stability of
geotechnical structures, and in analyzing the stress-strain characteristics of soils.
The shear strength of soil may be attributed to three basic components:
1. Frictional resistance to sliding between solid particles.

2. Cohesion and adhesion between particles.

3. Interlocking, and bridging of solid particles to resist deformation.

B. Definitions of Key Terms

1. Shear strength of a soil (f) is the maximum internal resistance to applied shearing forces.

2. Effective friction angle (∅’) is a measure of the shear strength of soils.

3. Cohesion (Co) is a measure of the forces that cement particles of soil.

4. Undrained shear strength (u) is the shear strength of a soil when sheared at constant volume.

5. Critical state is a stress reached in a soil when continuous shearing occurs at a constant shear
stress and constant volume.

6. Dilation is a measure of the change in volume of a soil when it is distorted by shearing.

C. Shear Capacity of Soil

x
Shear Stress. τ x tan∅ =
σ
τ
Ø x = σ tan ∅

c τ=c+x

Normal Stress. σ

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D. Direct Shear Test

1. Directed Shear Test for Normally Consolidated Clay

Failure Envelope

τ3

τ2
Shear Stress
τ1
Ø
σ1 σ2 σ3
Normal Stress
Shear Force at Shear Stress at
Normal Force Normal Stress
Failure Failure
P1 σ1 = P1/A F1 τ1 = F1/A
P2 σ2 = P2/A F2 τ2 = F2/A
P3 σ3= P3/A F3 τ3= F3/A

A = area of cross-section of a specimen

Where: tan ∅ = τ1/σ1 = τ2/σ2 = τ3/σ3

2. Direct Shear Test (Overconsolidated Clay)

τ1 − c τ2 − c τ3 − c
tan∅ = = =
σ1 σ2 σ3

𝜏3

𝜏2

𝜏3 − c
Shear Stress 𝜏1
𝜏2 − c
𝜏1 − c
Ø

c
Ø
𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎3
Normal Stress

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E. Tri-Axial Test

σ1
Normal stress on the failure plane

Shear Stress θ
(σ1 − σ3 ) σ3
r=
2
2
Ø
θ

σ3 σ1 - σ3 Shear failure on the failure plane

(σ1 + σ3 )
2
σ1
Normal Stress

Ø
Where: θ = 45𝑜 +
2

1. Consolidated – Drained Test

σ3 = cell stress, chamber confining pressure, minor principal stress

σ1 = major principal stress at failure
Δd = deviator stress
∅ = angle of friction or angle of shear resistance
θ = angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal stress

a. Normally Consolidated – Drained Test ; c = 0 (cohesionless)

(σ1 − σ3 ) (σ1 − σ3 )
Where: r=
2
sin Ø =
(σ1 + σ3 )

b. Normally consolidated – drained test when there are two observations of σ1 and σ3

Ø r2
r1
c Ø h

a σ3A
xA x
σ3B
σ1A
xB
σ1B

When: c = 0 ( cohesionless )
σ1 = σ3 tan2 ( 45o + ∅ /2 ) + 2c tan ( 45o + ∅ /2 )

c. Consolidated – drained test with three observations of σ3 and σ1

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d. Over consolidated – drained test
σ1 = σ3 tan2 ( 45o + ∅ /2 ) + 2c tan ( 45o + ∅ /2 )
e. Over consolidated – drained test with two observations of σ3 and σ1
σ1 = σ3 tan ( 45o + ∅ /2 ) + 2c tan ( 45o + ∅ /2 )
2. Consolidated – Undrained Tri-axial Test

a. For Normally Consolidated Clay

τf = σ tanØcu
Total Stress
τf = σ tanØ Failure Envelope
Ø
Effective Stress
Øcu
Failure Envelope

σ’3 σ3 σ’1 σ1

(Δud)f

c = 0, Pore stress is positive

Δd = deviators stress
Δu = pore stress if positive
σ3 = chamber confining pressure, cell stress
∅ = drained angle of friction
∅cu = undrained angle of friction
c = 0, pore stress is negative
∅cu = undrained angle of friction
∅ = drained angle of friction
∅cu = undrained angle of friction
∅ = drained angle of friction
Cu = undrained angle cohesion
C = drained cohesion

b. Unconsolidated – Undrained test

Cu = qu/2
∅ = 0 ( angle of friction )
Cu = undrained shear strength
qu = unconfined compression strength
∅ = 0 (angle of friction)

3. Unconfined Compression Test

σ1 Ø=0

Cu r

σ3 = 0 r r σ1
σ1
MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 4
 σ1 = 2r
σ1
r=
2
σ1
Cu =
2
qu
Cu =
2
qu = Unconfined compression strength
Essential points:

1. Type I soils – loose sands and normally consolidated and lightly over-consolidated clays-strain
harden to a critical state shear stress and compress toward a critical void ratio.
2. Type II soils – dense sands and over-consolidated clays-reach a peak shear stress, strain soften
to a critical shear stress and expand toward a critical void ratio after an initial compression at
low shear strains.
3. The peak shear stress of Type II soils is suppresses and the volume expansion decreases when
the normal effective stress is large.
4. All soils reach a critical state, irrespective of their initial state, at which continuous shearing
occurs without changes in shear stress and volume.
5. At large strains, the particles of some over-consolidated clays become oriented parallel to the
direction of shear bands and the final shear stress attained is lower than the critical state stress.
6. The critical state shear stress and the critical void ratio depend on the normal effective stress.
Higher normal effective stresses result in higher critical state shear stresses and lower critical
void ratios.
7. Higher over-consolidation ratios result in higher peak stresses and greater volume expansions.

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 Problems
1. The angle of friction of compacted dry sand is 37o. In a direct shear test on the sand, a normal
stress of 150 kN/m2 was applied. The size of the specimen was 50 mm x 50 mm x 30 mm. What
shear force will cause shear failure?

2. The size of sand specimen in a direct shear test was 50 mm x 50 mm x 30 mm. It is known that
0.65
for the sand, tan ∅ = 𝑒 , where e = void ratio and specific gravity of solids is 2. 65. During the
test, a normal stress of 138 kPa was applied. Failure occurred at a shear stress of 104 kPa. What
is the weight of the sand specimen?

3. Direct shear tests were performed on a dry sandy soil. The specimen is 50 mm in diameter and
25 mm in height. Test results were as follows:

Test Normal Force, Shear Force,

No. N N
1 243 124
2 268 137
3 352 179
4 412 210
Determine the cohesion and angle of internal friction.

4. The following results were recorded during a shear box test on a cohesive soil. If the specimen
size was 60 mm x 60 mm, determine the apparent cohesion and angle of shearing resistance.

Normal Load, Shear Load,

kN kN
0.073 0.109
0.191 0.139
0.309 0.170
0.427 0.197
0.545 0.227

5. A sample of moist sand was subjected to a series of triaxial tests. The soil fails under the following
stresses:
Sample Cell pressure, Plunger stress,
σ3 σ1
1 14 kPa 34 kPa
2 25 kPa 56 kPa

What is the cohesion and angle of internal friction of the soil in degrees?

6. The results of two drained triaxial tests on a saturated clay are given as follows:
Specimen A:
Chamber confining pressure = 69 kPa
Deviator stress at failure = 213 kPa
Specimen B:
Chamber confining pressure = 120 kPa
Deviator stress at failure = 258. 7 kPa
Compute the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the clay.

7. The relationship between the relative density, Dr, and the angle of fiction, ∅, of a sand can be
given as ∅ = 25 + 0. 18 Dr, where Dr in %. A drained triaxial test on the same sand was conducted
with a chamber confining pressure of 104 kPa. The relative density of compaction was 45%.
Calculate the major principal stress at failure.

8. In a drained tri-axial compression test, a saturated specimen of cohesionless sand fails at a

deviator stress of 450 kPa when the cell pressure was 135 kPa.

