ANATOMY 2 COURSE OUTLINE FOR

NURSES AND MIDWIVES.

COURSE OUTLINE
1. URINAY SYSTEM
2. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
3. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
4. NERVOUSE SYSTEM
5. ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES
6. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.

BY

SEBUGGWAWO JOSEPH DN , BScN, 0782996295.

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THE URINARY SYSTEM.

The urinary system is the main excretory system by which excess water plus waste products are
eliminated from the body through urine.

It is composed of the following:

1. Two kidneys which secrete urine

2. Two ureters that convey urine from kidneys to the urinary bladder.
3. The urinary bladder which collects and stores urine.
4. The urethra through which urine leaves the body. The urethra conveys urine from the
urinary bladder to the external environment.

ILLUSTRATION OF THE URINARY SYSTEM.

THE KIDNEYS.

These are two reddish brown bean shaped organs lying behind the peritoneum on either sides of
the abdominal cavity which secret urine.

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LOCATION

➢ Kidneys are situated at the posterior aspect of the lumber region behind the peritoneum
and below the diaphragm.
➢ They extend from the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra to the 3rd lumber vertebra and
measure about 11 cm long, 6cm wide, 3cm thick and weigh around 150 g.
➢ The right kidney is usually slightly lower than the left because of the considerable space
occupied by the liver.
➢ They are supported by the renal artery and renal vein which enter and leave each kidney
respectively at a point called hilum.
➢ They are also held in position by a mass of fats.

ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH THE KIDNEYS.

Right kidney.

Superiorly- the right adrenal glands

Anteriorly-the right lobe of the liver, the duodenum and colon.

Posteriorly- the diaphragm and muscles of the posterior abdominal wall

Left kidney.

Superiorly- the left adrenal gland.

Anteriorly- the spleen, stomach, pancreas, jejunum and the colon.

Posteriorly- the diaphragm and muscles of the posterior abdominal wall.

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ILLUSTRATION.

GROSS STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY.

✓ Three different areas of tissue are clearly distinguishable to the naked eye when viewing
a longitudinal section of the kidney.
• An outer fibrous capsule, surrounding the kidney,

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 • The cortex, a reddish brown layer of tissue immediately below the capsule and
surrounding the renal pyramids.
• The medulla, the innermost layer, consisting of pale conical –shaped renal pyramids.
✓ Each pyramid has a pointed end called the papilla.
✓ The hilum is the concave medial border of the kidney, where the renal blood vessels,
lymph vessels , the ureter and nerves enter the kidney.
✓ Urine formed with in the kidney passes through the renal papilla into the drainage system
that begins at the minor calyx.
✓ Several minor calyces merge into a major calyx and two or three major calyces combine
to form renal pelvis a hollow funnel- shaped structure that narrows when it leaves the
kidney as the ureter.

FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEYS.

1. Formation of urine.
2. Maintaining water balance in the body.
3. Maintaining electrolyte balance in the body.
4. Regulating blood ph (acid – base balance)
5. Production and secretion of erythropoietine hormone, a hormone that stimulates
formation of red blood cells (erythropoiesis).
6. Production and secretion of enzyme rennin. An important enzyme used in the long term
control of blood pressure.
7. Regulates blood glucose levels.
8. Regulates vitamin D, which prevents bone diseases. Parathyroid hormone stimulates the
kidneys to release a hormone calcitriol the active form of vitamin D; this increases the
rate of calcium ion absorption from the gastro intestinal tract.

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 MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY.
The kidney contains 1-2 million functional units called Nephrons which form the
microscopic structure of the kidney.

THE NEPHRONS.
➢ This is a tubular structure with a cup-shaped end (closed end or blind end) called
bowmans capsule or glomerular capsule.
➢ The bowman’s capsule has a net work of capillaries called glomerulus formed by
two blood vessels that enter and leave.
➢ The blood vessel that bring blood into the bowman’s capsule is called afferent
arteriole while the vessel that takes blood away is called efferent arteriole.
➢ The bowman’s then continues as a convoluted part called proximal convoluted
tubule (PCT).
➢ The PCT continues down wards into a U- shaped tube called loope of henle.
➢ The loope of henle continues upwards into another convoluted tubule called distal
convoluted tubule.
➢ The distal convoluted tubule connects to the collecting ducts which empty formed
urine into the renal pelvis.
➢ THE DIAGRAM OF A NEPHRON.

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 FORMATION OF URINE.
The kidneys form urine which passes to the urinary bladder for storage prior to excretion.
There are three processes involved in the formation of urine in the nephrons of the kidney
i.e.
1. Filtration.
2. Selective reabsorption.
3. Tubular secretion.
Filtration.
➢ During this process, blood enters the bowman’s capsule through the afferent
arteriole at a high pressure than that in the glomerular capsule itself.
➢ This forces some water and other smaller molecules e.g glucose , urea, uric acid,
mineral salts, creatinine to pass through the semi permeable capillaries of the
bowman’s capsule ( glomerulus).
➢ The fluid filtered from the blood stream in the glomerulus into the glomerular
capsule is called Filtrate (glomerular filtrate).

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 ➢ Blood cells and plasma proteins are too large to filter through and therefore
remain in the glomerulus.
➢ The volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys each minute is called the
glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
➢ In a health adult the GFR is about 123mls/min.

Selective reabsorption.
As the filtrate continues in the proximal convoluted tubule , most reabsorption from the
filtrate back into the blood takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule whose epitherial
lining possesses microvilli to increase surface area for absorption.
Many substances are reabsorbed here, including water, electrolytes and organic
compounds e.g glucose and amino acids.
Some reabsorption is passive but some substances e.g glucose are actively transported.

Only 60-70 % of the filtrate reaches the medullary loope (loope of henle).
Much water, sodium and chlorides are reabsorbed in the loope of henle, so that only 15-
20 % of the original filtrate reaches the distal convoluted tubule.
In the DCT more electrolytes are reabsorbed here especially sodium, so that the filtrate
entering the collecing duct is quite dilute.
The main function of the collecting duct is to reabsorb water as the body needs.

Tubular secretion.
Substances not required and foreign materials e.g drugs including penicillin and aspirin,
may not be entirely filtered out of the blood in the glomerulus because of the short time
they remain in the glomerulus or because the molecules are too large to pass through the
filtrate pores.
Such substances are cleared by secretion from the peritubular capillaries into the filtrate
in the tubules of the nephrone.

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 NB. 1% of the filtrate forms urine. 99%of the filtrate is reabsorbed back.