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 a. Determine the effective angle of shearing resistance of sand.
b. Determine the angle of inclination of the failure plane with the horizontal.
c. Determine the shearing stress at the plane of failure.

9. Samples of dry sand are to be tested in a direct shear and tri-axial test. In the tri-axial test, the
sample fails when the major and minor principal stresses are 968 kPa and 276 kPa respectively.

a. Determine the angle of shearing resistance.

b. What shear strength would be expected in the direct shear test when the normal loading is
equal to a stress of 240 kPa?
c. What is the specific gravity of soil if the strength at a depth of 4 m is 42.7 kPa and the void
ratio is 0.60?

10. A cohesive soil sample has an angle of shearing resistance of 26o and a cohesion of 22 kPa. The
maximum principal stress at failure is equal to 600 kPa.

a. Determine the minor principal stress.

b. Determine the major principal stress at the point of failure plane.
c. Determine the shearing stress at the point of failure.

References:

1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012

2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 7

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 6: Stresses in Soil

Objectives:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Understand the significance of the stresses in soil properties.

2. Know the principles of methods in the determination of stresses in soil.

Content:

A. Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane

σy
τxy N
D C F
σn
F
σy τn
σy
τxy
ϴ ϴ τxy
A B T E B
E τxy
σy

(a) Soil element with normal and shear stresses acting on it (b) Free body diagram

1. Normal stress; σn
σy + σx σy − σx
σn = + cos2θ + τxy sin2θ
2 2
2. Shear stress; 𝜏n
σy − σx
τn = sin2θ − τxy cos2θ
2
3. Major principal stress; σ1
2
σy + σx (σy − σx )
σ1 = + √[ ] + τ2xy
2 2
4. Minor principal stress; σ3
2
σy + σx (σy − σx )
σ3 = − √[ ] + τ2xy
2 2
B. Effective Stress Concepts

In a given volume of soil, the solid particles are distributed randomly with void spaces
between. The void spaces are continuous and are occupied by water and/ or air. To analyze problems
such as compressibility of soils, bearing capacity of foundations, stability of embankments and lateral
pressure on earth-retaining structures, we need to know the nature of the distribution of stress along
a given cross section of the soil profile. We can begin the analysis by considering a saturated soil with
no seepage.

1. Intergranular stress or effective stress (σ‘) is the stress resulting from particle-to-particle contact
of soil.
σ′ = σT − σw

2. Pore water pressure or neutral pressure (σw or u) is the stress induced by water-pressures.

σw = w hw

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 1

3. Total stress (σT) is the sum of the effective and neutral stresses.

σT = σ′ + σw

C. Definition of Key terms:

1. Stress or intensity of loading is the load per unit area. The fundamental definition of stress is the
ratio of the force S to the area of the plane S when S tends to zero;  denotes a small quantity.

2. Effective stress (’) is the stress carried by the soil particles.

3. Total stress ( T ) is the stress carried by the soil particles and the liquids and gasses in the voids.

4. Strain or intensity of deformation is the ratio of the change in a dimension to the original
dimension or the ratio of change in length to the original length.

5. Stress (strain) state at a point is a set of stress (strain) vectors corresponding to all planes passing
through that point. Mohr’s circle is used to graphically represent stress (strain) state for two-
dimensional bodies.

6. Mean stress, p, is the average stress on a body or the average of the orthogonal stresses in three
dimensions.

7. Deviatoric stress, q, is the shear or distortional stress or stress difference on a body.

8. Pore water pressure, σw or u, is the pressure of the water held in the soil pores.

9. Stress path is a graphical representation of the locus in all directions and also the same loading
in all directions.

10. Anisotropic means the same material properties are different in different directions and also the
loadings are different in different directions.

11. Elastic materials are materials that return to their original configuration on unloading and obey
Hooke’s law.

Essential points:
1. A normal stress is the load per unit area on a plane normal to the direction of the load.

2. A shear stress is the load per unit area on a plane parallel to the direction of the shear force.

3. Normal stresses compresses or elongates a material; shear stresses distort a material.

4. A normal strain is the change in displacement divided by the original length in the direction of
the displacement.

5. Principal stresses are normal stresses on planes of zero shear stress.

6. Soils can only sustain compressive stresses.

7. An elastic material recovers its original configuration on unloading; an elastoplastic material

undergoes both elastic (recoverable) and plastic (permanent) deformation during loading.

8. Soils are elastoplastic materials.

9. At small strains, soils behave like an elastic material and thereafter like an elastoplastic material.

10. The locus of the stresses at which a soil yields is called a yield surface. Stress below the yield
stress cause the soil to respond elastically; stresses beyond the yield stress cause the soil respond
elastoplastically.

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D. Critical Hydraulic Gradient

icr = critical hydraulic gradient


icr =
w

sat − w
icr = (Boiling or quick condition)
w

(Gs + e) w
sat =
1+e

Note: For moist soil icr varies from 0.9 to 1.1 with an average of 1.

E. Ratio of Horizontal Stress and Vertical Stress

σh = Ko σv
σh = horizontal stress
σv = vertical stress
Ko = constant

Typical values of Ko (Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations by David F. Mc Carthy)

Type Ko
Granular loose soil 0.5 to 0.6
Granular dense soil 0.3 to 0.5
Clay, soft soil 0.9 to 1.1 (undrained)
Clay, hard 0.8 to 0.9 (undrained)

Ground Surface
σv = soil h γsoil
h
σh = Ko σv A

Essential points:
1. The effective stress represents the average stress carried by the soil solids and is the difference
between the total stress and the pore water pressure.
2. The effective stress principle applies only to normal stresses and not to shear stress.
3. Deformations of soils are due to effective not total stress.
4. Soils, especially silts and fine sands, can be affected by capillary action.
5. Capillary action results in negative pore water pressures and increases the effective stresses.
6. Downward seepage increases the resultant effective stress; upward seepage decreases the
resultant effective stress.

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 Problems

1. A soil element is shown. The magnitudes of stresses are σx = 120 kN/m2, 𝜏 = 40 kN/m2, σy = 300
kN/m2 and θ = 20o. Determine

a. Magnitudes of the principal stresses

b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB.

σy
τ

B
σx σx

ϴ
A σy
τ
2. Refer to the figure shown below

Layer 1 (Dry Sand)

Details of Soil Layer H1
Problem
I II III Ground Water Table
H1 = 2 ft H2 = 4 ft H3 = 6 ft
A
d = 115 lb/ft3 sat = 118 lb/ft3 sat = 130 lb/ft3
H2 Layer 2 (Sand)
H1 = 4 m H2 = 1. 5 m H3 = 9 m
B d = 16. 2 sat = 18. 4 sat = 18. 91
kN/m3 kN/m3 kN/m3 Layer 3 (Clay)
H1 = 3 m H2 = 2. 5 m H3 = 2 m H3
C e = 0. 52 e = 0. 52  = 45%
Gs = 2. 65 Gs = 2. 65 e = 1. 22 Rock

a. Calculate the variation of σ, σw and σ’.

b. If the water table rises to the top of the ground surface, what is the change in the effective
stress at the bottom of the clay layer? Refer to problem C.
c. How many meter must the ground water table rise to increase the effective stress by 100 kPa
at the bottom of the clay layer? Refer to problem C.

3. A cut is made in stiff, saturated clay that is underlain by a layer of sand as shown in the figure.
What should be the height of the water, h, in the cut so that the stability of the saturated clay is
not lost?

Saturated Clay
γsat = 19kN/m3
5m
7m
h 4.5m

A
Sand; sat = 18kN/m3

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4. The soil shown in the figure has a void ratio of 0. 50, G s = 2. 70, h1 = 1. 5m and h2 = 3m.

a. What is the effective unit weight of sand in kN/m 3?

b. What is the effective stress at a point A in kPa?
c. What is the critical hydraulic gradient of sand (for quick condition)?