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 COMPONENTS OF BLOOD NFOUND IN THE FILTRATE.
1. Water
2. Mineral salts
3. Amino acids
4. Ketoacids
5. Glucose
6. Some hormones
7. Cretinine
8. Urea
9. Uric acid
10. Some drugs (small molecules)
BLOOD COMPONENTS THAT REMAIN IN THE GLOMERULUS.
1. Leucocytes
2. Erythrocytes
3. Platelets
4. Plasma proteins.
5. Some drugs (large molecules)

HORMONES THAT INFLUENCE SELECTIVE REABSORPTION.

1. Parathyroid hormones: this is secreted by the parathyroid glands , and together
with calcitonin from the thyroid gland , regulate reabsorption of calcium and
phosphate from the distal convoluted tubules , so that normal blood levels are
maintained. Parathyroid hormone increases the blood calcium levels and
calcitonin lowers it.
2. Antidiuretic hormone: antidiuretic hormone (ADH) also known as vasopressin
is secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, it increases the
permeability of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts, increasing
water reabsorption.
3. Aldosterone : this hormone is secreted by the adrenal cortex , it incresea the
reabsorption of sodium and water and the excreation of potassium from the
nephrone.
4. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP): this hormone is secreted by the atria of the
heart in response to stretching of the atrial wall when blood volume is increased.
It decreases reabsorption of sodium and water from the proximal convoluted
tubules and collecting ducts.

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 COMPONENTS OF URINE.
Urine is a clear fluid, ambor yellow in colour due to the presence of the pigmented
substance called urobilin.
The specific gravity of urine is between 1020 and 1030, ph is around 6 (normal range 4.5-
8)
A normal adult passes out 1000 – 1500mls of urine per day.
Urine consists/ is composed of:
❖ Water 96%
❖ Urea 2%
❖ Uric acid
❖ Creatinine
❖ Ammonia
❖ Sodium
❖ Potassium 2%
❖ Chlorides
❖ Phosphates
❖ Sulphates
❖ oxalates

WATER BALANCE AND URINE OUT PUT.

➢ The source of most body water is ingested food and fluids, although a small
amount (metabolic water) is formed by cellular metabolism.
➢ Water is excreted not only as the main constituent of urine but also in expired air
and feaces, and through the skin as sweat.
➢ When water levels in the body reduces the osmotic pressure of blood rises.
➢ Risen osmotic pressure stimulates sensory nerve cells called osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus.
➢ In response the osmoreceptors generate a nerve impulse to the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland to stimulate it to secrete antidiuretic hormone. ADH flows
through blood to the kidneys.
➢ Increased release of antidiuretic hormone results into increased reabsorption of
water by the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
➢ This increases water levels in the body, which reduces the osmotic pressure of
blood thus lowering ADH output.
➢ When blood volume is increased, stretch receptors in the atria of the heart are
stimulated and cardiac muscle cells release atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).
➢ This hormone travels in the blood stream to the kidneys where it reduces
reabsorption of sodium and water by the proximal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct, meaning that more sodium and water are excreated.

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 ➢ In return, this lowers blood volume and reduces atrial stretching, and through the
negative feedback mechanism ANP secretion is switched off.
➢ Raised ANP levels also inhibit secretion of ADH and aldosteron, further
promoting loss of sodium and water.

ELECTROLYTE BALANCE.
• Sodium and potassium balance
❖ Rennin – Angiotensin Aldoserone System.
➢ Reduced renal flow due to low blood volume or low arterial blood pressure
stimulates the Juxtaglomerular cells in the afferent arteriole of the nephron release
an enzyme rennin.
➢ Renin converts a plasma protein angiotensinogen produced by the liver to
angiotensin 1.
➢ Angiotensine converting enzyme (ACE), formed in small quantitie in the lungs
and the proximal convoluted tubules converts angiotensin 1 into angiotensin 2,
which is a very good vasoconstrictor and increases blood pressure.
➢ Angiotensin 2, rennin and raised potassium levels stimulate the adrenal glands to
secret aldosterone.
➢ Aldosterone stimulates the reabsorption of water and sodium which increases the
blood volume thus reducing rennin secretion through a negative feedback
mechanism.
➢ When sodium reabsorption is increased, potassium excretion is increased,
indirectly reducing intracellular potassium.
➢ Continued excreation of potassium may lead to hypokalaemia (low blood
potassium levels)
ASSIGNMENT:
Descried the process of regulation of blood ph.

URETERS.
Each of the two ureters transports urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
They are hollow muscular tubes about 25-30cm long with a diameter of approximately
3mm.
ILLUSTRATION.

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STERUCTURE OF URETERS.

The walls of the ureters consist of three layers of tissues.

• An outer covering of fibrous connective tissue, continuous with the fibrous capsule of the
kidney.
• A middle muscular layer consisting of interlacing smooth muscle fibres.
• An inner layer, the mucosa, composed of transitional epithelium.

Functions of ureters.

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URINARY BLADDER.

It’s a hollow, distensible, muscular organ that acts as a reservoir for urine. (It stores urine before
it is excreted out.)

It lies in the pelvic cavity and its size and position vary, depending on the amount of urine it
contains.

When distended, the bladder rises into the abdominal cavity.

STRUCTURE OF THE URINARY BLADER.

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 ➢ The bladder is roughly pear shaped, but it becomes more balloon shaped as it fills with
urine.
➢ Its posterior surface is its base.
➢ The bladder opens into the urethra at its lowest point the, the neck.
➢ The peritoneum covers only the superior surface before it turns upwards as the parietal
peritoneum, lining the anterior abdominal wall.
➢ Posteriorly it surrounds the uterus in females and the rectum in males.
➢ The bladder wall is composed of three layers of tissues.
• The outer layer of loose connective tissue, containing blood, lymphatic vessels and
nerves.
• The middle layer, consisting of smooth muscle fibres and elastic tissue loosely arranged
in three layers. This is called the detrusor muscle and when it contracts, it empties the
bladder.
• The inner mucosa composed of transitional epithelium that readily permits distension of
the bladder as it fills.
➢ When the bladder is empty its inner lining is arranged in folds or rugae, which gradually
disappear as it fills.
➢ The bladder is distensible, but as it fills, awareness of the need to pass urine is felt.
➢ The total capacity is rarely more than about 600mls.
➢ The three orifices in the bladder wall form a triangle or trigone.
➢ The upper two orifices on the posterior wall are the openings of the ureters, the lower
orifice is the opening into the urethra.

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 ➢ The internal urethral sphincter, in the upper part of the urethra, controls outflow of urine
from the bladder.
➢ This sphincter is not under voluntary control.

URETHRA.

The urethra is a canal extending from the neck of the bladder to the external environment at the
external urethral orifice.

It is longer in males than in females.

The male urethra is associated with both the urinary and the reproductive system.

The female urethra is approximately 4cm long and 6mm in diameter.

The external urethral orifice is guarded by by the external urethral orifice ,which is under
voluntary control, the internal urethral sphincter is under involuntary control.

ASSIGNMENT

DEFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE URETHRA.

MICTURITION.

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In infants accumulation of urine in the bladder activates stretch receptors in the bladder wall,
generating sensory nerve impulses that are transmitted to the spinal cord where a spinal reflex is
initiated.

This stimulates involuntary contraction f the detrusor muscles and relaxation of the internal
urethral sphincter, leading to exit of urine from the bladder, this is known as micturition,
urination or voiding of urine.

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In adults accumulation of urine in the bladder activates stretch receptors in the bladder wall,
generating a nerve impulse that is transmitted to the spinal cord where a spinal reflex is
stimulated but still sensory impulses also pass upwards to the brain and there is awareness of the
need to pass put urine.

By learned and conscious effort, contraction of the external urethral sphincter and muscles of the
pelvic floor can inhibit micturition until it is convenient to pass urine.

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Urination can be assisted by increasing the pressure within the pelvic cavity, achieved by
lowering the diaphragm and contracting the abdominal muscles.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Define kidney.
2. Describe the gross structure of a kidney.
3. Describe the microscopic structure of the kidney.
4. Outline the functions of the kidney.
5. Describe the process of urine formation.
6. Describe the hormones that influence selective reabsorption.
7. Outline the process of water and electrolyte balance with in the kidney.
8. Describe the structure of the bladder.
9. Describe the process of Micturation in children and adults.
10. Outline the differences between the male and female urethra.

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The nervous system detects and responds to changes inside and outside the body.

Together with the endocrine system, it coordinates and controls vital aspects of body function
and maintains homeostasis.

To this end the nervous system provides an immediate response while endocrine activity is,
usually, slower and more prolonged.

The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord and peripheral nerves.

The structure and organisation of the tissues that form these components enables rapid
communication between all parts of the body.

For descriptive purposes the parts of the nervous system are grouped as follows:

• the central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and the spinal cord

• the peripheral nervous system (PNS), consisting of all the nerves outside the brain and spinal
cord.

The PNS comprises paired cranial and sacral nerves – some of these are sensory (afferent)
transmitting impulses to the CNS, some are motor (efferent) transmitting impulses from the CNS
and others are mixed.

It is useful to consider two functional parts within the PNS:

• the sensory division

• the motor division.

The motor division has two parts:

• the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

• the autonomic nervous system, controlling involuntary processes such as heartbeat, peristalsis
and glandular activity.

The autonomic nervous system has two divisions i.e sympathetic and parasympathetic.

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DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

ASSIGNMENT Distinguish between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

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In summary, the CNS receives sensory information about its internal and external environments
from afferent nerves.

The CNS integrates and processes this input and responds, when appropriate, by sending
nerveCells and tissues of the nervous system impulses through motor nerves to the effector
organs i.e muscles and glands.

CELLS AND TISSUES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

There are two types of nervous tissue i.e neurones and neuroglia.

NEURONES

Neurones (nerve cells) are the working units of the nervous system that generate and transmit
nerve impulses.

Nerve cells vary considerably in size and shape but they are all too small to be seen by the naked
eye

Neurones are supported by connective tissue, collectively known as neuroglia, which is formed
from different types of glial cells.

Each neurone consists of a cell body and its processes, one axon and many dendrites.

Neurones are commonly referred to as nerve cells.

Bundles of axons bound together are called nerves.

Neurones cannot divide, and for survival they need a continuous supply of oxygen and glucose.

Unlike many other cells, neurones can synthesise chemical energy (ATP) only from glucose.

Neurones generate and transmit electrical impulses called action potentials.

Some neurones initiate nerve impulses while others act as ‘relay stations’.

Nerve impulses can be initiated in response to stimuli from:

• outside the body, e.g. touch, light waves

• inside the body, e.g. a change in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood alters
respiration,

Transmission of nerve signals is both electrical and chemical.

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The action potential travelling down the nerve axon is an electrical signal, but because nerves do
not come into direct contact with each other, the signal between a nerve cell and the next cell in
the chain is nearly always chemical.

STRUCTURE OF A NEURONE

Cell bodies

Cell bodies form the grey matter of the nervous system and are found at the periphery of the
brain and in the centre of the spinal cord.

Groups of cell bodies are called nuclei in the central nervous system and ganglia in the peripheral
nervous system.

Axons and dendrites

Axons and dendrites are extensions of cell bodies and form the white matter of the nervous
system.

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Axons are found deep in the brain and in groups, called tracts, at the periphery of the spinal
cord. They are referred to as nerves or nerve fibres outside the brain and spinal cord.

Dendrites are many short processes that receive and carry incoming impulses towards the cell
body.

Axons

Each nerve cell has only one axon, which begins at a tapered area of the cell body called the
axon hillock.

They carry impulses away from the cell body and are usually longer than the dendrites,
sometimes as long as 100 cm.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWRONS.

• They are not replaced once they die, for survival they need continuous supply of oxygen
and glucose.
• They have specialised projections called axons which allow neurons to generate and
transmit electrical impulses called action potentials.
• The initial strength of an action potential is maintained through out the length of the
neuron.
• Some neurons initiate action potentials while others act as relay stations.
• Action potentials can be initiated in response to stimuli from outside or inside the body.
• Transmission of nerve signal is both electrical and chemical.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS.
1. Classificatio according to the presence or absence of myelin sheath.

Some neurons do not have myelin sheath so they are termed as non- myelinated
neurons, others have myelin sheath and are called myelinated neurons.

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 COMPARISON BETWEEN MYELINATED AND NON MYELINATED
NEURONS.

Basic of comparison Myelinated neurone fiber Unmyelinated neuron fiber.