Water h1

h2

Sand A

5. A borehole at a site reveals the soil profile shown. Assume G s = 2. 70 for all soil types.

a. What is the unit weight of the soil in layer 1 in kN/m3?

b. What is the effective stress at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface, in kPa?
c. What is the effective stress at a depth of 20. 6 m below the ground surface, in kPa?

Elevation (m)
0
Layer 1 Very fine wet sand with silt
2.0 ω = 5%, S = 40%by
Fine sand saturated
Layer 2
3.0 capillary action
Layer 3 Fine sand, ω = 12%
5.4

Soft blue clay, ω = 28%

Layer 4

20.6
6. Compute the horizontal stress that acts on loose sand at a depth of 6 m below the ground surface
having a void ratio of 0. 40 and specific gravity of 2. 65. Coefficient of lateral earth pressure for
loose sand is 0. 50.

7. A deep basement for a building is constructed in a dense granular soil whose unit weight is 20. 4
kN/m3. For a distance 3 m below the ground surface, determine the increase in total lateral
pressure that results by having the ground water table location at the ground surface. Value of Ko
for dense granular soil is 0. 50.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 5

F. Vertical Stress Increase due to Point Loading (Q)

3Q
Boussinesq Equation: ∆σv = 5⁄
r 2 2
2z2 [1+ (z) ]

Q Ib
∆σv = (Using Table)
Z2

Q
Westergaard Equation: ∆σv = 3⁄
r 2 2
Z2  [1+2 (z) ]

Q Iw
∆σv = (Using Table)
Z2

G. Subsurface Stresses Using 60o Approximation Method

P
P

W
1
2 h h B

W+h
h/2 B h/2
B+h
B+h

W+h

P
Stress at depth h: σ = (B+h) (W+h)

Essential points:
1. The increase in stresses below a surface load is found by assuming the soil is an elastic, semi-
infinite mass.
2. Various equations are available for the increases in stresses from surface loading.
3. The stress increase at any depth depends on the shape and distribution of the surface load.
4. A stress applied at the surface of a soil mass by a loaded area decreases with depth and lateral
distance away from the center of the loaded area.
5. The vertical stress increases are generally less than 10% of the surface stress when the depth to
width ratio is greater than 2.

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 Problems
1. A 3m x 4. 5 m rectangular area carrying a vertical load 3, 340 kN is distributed to the ground
surface. Compute the vertical stress due to this load at a depth of 6 m below the ground surface.
Use the 60o approximate method.

2. A concentrated load of 2, 230 kN is applied to the ground surface. Determine the vertical stress
increment due to this load at a depth of 6 m below the ground surface and a horizontal distance
of 4. 8 m from the line of the concentrated load.

3. Compute the stress increase resulting 4 m below the ground surface of a 6 m square foundation
supporting a load of 8, 600 kN when the 60o approximation is assumed.

4. The outside dimensions of the basement of a proposed building are 6 m x 6 m in plan. The total
downward load of the building will be 10, 800 kN. The bottom of the basement is to be placed in
sand over the site. The sand is under laid with a layer of soft clay, on which the allowable soil load
is 100 kN/m2. Determine the thickness of sand layer required to keep the loading on the clay
below the allowable value. Use the 60o approximate method.

References:
1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
4. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
5. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
6. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 7

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)
Module 1: Introduction
Objectives:

After studying these topics students will have:

1. Strong knowledge in Geotechnical Engineering Historical Development.
2. Appreciation of the importance of the subject.
3. Understand the significance of the causes and effects of the geotechnical engineering failures.
Content:

A. A Brief Geotechnical Engineering Historical Development

Soil mechanics is the study of the response of soils to loads and these loads may come from
human-made structures (buildings), gravity (earth pressures) and natural phenomena
(earthquake). Soils are natural resources and complex materials consisting of solids (solid particles),
liquids (water) and gases (air). A complete understanding of soil behavior is significant because of
the uncertainties of the applied loads, the unexpected inexplicable and complexity of natural forces
and the natural distribution of different soil types.

A good understanding of soil behavior and responses is necessary for the analysis and design
systems of structure foundations and environment systems. The serviceability life of any structures
depend on the stability, strength and deformation of soils. Soils are the oldest and most complex
engineering materials and used before as construction materials for flood protection and shelters.
Western civilization credits the Roman Engineers for recognizing the importance of soils in the
stability of structures.

Coulumb (1773) is credited as the first person to use mechanics to solve soil problems. He is
a member of French Royal Engineers who protected the old fortresses that fell easily from cannon
fire and he postulated the mass of soils applies a lateral force to the fortress that cause it to slide away
from the soil mass. Coulomb tacitly defined a failure criterion for the analysis of soil failures which is
still prevail today. Karl Von Terzaghi (1883 – 1963) is the undisputed father of soil mechanics and the
publication of his book “Erdbaudmechanik in 1925” laid the foundation for soil mechanics that
brought recognition to the importance of soils in engineering activities.

Soil mechanics is a subset of geotechnical engineering which involves the application of soil
mechanics, geology and hydraulics to the analysis and design of geotechnical systems of structures.
Thus geotechnical engineering can provide solutions to soil problems and the work of geotechnical
engineers do is often invincible once construction is completed and if the foundation pressure
exceeded the load-bearing capacity these may cause extensive structural damage. Some of the most
famous examples of problems related to soil-bearing capacity are the following:

Leaning Tower of Pisa or Torre Pendenti di Pisa in

Italian or simply the “Tower of Pisa” which is the
campanile or free standing bell tower. It is located
at Pisa, Italy and designed by Architect Bonanno
Pisano last 1173 and completed 1372. The height of
the tower is 55.86 meters from the ground on the
low side and 56.67 meters on the high side. The
tower began to lean during the construction in the
12th century due to soft ground which could not
properly support the structure’s weight. By 1990
the tilt reached 5.5 degrees and the structure was
stabilized by remedial work between 1993 and
2001 which reduced the tilt to 3.97 degrees.

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 The Two Towers or Le due Torn in Italian are
symbols of Bologna Italy and they are both leaning.
The two towers are the most prominent Towers of
Bologna which are located at the intersection of the
roads that leads to the five gates of the old ring. The
smaller one is called the Garisenda Tower while the
taller one is called Asinelli Tower. The names of the
towers were derived from the families which are
traditionally credited and constructed the towers
between 1109 and 1119.

B. Foundation Engineering and Soil Mechanics

1. Soil is defined an uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid
particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles, and it supports
structural foundations.

2. Soil Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of soil
and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.

3. Soils Engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.

4. Geotechnical Engineering is defined as sub discipline of civil engineering that involves natural
materials found close to the surface of the earth. It includes the application of the principles of
soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining structures and earth
structures.

5. Foundation Engineering is the branch of engineering which deals with design, construction and
maintenance of shallow footings and deep foundations and other structural members which
comprise foundation of buildings and other engineering structures. It also includes investigation
of sites for foundation purposes.

6. Karl Terzaghi is known as the “Father of Soil Mechanics.”

Karl Anton von Terzaghi

Born on October 2, 1883
Died on October 25, 1963
He is a Civil Engineer who found the branch of Civil Engineering
Science known as Soil Mechanics and the first to elaborate a
comprehensive mechanics of soils with his publication of
Erdbaumechanik in 1925.

C. Definition of Soil and Rock

a. Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil

Soil is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains, loose or moderately cohesive, inorganic
in nature, that have the capacity of being separated by means of simple mechanical process, e.g. by
agitation in water. This definition is not the same by the agriculturist or the geologist. To the
agriculturist loose mantle at the surface of the earth which is capable of supporting plant life consists

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of soil; and similarly to the geologist, the soil is that material found in the relatively thin surface zone
with in which roots occur.