Description Are insulated by myelin Do not have myelin sheath
sheath
Clour Axons white in colour Grey in colour
Nodes of Ranvier Have nodes of ranvier Do not have nodes of ranvier
Speed of transmission Due to presence of nodes of Do not have nodes of ranvier
ranvier, the speed of and myelin insulations, and
transmission of impulses is there fore, the speed of
high transmission of nerve
impulses is slow.
Axons Long axons Short axons
Impulse conduction Do not lose the impulse during Can lose the nerve impulse
conduction. during conduction.
2. Neurons are also classified according to their function.
• Functionally, neurons are classified according to the direction in which the action
potentials are conducted, these include.
I. Sensory neurons/ Afferent neurons. These conduct action potectials from receptors to the
CNS.
II. Motor neurons/ Effectors neurons. These conduct action potentials away from the CNS
towards the effector organs e.g muscles and glands.
III. Interneurons . these conduct action potentials from one neuron to another but with in the
CNS.
3. Classification according to structure.
Here neuron are also classified according to the number of processes that
extend or originate from the cell body as:
a. Multipolar neurons. These have many dendrites and asingle axon.
Structure.
b. Bipolar neurons. These have two processes ie one dendrite and one axon.
Bipolar neurons are located in sensory organs e.g the retina of the eye and
the nasal cavity.
Structure.
c. Unipolar neurons. These have asingle process extending from the
cellbody. This singleprocess is an axon and it divides into two branches.
structre

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THE NERVE IMPULSE (ACTION POTENTIAL).

An impulse is initiated by stimulation of sensory nerve endings or by the passage of an impulse

from one neuron to.

Transmission of the impulse, or action potential, is due to movement of ions across the nerve cell
membrane.

In the resting state the nerve cell membrane is polarised due to differences in the concentrations
of ions across the plasma membrane.

At rest the charge on the outside is positive and inside it is negative.

The principal ions involved are:

• sodium (Na+ ), the main extracellular cation

• potassium (K+ ), the main intracellular cation.

In the resting state there is a continual tendency for these ions to diffuse along their concentration
gradients, i.e. K+ outwards and Na+ into cells.

When stimulated, the permeability of the nerve cell membrane to these ions changes. Initially
Na+ floods into the neurone from the extracellular fluid causing depolarisation, creating a nerve
impulse or action potential.

Depolarisation is very rapid, enabling the conduction of a nerve impulse along the entire length
of a neurone in a few milliseconds.

It passes from the point of stimulation in one direction only, i.e. away from the point of
stimulation towards the area of resting potential.

Almost immediately following the entry of Na+ , K+ floods out of the neurone and the
movement of these ions returns the membrane potential to its resting state.

This is called the refractory period during which restimulation is not possible.

The action of the sodium–potassium pump expels Na+ from the cell in exchange for K+
returning levels of Na+ and K+ to the original resting state hence repolarizing the neurone.

In myelinated neurones, impulses ‘leap’ or jump from one node to the next, this form of
movement of impulses is called saltatory conduction.

In unmyelinated fibres impulses move along the entire nerve fibre this form of movement of
impulses is called continuous conduction, or simple propagation.

N.B Saltatory conduction is faster than Continuous conduction, or Simple propagation.

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THE SYNAPSE AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS

There is always more than one neurone involved in the transmission of a nerve impulse from its
origin to its destination, whether it is sensory or motor.

There is no physical contact between two neurones.

The point at which the nerve impulse passes from the presynaptic neurone to the postsynaptic
neurone is called the synapse.

At its free end, the axon of the presynaptic neurone breaks up into minute branches that
terminate in small swellings called synaptic knobs, or terminal boutons.

These are in close proximity to the dendrites and the cell body of the postsynaptic neurone. The
space between them is called synaptic cleft.

Synaptic knobs contain spherical membrane bound called synaptic vesicles, which store a
chemical known as neurotransmitter that is released into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters
are synthesised by nerve cell bodies, actively transported along the axons and stored in the
synaptic vesicles.

They are released by exocytosis in response to the action potential and diffuse across the
synaptic cleft.

They act on specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane. Their action is short lived,
because immediately they have acted on the postsynaptic cell such as a muscle fibre, they are
either inactivated by enzymes or taken back into the synaptic knob.

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There are more than 50 neurotransmitters in the brain and spinal cord including noradrenaline
(norepinephrine), adrenaline (epinephrine), dopamine, histamine, serotonin, gamma
aminobutyric acid (GABA) and acetylcholine.

NERVES

A nerve consists of numerous neurones collected into bundles .

(bundles of nerve fibres in the central nervous system are known as tracts).

For example large nerves such as the sciatic nerves contain tens of thousands of axons.

Each bundle has several coverings of protective connective tissue

• endoneurium is a delicate tissue, surrounding each individual fibre.

• perineurium is a smooth connective tissue, surrounding each bundle of fibres

• epineurium is the fibrous tissue which surrounds and encloses a number of bundles of nerve
fibr

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 es.

TYPES OF NERVES.

1) Sensory or Afferent nerves.

Sensory nerves carry information from the body to the spinal cord. The impulses may then pass
to the brain or to connector neurones of reflex arcs in the spinal cord.

2) Motor or Efferent nerves

Motor nerves originate in the brain, spinal cord and autonomic ganglia. They transmit impulses
to the effector organs: i.e muscles and gland.

3) Mixed nerves

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In the spinal cord, sensory and motor nerves are arranged in separate groups, or tracts. Outside
the spinal cord, when sensory and motor nerves are enclosed within the same sheath of
connective tissue they are called mixed nerves.

NEUROGLIA

The neurones of the CNS and PNS are supported by non-excitable glial cells that greatly
outnumber the neurones.

Their name was derived from the idea of an early histologist who called them the glue that held

the nervous tissue together.

They do not generate and transmit action potentials.

Unlike nerve cells, which cannot divide, glial cells continue to replicate throughout life.

There are six types of neurogalia:

Four are found in the CNS e.g astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells and microglia.

Two are found in the PNS e.g schwan cells and satellite cells.

Astrocytes

These cells form the main supporting tissue of the central nervous system . They are star shaped
located between neurons lining adjacent to blood vessels.

They form the blood brain barrier.

Oligodendrocytes

Are smaller than astrocytes fooound in clusters around nerve cell bodies, they provide structural
support, form and maintain myelin sheath.

Ependymal cells

Theyline the ventricals of the brain and secret CSF.

Microglia.

Are the smallest and least numerous, they migrate from blood to the NS before birth and become
phagocytic, they remove microbes and damaged tissue in areas of inflammation and cell
destruction.

Schwann cells

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These cells encircle PNS axons like oligodendrocytes, they form myelin sheath around axons.

Satellite cells

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

These essential structures are both well protected from damage and injury; the brain is enclosed
within the skull and the spinal cord by the vertebrae that form the spinal column. Membranous
coverings known as the meninges provide further protection.

THE MENINGES .

The brain and spinal cord are completely surrounded by three layers of tissue called the
meninges, lying between the skull and the brain, and between the vertebral foramina and the
spinal cord.

Named from outside inwards they are the:

• dura mater

• arachnoid mater

• pia mater.

The dura and arachnoid maters are separated by a potential space, the subdural space.

The arachnoid and pia maters are separated by the subarachnoid space, containing
cerebrospinal fluid.

DURA MATER

The cerebral dura mater consists of two layers of dense fibrous tissue.

The outer layer takes the place of the periosteum on the inner surface of the skull bones and the
inner layer provides a protective covering for the brain.

There is only a potential space between the two layers except where the inner layer sweeps
inwards between the cerebral hemispheres to form the falx cerebri; between the cerebellar
hemispheres to form the falx cerebelli; and between the cerebrum and cerebellum to form the
tentorium cerebelli.

Venous blood from the brain drains into venous sinuses between the two layers of dura mater i.e
the superior sagittal sinus and transverse sinuses.

ARACHNOID MATER.

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This is a layer of fibrous tissue that lies between the dura and pia maters.

It is separated from the dura mater by the subdural space that contains a small amount of
serous fluid, and from the pia mater by the subarachnoid space, which contains cerebrospinal
fluid.

Pia mater

This is the innermost layer it adheres to the brain, completely covering it.

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VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN AND THE CEREBROSPINAL FLUID.

The brain contains four irregular-shaped cavities, or ventricles, containing cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).

They are:

1) The right lateral ventricles.

2) The left lateral ventricles
3) third ventricle
4) fourth ventricle.

The lateral ventricles

These cavities lie within the cerebral hemispheres, one on each side of the median plane just
below the corpus callosum.

They are separated from each other by a thin membrane called the septum lucidum.

They communicate with the third ventricle by interventricular foramina.

The third ventricle

The third ventricle is a cavity situated below the lateral ventricles between the two parts of the
thalamus.

It communicates with the fourth ventricle by a canal called the cerebral aqueduct.

The fourth ventricle

The fourth ventricle is a diamond-shaped cavity situated below and behind the third ventricle,
between the cerebellum and pons.

It is continuous below with the central canal of the spinal cord and communicates with the
subarachnoid space by foramina in its roof.

Cerebrospinal fluid enters the subarachnoid space through these openings and through the open
distal end of the central canal of the spinal cord.

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CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)

It’s a clear fluid circulating with in the sub arachnoid space around the brain and the spinal cord.

CSF is a clear, slightly alkaline fluid with a specific gravity of 1.005 consisting of;

➢ Water
➢ Mineral salts
➢ Glucose
➢ Plasma proteins (aaaaalbumin and globulin)
➢ Few leucocytes
➢ Cretinine and
➢ Urea.

Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted into each ventricle of the brain by choroid plexuses.

These are vascular areas rich with blood vessels surrounded by ependymal cells in the lining
of ventricle walls.

CSF passes back into the blood through arachnoid villi (arachnoid granulations), which
project into the venous sinuses.

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 The movement of CSF from the subarachnoid space to venous sinuses depends upon the
difference in pressure on each side of the walls of the arachnoid villi, which act as one-way
valves.

When CSF pressure is higher than venous pressure, CSF is pushed into the blood and when
the venous pressure is higher the arachnoid villi collapse, preventing the passage of blood
constituents into the CSF.

There may also be some reabsorption of CSF by cells in the walls of the ventricles.

From the roof of the fourth ventricle CSF flows through foramina into the subarachnoid
space and completely surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

There is no intrinsic system of CSF circulation but its movement is aided by pulsating blood
vessels, respiration and changes of posture.

CSF is secreted continuously at a rate of about 0.5 mL per minute, i.e. 720 mL per day.

FUNCTIONS OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

1) CSF supports and protects the brain and spinal cord by maintaining a uniform pressure
around these vital structures and acting as a cushion or shock absorber between the brain
and the skull.
2) It keeps the brain and spinal cord moist.
3) It aids in exchange of nutrients between CSF and the interstitial fluid of the brain.
4) It aids in exchange of waste products between CSF and the interstitial fluid of the brain
5) CSF is thought to be involved in regulation of breathing as it bathes the surface of the
medulla where the central respiratory chemoreceptors are located

THEBRAIN

The brain is a large organ weighing around 1.4 kg that lies within the cranial cavity.

Its parts are:

• cerebrum

(• thalamus • hypothalamus ){ the diencephalon }

(• midbrain • pons • medulla oblongata) { the brain stem}

• cerebellum

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BLOOD SUPPLY AND VENOUS DRAINAGE

The circulus arteriosus and its contributing arteries play a vital role in maintaining a constant
supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain.

The brain receives about 15% of the cardiac output, approximately 750 mL of blood per minute.

Venous blood from the brain drains into the dural venous sinuses and then downwards into the
internal jugular veins.

CEREBRUM

This is the largest part of the brain and it occupies the anterior and middle cranial fossa.

It is divided by a deep cleft called the longitudinal cerebral fissure, into right and left cerebral
hemispheres, each containing one of the lateral ventricles.

Deep within the brain, the hemispheres are connected by a mass of white matter (nerve fibres)
called the corpus callosum.

The falx cerebri is formed by the dura mater.

It separates the two cerebral hemispheres and penetrates to the depth of the corpus callosum.

The superficial part of the cerebrum is composed of nerve cell bodies (grey matter), forming the
cerebral cortex, and the deeper layers consist of nerve fibres (axons, white matter).

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The cerebral cortex shows many infoldings or furrows of varying depth. The exposed areas of
the folds are the gyri (convolutions) and these are separated by sulci (fissures).

These convolutions greatly increase the surface area of the cerebrum.

For descriptive purposes each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into lobes which take the
names of the bones of the cranium under which they lie:

• frontal lobe

• parietal lobe

• temporal lobe

• occipital lobe.

Lode of the cerebrum and their functions.