Rock is defined as hard and compact natural aggregates of mineral grains cemented by strong
and more or less permanent bonds.

2. Soil Formation and Rock

Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical weathering
involves reduction of size without any change in the original composition of the parent rock. The
main agents responsible for this process are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing.
Chemical weathering causes both reduction in size and chemical alteration of the original parent rock.
The main agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation, and oxidation.
Often, chemical and physical weathering takes place in concert. Soils that remain at the site of
weathering are called residual soils or transported soils.

A civil engineer is concerned mainly with 10 meter to 15 meter top mantle of soil in dealing with
small and medium sized projects.

All soils are derived from igneous, secondary or metamorphic rocks. The rocks are weathered
because of process of mechanical disintegration, chemical decomposition and solution. The process
of rock weathering is affected by climatic and other conditions surrounding the rock undergoing
alteration. Soil may also vary from large size boulders to small crystals of clay minerals.
The sands (coarse particles), silts and clays (fine particles) resulting from the disintegration of
rock may stay at the place of their formation. These are known as residual soils. If these soils are
carried away by forces of gravity, water, wind and ice deposited at another location, they are known
as transported soils.

3. Three (3) Basic Types of Rocks

1. Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of molten magma ejected from deep within the earth’s
mantle.

2. Sedimentary rocks are deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay formed by weathering may become
compacted by overburden pressure and cemented by agents like iron oxide, calcite, dolomite and
quartz.

3. Metamorphic rocks are either igneous or sedimentary rocks that have undergone considerable in
their constitution, in their shape, structure and sometimes even in their mineral composition.

Rock Cycle Process

Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into
smaller pieces.

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4. Two types of Weathering

a. Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks from the
continuous gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate disintegration.

b. Chemical weathering, the original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by chemical
reaction.
5. Products of Weathering or Residual Soils

a. Glacial soils – formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers.

b. Alluvial soils or Fluvial soils – transported by running water and deposited along streams.

c. Lacustrine soils – formed by deposition in quiet lakes.

d. Marine soils –formed by deposition in the seas.

e. Aeolian soils – transported and deposited by wind.

f. Colluvial soils – formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as during
landslides.

Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and texture of rocks, without melting
by heat and pressure.
Mechanical analysis of soil is the determination of the range of particles present in a soil,
expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight.
Soil refers to all solid particles with or without organic constituents which are produced by the
disintegration of rocks found overlying the solid rock crust of the earth.
In general soil is composed of solid, liquid and gaseous matter.
a. Solid phase maybe mineral organic or both.

b. Liquid phase is usually the soil water that fills part or all of the open spaces between the solid
particles.
c. Gaseous phase usually air, occupies part of the space between particles not filled with water.

6. Major Division of Soil

a. A soil is considered as coarse grained if its individual particle is visible to unaided eyes.
b. A soil is said to be fine grained if its individual particle is not visible to unaided eyes.
c. Organic soils are those which contain an amount of decayed animals and/ or plant matter.

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 Principal Types of Soil, Description, and Average Grain Sizes According to
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Particle Size Average Grain Size U.S. Standard U.S. Standard

Description
Classification (mm) Sieve Passing Sieve Retained
Rounded and/or Coarse: 75mm-
Gravel 19mm #8 #10
angular bulky rock
Fine: 19mm-4mm
Coarse: 4mm-1.7 mm
Rounded and/or Medium:1.7mm-
Sand 0.380mm #10 #200
angular bulky hard rock
Fine: 0. 380mm-0.
075mm
Particles smaller than
0.075 mm, exhibit little Separated by
Silt 0. 075mm-0. 002mm Can’t be
or no strength when sized
dried.
Particles smaller than
0.002 mm exhibit Sieving by Determine by
Clay significant strength < 0.002 mm
wet analysis
when dried, water
reduces strength

A soil is called gravel if its particles are bigger than 2 mm; the upper limiting diameter is
usually 8 inches or 203 mm standard. But in highway engineering it is only 3 inches. All particles
smaller than 0.005 mm is called clay those smaller than 0.001 mm is called colloids.

7. The following are the simple visual and manual tests used for the identification of fine grained soils
in the field.

a. Dry strength

The wet soil sample is molded to any convenient shape and allowed to dry in the air or by
heating. A small fragment of the dried sample is obtained and passed between the thumb and
forefingers.
b. Plasticity

If a sample of moist soil can be molded and rolled into threads without breaking or crumbling
the soil. A thin thread of clay or foot or more can supports its own weight or will not break when
held.
c. Water mobility

A soil sample is mixed with water to the consistency of a thick paste, then it placed and shaken
in palm of the hand.
d. Dispersion

A small quantity of soil is dispersed with water in a glass cylinder or tests tube and allowed
to settle. The coarse particle will fall and the finer particles will remain in suspension, sand will
settle 3 inches in about 10 seconds.

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8. Significant Properties of Soils

The properties of soils are important for a project depend upon the nature of the project. The
following properties are important for different types of engineering projects.
a. Permeability is a measure of the ability of soil to let water pass through its pores. This property
is of importance in earth dams and drainage problems.

b. Consolidation and compressibility deal with changes in volume of pores in a soil under load. This
property is made use of computing settlement of structures.

c. Shear strength is a measure of the ability of soil to sustain stresses without failure. This property
is of interest in computation of stability under load, stability of fills behind earth retaining
structures and stability of earthen embankments.

Other simple physical properties are Atterberg limits, moisture content, void ratio, relative
density, grain size and sensitivity.

Base Exchange is the property of the soil to bind exchangeable base from a solution onto its
surface. This property is exhibited by some clay minerals.
D. Mineralogical Composition and Structure of Soils

The structure of soils means arrangements of soil particles and the electrical forces acting
between adjacent particles.

1. Two (2) Methods of Particle Size Distribution

The distribution of particle sizes or average grain diameter of coarse grained soils – gravels
and sands – is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil through a stack of sieves of
progressively finer mesh size.

a. Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have progressing
smaller openings.

b. Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation in water.

The particle shape can generally be divided into three major categories.

 Bulky particles are mostly formed by mechanical weathering of rocks and minerals. Shapes:
Angular, sub angular, rounded and sub rounded.

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  Flaky particles have very low sphericity – usually 0.01 or less. These particles are
predominantly clay minerals.

 Needle – shape particles are much less common than the other two particle types. Examples
of soils containing needle-shaped particles are some coral deposits and attapulgite clays.

s − w
Stokes’s Law: v = D2
18 

Where:  = velocity
s = unit weight of soil particles
 w = unit weight of water
 = viscosity of water
D = diameter of soil particles
2. Soil Types

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a. Sand and gravel are cohesive soils. These may be angular, sub - angular, sub-rounded, rounded
and well-rounded in shape and are composed of usually unaltered mineral grains.

b. Silt is a fine grained soil with little or no plasticity. The non-plastic variety consists usually
equidimensional grains of quartz; it is sometimes called rock flour. The plastic variety of silt is
composed of appreciable percentage of flakes taped particles.

c. Organic silt is a fine grained, more or less plastic soil. It contains an admixture of finely divided
particles of organic matter. Particles of partly decayed vegetable matter and shells may also be
present.

d. Clay is composed of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles of weathered rocks.

e. Organic clay contains some finely divided organic particles and is highly compressible when
saturated and their dry strength is very high. The color is usually gray or black and it may have a
characteristics odor.

f. Bentonite is clay with high percentage of clay mineral. Most of the bentonite is derived from
chemical alteration of volcanic ash.

g. Black cotton soils are inorganic in nature. These soils exhibit high compressibility and shrinkage
and extremely high swelling characteristics under low loads. They are dark gray or black in color.

h. Peat is composed of fibrous particles of decayed vegetable matter. It is light brown to dark in
color. Peat is so compressible soil and is considered entirely to support any type of foundation.