1. Frontal lobe;
Behaviour, emotions, personality, judgement, planning, problem solving,
speaking,writing, body movement, concentration and self awareness.
2. Parietal lobe.
Interprets language/ words.
Sense of touch, pain, temperature and taste.
Visual perception.
3. Occipital lobe.
Interprets colour, light, movement.
4. Temporal lobe.
Understanding language.
Memory
Hearing
Sequencing and organising.
NB. The two hemispheres of the cerebrum receive information from the opposite side of
the body.
Diencephalon.
This connects the cerebrum and the midbrain.
It consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus, the pineal gland and the optic chiasma
are situated there.
Thalamus.
This consists of two masses of grey and white matter situated within the cerebral
hemispheres just below the corpus callosum, one on each side of the third ventricle.
Sensory receptors in the skin and viscera send information about touch, pain and

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 temperature, and input from the special sense organs travels to the thalamus where there
is recognition.
The thalamus relays and redistributes impulses from most parts of the brain to the
cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a small but important structure which weighs around 7 g and
consists of a number of nuclei.
It is situated below and in front of the thalamus, immediately above the pituitary gland.
The hypothalamus is linked to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland by nerve fibres and
to the anterior lobe by a complex system of blood vessels.
Through these connections, the hypothalamus controls the output of hormones from both
lobes of the pituitary gland.
Other functions of the hypothalamus include control of:
• the autonomic nervous system
• appetite and satiety
• thirst and water balance
• body temperature
• emotional reactions, e.g. pleasure, fear, rage
• sexual behaviour and child rearing
• sleeping and waking cycles.
Brain stem .
This is composed ofthe midbrain, pons and medullaoblongata.
Midbrain
The midbrain is the area of the brain situated around the cerebral aqueduct between the
cerebrum above and the pons below.
It consists of nuclei and nerve fibres (tracts), which connect the cerebrum with lower
parts of the brain and with the spinal cord.
It has important roles in auditory and visual reflexes.
Pons.
The pons is situated in front of the cerebellum, below the midbrain and above the medulla
oblongata.
The pons process information fromthe 5th cranialnerve .

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 Medulla oblongata
The medulla oblongata, or simply the medulla, is the most interior region of the brain
stem.
Extending from the pons above, it is continuous with the spinal cord below.
It is about 2.5 cm long and lies just within the cranium above the foramen magnum.
The vital centres, consisting of groups of cell bodies (nuclei) associated with autonomic
reflex activity, lie in its deeper structure.
These are the:
• cardiovascular centre
• respiratory centre
• reflex centres of vomiting, coughing, sneezing and swallowing
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is situated behind the pons and immediately below the posterior portion
of the cerebrum occupying the posterior cranial fossa.
It is ovoid in shape and has two hemispheres, separated by a narrow median strip called
the vermis.
Functions
The cerebellum is concerned with the coordination of voluntary muscular movement,
posture and balance.

The spinal cord

The spinal cord is the elongated, almost cylindrical part of the central nervous system,
which is suspended in the vertebral canal surrounded by the meninges and cerebrospinal
fluid .
The spinal cord is continuous above with the medulla oblongata and extends from the
upper border of the atlas (first cervical vertebra) to the lower border of the 1st lumbar
vertebra.
It is approximately 45 cm long in adult males, and is about the thickness of the little
finger.
A specimen of cerebrospinal fluid can be taken using a procedure called lumbar puncture.
Except for the cranial nerves, the spinal cord is the nervous tissue link between the brain
and the rest of the body.
Nerves conveying impulses from the brain to the various organs and tissues descend
through the spinal cord.
At the appropriate level they leave the cord and pass to the structure they supply.
Meninges.
The three meninges thatcover the brain alsocoverthe spinalcord

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 The duramatter,its the most superficial meninge. Thereis aspace that separates the dura
matter and walls of the vertebral canal called epidural space and consists of fats which
cushion the spinalcord.
The arachnoid mater in the spinalcord is the continuation of arachnoid mater of the brain ,
thrduramater is separated from arachnoid mater by the space filled with serous fluid.
The piamatter is the innermost meninge and adheres to the spinal cord. It is separated
from arachnoid matter by the subarachnoid space filled with CSF.
N.B Alumber puncture is performed between between L3 and L4 or L4 and L5 because
the regions provide safe acess to the subarachnoid space with out the risk of damaging
the spinal cord.

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By Joseph 0782996295 Page 41
 SPINAL NERVES.
Thirty one pairs ofspinal nervesleave the spinal cord passing through the intervertebral
foramina.
They are named and grouped according the vertebrae with which they are associated.
8pairs fo cervical nerves.
12 pairs of thoracic vertebrae.
5 pairs of lumber vertebrae.
5 pairss of sacral vertebrae.
1 pair of coccygeal vertebrae.

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 Because the spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral column, nerves that arise from the
lumber, sacral and coccygeal regions, donot leave the vertebral column atthe same level
they exit the the spinal cord,
The roots of these nerves angle inferioly in the verrrtebral canal from the end of the
spinal cord extending down wards forming a group of nerves thatresemble a horse,s tail
called Cauda equinqa.

REFLEXES OR REFLEX ACTION.

Areflex action isarapid involuntary motor response of an organ or body part to stimuli.
A reflex arc is a pathway followed by a nerve impulse that produces a reflex action.
Some reflex actions are inborn eg pulling the hand away from a hot surface before you
feel its hot, yawning, breathin,blicking of the eye, etc.
Otherreflex are learned or acquired eg you learn many reflexes while acquiring driving
skills like steping on the breaks immediatelyin an emergency, balancing on a bicycle, etc.
Nerve impulses are conducted into, through and out of the CNS following a specific
pathway depending onthe kind of information.
The pathway followed by a nerve impulse is called reflex arc.
A reflex arc includes the following functional components.
1. Sensory receptor.these respond tostimuli and generate action potentials.
2. Sensory neurone, the actionpotentialpropagates from sensory receptors along sensory
neurone to the spinal cord or the brain.
3. Intergrating centers, one or more regions within the CNS act as intergrating centers.
More oftenly intergrating centers consist of one or more interneurons which relay
impulses to eithr other interneurons or to motor neurons.
4. Motor neurons. Impulses triggered by the intergrating centers are conducted out of
the CNS along a motor neuron to the part of the body that will respond.
5. Effector. The part of the body that respond to the motor nerve impulse e.g
muscles or glands, is the efector.
If the effector is a skeletal muscle, the reflex is somatic reflex, if the effector is a
smoothmuscle , cardiac muscle or a gland the reflex is an autonomic OR visceral
reflex.

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 ADIAGRAM SHOWING A REFLEXARC.

EXAMPLEOF A REFLEX ACTION.

ASSIGNMENT FORGROUP TEN.

Describe the events that occure when a man touches a hot object.

Cranial nerves.

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves originating from nuclei in the inferior surface of the brain,
some sensory, some motor and some mixed.

Their names suggest their distribution or function.

They are numbered using Roman numerals according to the order they connect to the brain,
starting anteriorly.

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They are:

I. Olfactory.
II. II. Optic.
III. III. Oculomotor.
IV. IV. Trochlear.
V. Trigeminal.
VI. VI. Abducens.
VII. VII. Facial.
VIII. VIII. Vestibulocochlear (auditory).
IX. IX. Glossopharyngeal.
X. X. Vagus.
XI. XI. Accessory.
XII. XII. Hypoglossal.

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THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM.
The endocrine system is a system composed of various glands and organs that secret hormones
located in various parts of the body.

Different glands and organs that secret hormones are shown in the diagram below.

Glands : these are groups of epithelial cells that produce specialised secretions.

There are two types of glands i.e,

Endocrine glands (ductless glands).

These are ductless glands that discharge their secretions directly into the blood stream and
lymph.

They secret hormones e.g. FSH, LH, Testosterone, Oestrogen,thyroxin etc.

Hormones these are chemical messengers secreted from endocrine glands that alter the
physiological activity of target cells in the body.

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Some of the endocrine glands include pituitary gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads etc.

Exocrine glands these are glands that have ducts through which secretions ore transported to
target organs.

They secret enzymes important in speeding up chemical reactions.

Some exocrine glands and their secretions are:

Salivary glands secret saliva.

Pancreas secrets pancreatic juice containing pancreatic enzymes like lipase, amylase, trypsin.

N.B The pancreas is both an endocrine gland and exocrine gland because it secrets both
enzymes and hormones.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXOCRINE AND ENDOCRINE GLANDS.

Endocrine glands Exocrine glands

Have no ducts hence ductless glands. Have many ducts
Secret substances called hormones Secret substances called enzymes.
Transport their secretions directly into the Transport their secretions through ducts.
blood stream.
They control long term activity of target organ They control short term activity.
They include thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, etc They include salivary glands, gastric glands,
sweat glands etc.
Their functions include metabolism, grouth, Functions include digestion, regulating body
developmet, water and electrolyte balance. temperature, etc.

THE PITUITARY GLAND AND HYPOTHALAMUS.

The pituitary gland also known as hypophysis is the master gland because it secrets hormones
that control other endocrine glands

The pituitary gland lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus
to which it is attached by a stalk called infundibulum.

It is an oval or pea sized gland weighing about 500mg and consists of two main parts i.e. anterior
lobe (anterior pituitary) and posterior lobe (posterior pituitary)

The anterior pituitary also known as the adenohypophysis accounts for about 75% of the total
weight of the gland.

The anterior pituitary consists of two parts in an adult i.e the pars distalis is the larger portion and
the pars tuberalis forms a sheath around the infundibulum.

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The posterior pituitary also known as the neurohypophysis, also consists of two parts i.e the pars
nervosa, the larger bulbar portion and the infundibulum.

Hormones secreted by anterior lobe.

1. Growth hormone
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
3. Adenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
4. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
5. Luteinising hormone
6. Prolactin hormone.
7. Melanocyte stimulating hormone.

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The posterior lobe secrets.

1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) and

2. Oxytocin

Growth hormone (GH).

➢ This is the most abundant hormone synthesised by the anterior pituitary.

➢ It stimulates growth and division of most body cells but especially those in the bones and
skeletal muscles.
➢ Body growth in response to the secretion of GH is evident during childhood and
adolescence, and thereafter secretion of GH maintains the mass of bones and skeletal
muscles.
➢ It also regulates aspects of metabolism in many organs, e.g. liver, intestines and pancreas;
stimulates protein synthesis, promotes tissue growth and repair; promotes breakdown of
fats and increases blood glucose levels.
➢ Its release is stimulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and suppressed
by growth hormone release inhibiting hormone (GHRIH), also known as somatostatin,
both of which are secreted by the hypothalamus.
➢ Secretion of GH is greater at night during sleep and is also stimulated by hypoglycaemia
(low blood sugar), exercise and anxiety.
➢ Secretion peaks in adolescence and then declines with age.
➢ GH secretion is controlled by a negative feedback system; it is inhibited when the blood
level rises and also when GHRIH is released by the hypothalamus.

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).

• The release of this hormone is stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) from
the hypothalamus.
• It stimulates growth and activity of the thyroid gland, which secretes the hormones
thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3).
• Release is lowest in the early evening and highest during the night.
• Secretion is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism, i.e. when the blood level of
thyroid hormones is high, secretion of TSH is reduced, and viceversa.

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Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH, corticotrophin).

Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus promotes the synthesis and
release of ACTH by the anterior pituitary.

This increases the concentration of cholesterol and steroids within the adrenal cortex and the
output of steroid hormones, especially cortisol.

Secretion is also regulated by a negative feedback mechanism, being suppressed when the blood
level of ACTH rises.

Other factors that stimulate secretion include hypoglycaemia, exercise and other stressors e.g.
emotional states and fear.

Prolactin.

✓ This hormone is secreted during pregnancy to prepare the breasts for lactation (milk
production) after childbirth.
✓ The blood level of prolactin is stimulated by prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) released
from the hypothalamus and it is lowered by prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH,
dopamine) and by an increased blood level of prolactin. Immediately after birth, suckling
stimulates prolactin secretion and lactation.

Gonadotrophins(LH, FSH)

Just before puberty two gonadotrophins (sex hormones) are secreted in gradually increasing
amounts by the anterior pituitary in response to luteinising hormone releasing hormone (LHRH),
also known as gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH).

Rising levels of these hormones at puberty promotes mature functioning of the reproductive
organs.

In both males and females the hormones responsible are:

• follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and

• luteinising hormone (LH).

In both sexes, FSH stimulates production of gametes (ova or spermatozoa) by the gonads.

In females, LH and FSH are involved in secretion of the hormones oestrogen and progesterone
during the menstrual cycle.

As the levels of oestrogen and progesterone rise, secretion of LH and FSH is suppressed.

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In males, LH, also called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) stimulates the interstitial
cells of the testes to secrete the hormone testosterone.

Oxytocin.