i. Varved clay is a particular type of lacustrine deposit consisting of alternating layers of medium
gray inorganic silt and darker silty clay. The clay fractions being fine remain larger in suspension
and settle during winter. The thickness of each is centimeter.

j. Hard pan is any stratum of hard and cohesive soil which offers exceptional resistance to
penetration by normal drilling tools used in practice.

k. Glacial till is composed of material deposited by glacier and is a soil that consists mainly of coarse
particles. The water did not have an opportunity to transport and sort out the material and it is a
heterogeneous mixture of soil and rock particles.

l. Boulder soils are mixture of boulders, large or small in size and matrix of soil. Depending upon
the percentage of matrix (rock – main substance is crystal) in a boulder soil and its properties
are affected.

m. Calcareous soil contains calcium carbonate and effervesces when treated with hydrochloric acid.

n. Caliche consists of gravel, sand and clay cemented together by calcium carbonate.

o. Expansive soils are clays that undergo large volume changes from cycles of wetting and drying.

p. Glacial soils are mixed soils consisting of rock debris, sand, silt, clays and boulders.

q. Glacial clays are soils that were deposited in ancient lakes and subsequently frozen. The thawing
of these lakes reveals a soil profile of neatly stratified silt and clay, sometimes called varved clay.
The silt layer is light in color and was deposited during summer periods while the thinner, dark
clay layer was deposited during winter periods.

r. Gypsum is calcium sulphate formed under heat and pressure from sediments in ocean brine.

s. Laterite soils are residual soils that are cemented with iron oxides and are found in tropical
regions.

t. Loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay that may contain organic material.

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u. Loess is a windblown, uniform fine-grained soil.

v. Mud is clay and silt mixed with water into a viscous fluid.

Essentials points:
1. Soils are derived from weathering of rocks and are commonly described by textural terms such
as gravels, sands, silts, and clays.

2. Particle size is used to distinguish various soil textures.

3. Clays are composed of three main types of mineral – kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite.

4. The clay minerals consist of silica and alumina sheets that are combined to form layers. The bonds
between layers play a very important role in the mechanical behavior of clays. The bond between
the layers in montmorillonite is very weak compared with kaolinite and illite. Water can easily
enter between the layers in montmorillonite, causing swelling.

5. A thin layer of water is bonded to the mineral surfaces of soils and significantly influences the
physical and mechanical characteristics of fine-grained soils.

6. Fine-grained soils have much larger surface areas than coarse-grained soils and are responsible
for the major physical and mechanical differences between coarse-grained and fine-grained soils.

7. The engineering properties of fine-grained soils depend mainly on mineralogical factors.

References:
1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com
2. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
3. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
4. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
5. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
6. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
7. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 9

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 4: Soil Compaction

Objectives:
After studying these topics the students will be able to:
1. Understand the significance of soil compaction in foundation analysis.

2. Determine the compaction of soil in field test.

Content:

A. Introduction

Compaction is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires mechanical energy.
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.
B. Two Tests of Soil Compaction
1. Standard Proctor Test

The soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 1/10 ft3 (943.3 cm3). The diameter of
the mold is 4 in. (101. 6 mm). During the laboratory test, the mold is attached to a base plate at the
bottom and to an extension at the top. The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then
compacted in three equal layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer. The hammer
weighs 5.5 lb (mass = 2.5 kg) and has a drop of 12 in. (304. 8 mm). For each test, the moist unit
weight of compaction, , can be calculated as follows:

W
 =
Vm
Where: W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold
Vm = volume of the mold ( = 1/30 ft3 )
For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the laboratory.
With the known moisture content, the dry unit weight, d , can be calculated as follows:

d = (%)
1+
100

Where:  (%) = percentage of moisture content

The procedure for the standard Proctor test is elaborated in ASTM Test Designation D-698
(ASTM, 1982) and AASHTO Test Designation T-99 (AASHTO, 1982).

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 For given moisture content (w) and degree of saturation (S), the dry unit weight of
compaction can be calculated as follows:
Gs w
d =
1+e

Where: Gs = specific gravity of soil solids

w = unit weight of water
e = void ratio
 Gs
e=
S

Thus,
Gs w
d = G
1+ S s
For given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained when no air
is in the void spaces – that is, when the degree of saturation equals 100%. Thus, the maximum dry
unit weight at given moisture content with zero air voids can be obtained by substituting S = 1 into:
Gs w w
ZAV = =
1 + Gs  +
1
Gs
Where: zav = zero-air-void unit weight

To obtain the variation of zav with moisture content, use the following procedure:
a. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids
b. Know the unit weight of water (w)
c. Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%, 15% and so on.
d. Use zav to calculate for various values of w.

Factors Affecting Compaction

a. Effect of Soil Type – that is, grain size distribution, shape of the soil grains, specified gravity of soil
solids, and amount and type of clay minerals present – has a great influence on the maximum dry
unit weight and optimum moisture content. The laboratory tests were conducted in accordance
with ASTM Test Designation D-698.

b. Effect of Compaction Effort – the compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard
Proctor Test described as follows:

Number Number Weight Height

|of blows | | of | | of | | drop |
per layer layers Hamme of Hammer
E=
Volume of Mold

If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture-unit weight curve
also changes. This fact can be demonstrated with the aid of the given figure 4.7, which shows four
compaction curves for sandy clay. The standard Proctor mold and hammer were used to obtain these
compaction curves. The number of layers of soil used for compaction was three for all cases.
However, the number of hammer blows per each layer varied from 20 – 50. The compaction energy
used per unit volume of soil for each curve can easily be calculated by using E. These values are
tabulated in the following table:

Curve number Number of Compaction energy

in given figure blows/layer ( ft-lb/ft3)a
1 20 9, 900
2 25 12, 375
3 30 14, 850
4 50 24, 750

a 1 ft-lb/ft3 = 47. 88 J/m3

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 From the preceding tabulation, we can see that

a. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry unit weight of compaction is also
increased.
b. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum moisture content is decreased to some extent.

2. Modified Proctor Test

With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the standard Proctor
test was modified to better represent field conditions. This revised version is sometimes referred to
as the modified Proctor test (ASTM test Designation D – 1557 and AASHTO Test Designation T – 180).
For conducting the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume of 1/30 ft 3 (943. 3
cm3) as in the case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a
hammer that weighs 10 lb (mass = 4.54 kg). The drop of the hammer is 18 in. (457. 2 mm). The
number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test. Figure
4.8 shows a comparison between the hammer used for the standard Proctor test and that used for
the modified Proctor test. The compaction energy per unit volume of soil in the modified test can be
calculated as follows:

blows ft
(5 layers) (25 ) (1.5 )
layer drop
E=
1
( )
30 ft 3
kJ
E = 56, 250 ft − lb or 2, 693.3 3
m

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C. Field Compaction: Compaction Equipment
Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common types of
rollers are
1. Smooth- wheel rollers ( or smooth-drum rollers )

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

3. Sheepsfoot rollers

4. Vibratory rollers

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D. Factors Affecting Field Compaction

In addition to soil type and moisture content, the other factors must be considered to achieve
the desired unit weight of compaction in the field. These factors include:

1. The thickness of lift

2. The intensity of pressure applied by the compacting equipment
3. The area over which the pressure is applied

These factors are important because the pressure applied at the surface decreases with
depth, which results in a decrease in the degree of soil compaction. During compaction, the dry unit
weight of soil is also affected by the number of roller passes. In most cases, about 10 – 15 roller passes
yield the maximum dry unit weight economically attainable.

E. Specifications for Field Compaction

In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted field
dry unit weight of 90 – 95 % of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by either
the standard or modified Proctor test. This is a specification for relative compaction, R, which can be
expressed as:
d(field)
R(%) = x 100%
d(max−lab)

For the compaction of granular soils, specifications are sometimes written in terms of the
required relative density, Dr, or the required relative compaction. Relative density should not be
confused with relative compaction.
d(field) − d(min) d(max)
Dr = [ ][ ]
d(max) − d(min) d(field)

Ro
R=
(1 − Dr )(1 − R o )
d(min)
Where: R o =
d(max)

F. Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

When the compaction work is progressing in the field, knowing whether the specified unit
weight has been achieved is useful. The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of
compaction include:

1. Sand Cone Method ( ASTM Designation D-1556 )

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 The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a metal cone attached at its top.
The jar is filled with uniform dry sand. The combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the sand filling
the jar is determined (W1). In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the soil has been
compacted. If the weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole (W 2) is determined and the
moisture content of the excavated soil is known, the dry weight of the soil (W 3) can be obtained as
follows:
W2
W3 =
(%)
1+
100

Where:  = moisture content

After excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-filled jar attached to it is inverted and
placed over the hole. Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar to fill the hole and the cone. After that, the
combined weight of the jar, the cone, and the remaining sand in the jar is determined (W4), so

W 5 = W1 – W4

Where: W5 = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone

The volume of the excavated hole can then be determined as follows:

W5 − Wc
V=
d(sand)

Where: Wc = weight of sand to fill the cone only

d(sand) = dry unit weight of sand used

The values of Wc and d(sand) are determined from the calibration done in the laboratory. The
dry unit weight of compaction made in the field can then be determined as follows;

Dry weight of the soil excavated from the hole

d =
Volume of the hole
W3
d =
V

2. Rubber Balloon Method (ASTM Designation D-2167)

The procedures for the rubber balloon method are similar to that for the sand cone method;
a test hole is made and the moist weight of soil removed from the hole and its moisture content are
determined. However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing into it a rubber balloon
filled with water from a calibrated vessel, from which the volume can be read directly. The dry weight
of the compacted soil can be determined by using d from sand cone method.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 6

3. Nuclear Method

Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry unit weight of soil.
The density meters operate either in drilled holes or from the ground surface. The instrument
measures the weight of wet soil per unit volume and the weight of water present in a unit volume of
soil. The dry unit weight of compacted soil can be determined by subtracting the weight of water
from the moist unit weight of soil.

G. Compaction of Organic Soil and Waste Materials

The presence of organic materials in a soil reduces its strength. In many cases, soils with a
high organic content are generally discarded as fills material; however, in certain economic
circumstances, slightly organic soils are used for compaction. In fact organic soils are desirable in
many circumstances (e.g., for agriculture, decertification, mitigation and urban planning). More
recently, the high costs of waste disposal have sparked an interest in the possible use of waste
materials (e.g.; bottom ash obtained from coal burning, copper slag, paper mill sludge, shredded
waste tires mixed with inorganic soil, and so forth) in various landfill operations. Such use of waste
materials is one of the major thrusts of present-day environmental geotechnology. Following is a
discussion of the compaction characteristics of some of these materials.

1. Organic Soil

Franklin, Orozco and Semru (1973) conducted several laboratory tests to observe the effect
of organic content on the compaction characteristics of soil. In the test program various natural soils
and soil mixtures were tested. When the organic content exceeds 8 – 10 %, the maximum dry unit
weight of compaction of decreases rapidly. Conversely, the optimum moisture content for a given
compactive effort increases with an increase in organic content. Likewise, the maximum unconfined
compressive strength obtained from a compacted soil (with a given compacted effort) decreases with
increasing organic content of a soil. From these facts, we can see that soils with organic contents
higher than about 10% are undesirable for compaction work.

2. Soil and Organic Material Mixtures

Lancaster et. Al. (1996) conducted several modified Proctor tests to determine the effect of
organic content on the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content of soil and organic
material mixtures. The soils tested consisted of a poorly graded sandy soil (SP – SM) mixed with
either shredded redwood bark, shredded rice hulls or municipal sewage sludge.

3. Paper Mill Sludge

Paper mill sludge, despite high water content and low solid contents, can be compacted and
used for landfill. The states pf Wisconsin and Massachusetts have both used paper mill sludge to cap
landfills. Moo-Young and Zimmie (1996) provided the standard Proctor compaction characteristics
for several paper mill sludge’s.

4. Bottom Ash Coal Burning and Copper Slag

Laboratory standard Proctor test results for bottom ash from coal-burning power plants and
for copper slag are also available in the literature. These waste products have been shown to be
environmentally safe for use in landfill.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 7

H. Special Compaction Technique

Several special types of compaction techniques have been developed for deep compaction of
in-place soils, and these techniques are used in the field for large-scale compaction works. Among
these, the popular methods are vibroflotation, dynamic compaction and blasting. Details of these
methods are provided in the following sections.

1. Vibroflotation

Vibroflotation is a technique for in situ densification of thick layers of loose granular soil
deposits. It was developed in Germany in the 1930’s. The first vibroflotation device was used in the
United States about 10 years later. The process involves the use of a Vibroflot, which is about 7 ft ( =
2. 13 m ) long. This vibrating unit has an electric weight inside it and can develop a centrifugal force,
which enables the vibrating unit to vibrate horizontally. These are openings at the bottom and top of
the vibrating unit for water jets. The vibrating unit is attached to a follow-up pipe.

The entire vibroflotation compaction process in the field can be divided into four stages:

Stage 1. The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into the
ground.
Stage 2. The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil. It allows the vibrating
unit to sink into the ground.
Stage 3. Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the
lower jet is transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This water carries
a granular material down the hole.
Stage 4. The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 1-ft ( = 0.3 m ) lifts and
held vibrating about 30 seconds at each lift. This process compacts the
soil to the described unit weight.
The grain size-distribution of the backfill material is an important factor that controls the rate
of densification. Brown (1977) has defined a quantity called the suitability number ( S N ) for rating
backfill material:

3 1 1
SN = 1.7 √ + +
(D50 )2 (D20 )2 (D10 )2

Where: D50, D20 and D10 are the diameters (in mm) through which, respectively, 50, 20 and
10% of the material passes.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 8

 The smaller the value of SN, the more desirable the backfill material. The following is a backfill
rating system proposed by Brown:

Range of SN Rating as Backfill

0 – 10 Excellent
10 – 20 Good
20 – 30 Fair
30 – 50 Poor
> 50 Unsuitable

2. Dynamic Compaction

Dynamic compaction is a technique that has gained popularity in the United States for the
densification of granular soil deposits. This process consists primarily of dropping a heavy weight
repeatedly on the ground at regular intervals. The weight of the hammer used varies over a range of
18 to 80 kip (80 to 356 kN), and the height of the hammer drop varies between 25 and 100 ft (= 7. 5
and 30. 5 m). The stress waves generated by the hammer drops aid in the densification. The degree
of compaction achieved at a given site depends on the following three factors:
a. Weight of hammer
b. Height of hammer drop
c. Spacing of locations at which the hammer is dropped

Leonard’s, Cutter and Holtz (1980) suggested that the significant depth of influence for
compaction can be approximated by using the following equation:

√WH h
D=
2

Where: D = significant depth of densification (m)

WH = dropping weight (metric ton)
h = height of drop (m)

In English units, the preceding equation takes the following form:

D = 0.61 √WHh

Where the units of D and h are in ft, and the unit of WH is kip

3. Blasting

Blasting is a technique that has been used successfully in many projects (Mitchell, 1970) for
the densification of granular soils. The general soil grain sizes suitable for compaction by blasting are
the same as that compaction by vibroflotation. The process involves the detonation of explosives

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 9

charges such as 60% dynamite at a certain depth below the ground surface in saturated soil. The
lateral spacing of the charges varies from about 10 to 30 ft (3m to 9m). Three to five successful
detonations are usually necessary to achieve the desired compaction. Compaction (up to a relative
density of about 80%) up to a depth of about 60 ft (18 m) over a large area can easily be achieved by
using this process. Usually, the explosive charges are placed at a depth of about two-thirds of the
thickness of the soil layer desired to be compacted. The sphere of influence of compaction by a 60%
dynamite charge can be given as follows (Mitchell, 1970):
WEX
r=
0.0025

Where: r = sphere of influence ( ft )

WEX = weight of explosive – 60% dynamite (lb)
Problems
1. The backfill material for a Vibroflotation project has the following grain sizes:
D10 = 0. 36 mm, D20 = 0. 52 mm, D50 = 1. 42 mm
Determine the suitability number.

2. The following data are taken from a Dynamic compaction test. Determine the significant depth of
influence for compaction in meters.
Weight of hammer – 18 metric tons
Height of drop = 14 meters

3. A field – compact sample of sandy loam was found to have a wet density of 21. 4 kN/m 3 at a water
content of 10%. The maximum dry density of the soil obtained in a Standard Proctor Test (SPT)
was 19. 7 kN/m3. Assuming specific gravity of soil sample to be 2. 65, determine the percent
compaction of the field.

4. The relative compaction of the sand in the field is 94%. The maximum and minimum dry unit
weights of the sand are 16. 2 kN/m3 and 14. 9 kN/m3 respectively. For the field condition,
determine the relative density of compaction.

5. The results of a Standard Proctor Test follow. Determine the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction and the optimum moisture content. Also, determine the void ratio and the degree of
saturation at the optimum moisture content. Given: Gs = 2. 68.

Volume of Weight of Wet Moisture Moist Unit Dry Unit

Proctor Soil in Mold Content Weight Weingt
Mold (ft3) (lb) (%) (lb/ft3) (lb/ft3)
1
3. 69 12
30
1
3. 82 14
30
1
3. 88 16
30
1
3. 87 18
30
1
3. 81 20
30
1
3. 77 22
30

References:
1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com
2. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
3. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
4. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
5. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
6. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
7. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 10

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)

Module 3 – Part 1: Consistency of Soil

Objectives:

After studying these topics students will be able to:

1. Understand the importance of phase relationships, physical states and soil classification.

2. Know the significance and application soil consistency and classification in determination of the
strength of soil.

Content:

A. Introduction

In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a method to describe the
consistency of fine grained soils with varying moisture contents. At very low moisture content, soil
behaves more like a solid. When the moisture content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a
liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basic, depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be
divided into four basic states-solid, semisolid, plastic and liquid.

W
a
Liquid State
t
e
r Liquid Limit, LL
c
o Plastic State
n
t
e Plastic Limit, PL
n
t
i
Semisolid State
n
c Shrinkage Limit, SL
r
e
a Solid State
s
e
s

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 1

 Liquid Limit Test Set

B. Definition of Terms and Formulas

Consistency is the term used to describe the degree of firmness (e.g., soft, medium, firm, or
hard) of a soil. The consistency of a cohesive soil is greatly affected by the water content of the soil.
A gradual increase of the water content may transform a dry soil from solid state, into a liquid state
to a semisolid state, to a plastic state, and after further moisture increase in to a liquid state. The
water content at the corresponding junction points of these states are known as the shrinkage limit,
the plastic limit, and the liquid limit respectively.

1. Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture content corresponding to the transition from liquid
to plastic state.

2. Plastic limit (PL) is defined as the moisture content at which the soil crumbles, when rolled into
threads of 1/8 in. 93.2 mm) in diameter and it is the lower limit of the plastic stage of soil.

3. Plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil.

PI = LL − PL
4. Shrinkage limit (SL) is the moisture content corresponding to the final transition.

(M1 − M2 )(100) (V1 − V2 )(ρw )(100)

SL = −
M2 M2

Where: M1 = mass of the wet soil pat in the dish at the beginning of the test
M2 = mass of the dry soil in the pat
V1 = initial volume of the wet soil pat
V2 = volume of the oven-dried soil pat
w= density of water
5. Shrinkage ratio
1 M2
SR = ( )( )
ρw V2

6. Specific gravity of solids

1
Gs =
1 SL
−
SR 100
7. Liquidity index (LI) is the ratio of the relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state.
 − PL
LI =
LL − PL

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 2

8. Consistency index (CI)
LL − 
CI =
LL − PI
9. Shrinkage index is the difference between the plastic limit and the shrinkage limit of a soil.
SI = PL − SL
PI
10. Activity of clay. Ac =


Where:  = percent of soil finer than 0.002 mm (clay size).

Activity Classification

Ac < 0. 7 Inactive

0. 7 < Ac < 1. 2 Normal clay

Ac > 1. 2 Active clay

Description of Clay in terms of Liquid Limit (LL) and Plasticity Index (PI)

LL > 60% and PI is 25% Very High

LL is 50% – 60% and PI is 25% – 35% Medium
LL < 50% and PI < 25% Low

Soil Indices

Index Correlation
Plasticity Strength and compressibility
Liquidity Compressibility and stress rate
Shrinkage Shrinkage potential
Activity of clay Swell potential, and so forth

Description of Soil Based on Liquidity Index

LI < 0 Semisolid state – high strength, brittle (sudden) fracture is exposed

0 < LI < 1 Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil deforms like a plastic material
LI > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms like a viscous fluid

Description of Soil Based on Plasticity Index

PI Description
0 Nonplastic
1 -5 Slightly plastic
5 – 10 Low plasticity
10 – 20 Medium plasticity
20 – 40 High plasticity
>40 Very high plasticity

Atterberg’s Limits are also used to assess the potential swell of a given soil

Potential Swell
LL PI
Classification
<50 <25 Low
50 – 60 25 – 35 Medium
>60 >35 High

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 3

Essential points:

1. Fine-grained soils can exist in one of four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic, and liquid.
2. Water is the agent that responsible for changing the states of soils.
3. A soil gets weaker if its water content that causes a change of state. These are the liquid limit- the
water content that caused the soil to change from a plastic state; the plastic limit- the water
content that caused the soil to change from a plastic to a semi-solid; and the shrinkage limit- the
water content that caused the soil to change from a semi-solid to a solid state. All these limiting
water contents are found from laboratory tests.
4. The plasticity index defines the range of water content for which the soil behaves like a plastic
material.
5. The liquidity index gives a measure of strength.

Problems
1. A saturated soil has the following characteristics: initial volume = 19.65 cm 3, final volume = 13.5
cm3, mass of wet soil is 36 g and mass of dry soil = 25 g. Determine shrinkage limit and shrinkage
ratio.

2. The following are results from the liquid and plastic limit test for a soil:

Number of Blows (N) Moisture Content (ω%)

15 42
20 40.8
28 39.1

The plastic limit is 18.7%. Determine the

a. Liquid limit using table.

b. Plasticity index of the soil.
c. Liquidity index of the soil if the water content is 24%.
d. Consistency index.

3. The following data were obtained from the Atterberg Limits test for a soil:

Liquid Limit = 52. 3%

Plastic Limit = 26. 5%

Determine the

a. Plasticity index of the soil.

b. Liquidity index of the soil if the in situ moisture content of the soil is 32%.
c. Nature of the soil.

4. The following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:

Initial volume of soil in saturated state = 24. 6 cc

Final volume of soil in dry state = 15. 9 cc
Initial mass in a saturated state = 44g
Final mass in a dry state = 30. 1g
Determine the

a. Dry density of the soil in g/cc.

b. Saturated density of the soil in g/cc.
c. Void ratio of the soil.
d. Shrinkage limit of the soil.
e. Shrinkage ratio of the soil.
f. Specific gravity of the solids.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 4

6. Laboratory results for a sample of clay soil for the purpose of evaluating the potential for volume
change, swelling or expansion are as follows:

Liquid limit = 68%

Plastic limit = 24%
Particles smaller than 0. 002 mm = 44%

Determine the

a. Plasticity index.
b. Activity classification of clay.
c. Rate of the volume change potential.

7. In a liquid limit test using penetrometer, the following readings were recorded and tabulated as
follows:

Plastic Limit Test Results

Trial Number γwet (kN⁄ 3 ) γd (kN⁄ 3 )

m m
1 128.6 105.4
2 141.4 116.8
3 132.6 109.6
4 134.5 111.2
5 136.0 113.4

Liquid Limit Test Results

Moisture Content (ω%) Cone Penetration (mm)

42.5 16.0
47.5 17.5
58.1 22.8
60.0 26.0

Determine the

a. Liquid limit of the soil.

b. Plasticity index of the soil.
c. Liquidity index, if the natural moisture content of the soil is 38%.

References:

1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com

2. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
3. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
4. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
5. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
6. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
7. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 5

 Geotechnical Engineering 1 (Soil Mechanics)
Module 12: Soil Exploration and Geosynthetics
Objectives:

After studying these topics the students will be able to:

1. Know the different soil exploration method.

2. Determine the consistency and suitability of soil as a foundation.

Content:

I. Soil Exploration

A. Purposes of a Soil Investigation

A soil investigation program is necessary to provide information for design and construction and
for environmental assessment. The purposes of a soil investigation are:
a. To evaluate the general suitability of the site for the proposed project.
b. To enable an adequate and economical design to be made.
c. To disclose and make provision for difficulties that may arise during construction due to ground
and other local conditions.

B. Phases of a Soil Investigation

The scope of a soil investigation depends on the type, size and importance of the structure,
the client, the engineer’s familiarity with the soils at the site, and local building codes. Structures that
are sensitive to settlement such as machine foundations and high-use buildings usually require a
thorough soil investigation compared to foundation of a house. A client may wish to take a greater
risk than normal to save money and set limits on the type and extent of the site investigation. If the
geotechnical engineer is familiar with a site, he/she may undertake a very simple soil investigation
to confirm his/ her experience. Some local building codes have provisions that set out the extent of a
site investigation. It is mandatory that a visit be made to the proposed site.
In the early stages of a project, the available information is often inadequate to allow a
detailed plan to be made. A site investigation must be developed in phases.
Phase I. Collection of available information such as site plan, type, size and importance of the
structure, loading conditions, previous geotechnical reports, topographic maps, air photographs,
geologic maps and newspaper clippings.
Phase II. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture of the topography and
geology of the site. It is necessary that you take with you on the site to visit all the information
gathered in Phase I to compare with the current conditions of the site.
Phase III. Detailed soil exploration. The objectives of a detailed soil exploration are:
1. To determine the geological structure, this should include the thickness, sequence and extent of
the soil strata.
2. To determine the groundwater conditions.
3. To obtained disturbed and undisturbed samples for laboratory tests.
4. To conduct in situ tests.

Phase IV. Write a report. The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site; methods
of exploration, soil profile, test methods and results, and the location of the groundwater table. You
should include information and/or explanations of any unusual soil, water-bearing stratum, and soil
and groundwater condition that may be troublesome during construction.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 1

C. Soil Exploration Program
A soil exploration program usually involves test pits and/or soil borings (bore-holes). During
the site visit (Phase II), you should work out most of the soil exploration consists of:
1. Preliminary location of each borehole and/or test pits.
2. Numbering of the boreholes or test pits.
3. Planned depth of each borehole or test pit.
4. Methods and procedures for advancing the boreholes.
5. Sampling instructions for at least the first borehole. The sampling instructions must include the
number of samples and possible locations. Changes in the sampling instructions often occur after
the first borehole.
6. Requirements for groundwater observations.

D. Soil Exploration Methods

Access to the soil may be obtained by the following methods:

1. Trial pits or test pits
2. Hand or powered augers
3. Wash boring
4. Rotary rigs

Advantages and Disadvantages of Soil Exploration Methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

1. Test pits
A pit is dug either by a. Cost effective a. Depth limited to about 6m
hand or by a back hole. b. Provide detailed information of b. Peep pits uneconomical
stratigraphy c. Excavation below
c. Large quantities of disturbed soils groundwater and into rock
are available for testing difficult and costly.
d. Large blocks of undisturbed d. Too many pits may scar site
samples can be carved out from the and require backfill soils
pits
e. Field tests can be conducted at the
bottom of the pit.
2. Hand augers
The auger is rotated by a. Cost effective a. Depth limited to about 6m
turning and pushing b. Not dependent on terrain b. Labor intensive
down on the c. Low headroom required c. Undisturbed samples can be
handlebar. d. Portable taken only for soft clay
e. Low headroom required deposit
f. Used in uncased holes d. Cannot be used in rock, stiff
g. Groundwater location can easily be clays, dry sand or caliche
identified and measured soils
3. Power augers
Truck mounted and a. Quick a. Depth limited to about 15m.
equipped with b. Used in uncased holes At greater depth drilling
continuous flight c. Undisturbed samples can be becomes difficult and
augers that bore a hole obtained quite easily expensive
100 to 250 mm in a d. Drilling mud not used b. Site must be accessible to
diameter. Augers can e. Groundwater location can easily be motorized vehicle
have a solid or hollow identified
stem.
4. Wash boring
Water is pumped to a. Can be used in difficult terrain a. Depth limited to about 30m
bottom of borehole and b. Low equipment costs b. Slow drilling through stiff
soil washings are c. Used in uncased holes clays and gravels
returned to surface. A
drill bit is rotated and

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 2

 dropped to produce a c. Difficulty in obtaining
chapping accurate location of
groundwater level
d. Undisturbed soil samples
cannot be obtained
5. Rotary drills
A drill bit is pushed by a. Quick a. Expensive equipment
the weight of the b. Can drill through any type of soil or b. Terrain must be accessible
drilling equipment and rock to motorized vehicle
rotated by a motor. c. Can drill to depths of 7500 m c. Difficulty in obtaining
d. Undisturbed samples can easily be location of groundwater
recovered level
d. Additional time required for
setup and cleanup

E. Soil Identification in the Field

In the field, the predominant soil types based on texture are identified by inspection. Gravels
and sands are gritty and the individual particles are visible. Silts easily crumble and water migrates
to the surface on application of pressure. Clays fail this water migration test since water flows very
slowly through clays. Clays feel smooth, greasy and sticky to the touch when wet but are very hard
and strong when dry.

F. Depth of Boreholes

In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate either 1. 5 to 2 times the
least dimension of the foundation or until the stress increment due to the foundation loads is less
than 10%, whichever is greater. Borings should penetrate at least 1 m into rock. In very stiff clays,
borings should penetrate 5m to 7m to prove that the thickness of the strata is adequate.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 3

G. Soil Sampling

The objective of the soil sampling is to obtain soils of satisfactory size with minimum
disturbance for observations and laboratory tests. Soil samples are usually obtained by attaching an
open-ended thin-wall tube-called a Shelby tube or, simply, a sampling tube-to drill rods and forcing
it down into the soil.

H. Boring Log

During soil exploration all pertinent details are recorded and presented in a boring log.
Additional information consisting mainly of laboratory and field test results is added to complete the
boring log.

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 4

Essential points:
1. A site investigation is necessary to determine the nature of the soils at a proposed site for design
and construction.
2. A soil investigation needs careful planning and is usually done are phases.
3. A number of tools are available for soil exploration. You need to use judgment as to the type
appropriate for a given project.

References:
1. Images are Retrieved from https://www.google.com
2. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah, 2012
3. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Seventh Edition) by Braja M. Das, 2010
4. Soil Mechanics and Foundations (Third Edition) by Muni Budhu, 2011
5. Soil Mechanics 7th Edition, R.F. Craig, 2004
6. Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Venancio L. Besavilla Jr., 1998
7. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering by Diego Inocencio T. Gillesania, 2006

MBV Geotechnical Engineering 1 Page | 5