❖ Oxytocin stimulates two target tissues during and after childbirth (parturition): uterine
smooth muscle and the muscle cells of the lactating breast.
❖ During childbirth increasing amounts of oxytocin are released from the posterior pituitary
into the bloodstream in response to increasing stimulation of sensory stretch receptors in
the uterine cervix as the baby’s head progressively dilates it.
❖ Sensory impulses are generated and travel to the control centre in the hypothalamus,
stimulating the posterior pituitary to release more oxytocin.
❖ In turn this stimulates more forceful uterine contractions and greater stretching of the
uterine cervix as the baby’s head is forced further downwards.
❖ This is an example of a positive feedback mechanism which stops soon after the baby is
delivered when distension of the uterine cervix is greatly reduced.
❖ The process of milk ejection also involves a positive feedback mechanism. Suckling
generates sensory impulses that are transmitted from the breast to the hypothalamus. The
impulses trigger release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. On reaching the
lactating breast, oxytocin stimulates contraction of the milk ducts ejecting milk.
❖ Suckling also inhibits the release of prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH), prolonging
prolactin secretion and lactation.
❖ Oxytocin levels rise during sexual arousal in both males and females. This increases
smooth muscle contraction which is associated with glandular secretion and ejaculation
in males.
❖ In females, contraction of smooth muscle in the vagina and uterus promotes movement of
sperm towards the uterine tubes.
❖ It is believed that the smell of oxytocin may be involved in social recognition and
bonding (between mother and newborn baby).

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin)

• The main effect of antidiuretic hormone is to reduce urine output (diuresis is the
production of a large volume of urine).
• ADH acts on the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the nephrons of the
kidneys . It increases their permeability to water and more of the glomerular filtrate is
reabsorbed.
• ADH secretion is determined by the osmotic pressure of the blood circulating to the
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
• As osmotic pressure rises, for example as a result of dehydration, secretion of ADH
increases. More water is therefore reabsorbed and the urine output is reduced.

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 • This means that the body retains more water and the rise in osmotic pressure is reversed.
Conversely, when the osmotic pressure of the blood is low, for example after a large
fluid intake, secretion of ADH is reduced, less water is reabsorbed and more urine is
produced.

Melanocyte stimulating hormone.

Thyroid gland

➢ The thyroid gland is situated in the neck in front of the larynx and trachea at the
level of the 5th, 6th and 7th cervical and 1st thoracic vertebrae.
➢ It is a highly vascular gland that weighs about 25 g and is surrounded by a fibrous
capsule.
➢ It resembles a butterfly in shape, consisting of two lobes, one on either side of the
thyroid cartilage .
➢ The lobes are joined by a narrow isthmus, lying in front of the trachea.
➢ The lobes are roughly cone shaped, about 5 cm long and 3 cm wide.
➢ The gland is composed of largely spherical follicles formed from cuboidal
epithelium These secrete and store colloid, a thick sticky protein material.
Between the follicles are other cells found singly or in small groups called
parafollicular cells, (C-cells) which secrete the hormone calcitonin.
➢ The arterial blood supply to the gland is through the superior and inferior thyroid
arteries. The superior thyroid artery is a branch of the external carotid artery and
the inferior thyroid artery is a branch of the subclavian artery.
➢ The venous return is by the thyroid veins, which drain into the internal jugular
veins.

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 Thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine.
➢ Iodine is essential for the formation of the thyroid hormones i.e thyroxine (T4)
and tri-iodothyronine (T3), so numbered as these molecules contain four and
three atoms of the element iodine respectively.
➢ The thyroid gland selectively takes up iodine from the blood, a process called
iodine trapping.
➢ Thyroid hormones are synthesised as large precursor molecules called
thyroglobulin, the major constituent of colloid.
➢ The release of T3 and T4 into the blood is stimulated by thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary.

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 ➢ Secretion of TSH is stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) from
the hypothalamus and secretion of TRH is stimulated by exercise, stress,
malnutrition, low plasma glucose levels and sleep.
➢ TSH secretion depends on the plasma levels of T3 and T4 because it is these
hormones that control the sensitivity of the anterior pituitary to TRH.
➢ Through the negative feedback mechanism, increased levels of T3 and T4
decrease TSH secretion and vice versa.
➢ Dietary iodine deficiency greatly increases TSH secretion causing proliferation
of thyroid gland cells and enlargement of the gland leading to a condition called
goitre.
• Thyroid hormones enter the cell nucleus and they increase or decrease
protein synthesis.
• They enhance the effects of other hormones, e.g. adrenaline
(epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
• T3 and T4 affect most cells of the body by: • increasing the basal
metabolic rate and heat production.
• regulating metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
• T3 and T4 are essential for normal growth and develop.

Calcitonin .

This hormone is secreted by the parafollicular or C-cells in the thyroid gland.

Calcitonin lowers raised blood calcium (Ca2+) levels.

It does this by acting on:

• bone cells promoting their storage of calcium.

• kidney tubules inhibiting the reabsorption of calcium.

Release of calcitonin is stimulated by increased blood calcium levels.

Parathyroid glands.

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There are four small parathyroid glands, each weighing around 50 g, two embedded in the
posterior surface of each lobe of the thyroid gland.

Function.

These glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH, parathormone).

Secretion is regulated by blood calcium levels.When they fall, secretion of PTH is increased and
vice versa.

The main function of PTH is to increase blood calcium levels. This is achieved by increasing the
calcium absorption from the small intestine and reabsorption from the renal tubules.

If these sources provide inadequate supplies then PTH stimulates osteoclasts (bone-destroying
cells) and calcium is released from bones into the blood.

Adrenal glands.

The two adrenal (suprarenal) glands are situated on the upper pole of each kidney enclosed
within the renal fascia.

The glands are composed of two parts which have different structures and functions.

The outer part is the cortex and the inner part the medulla.

The adrenal cortex is essential to life but the medulla is not.

Adrenal cortex .

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The adrenal cortex produces three groups of steroid hormones from cholesterol. They are
collectively called adrenocorticocoids (corticosteroids).

The groups are:

• glucocorticoids.

• mineralocorticoids.

• sex hormones (androgens).

Glucocorticoids.

Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is the main glucocorticoid but small amounts of corticosterone and
cortisone are also produced.

Commonly these are collectively known as ‘steroids’; they are essential for life, regulating
metabolism and responses to stress.

Secretion is controlled through a negative feedback system involving the hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary. It is stimulated by ACTH from the anterior pituitary and by stress.

Functions of glucocorticoids.

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Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone).

Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid.

It is involved in maintaining water and electrolyte balance.

Through a negative feedback system it stimulates the reabsorption of sodium (Na+) by the renal
tubules and excretion of potassium (K+) in the urine.

Sodium reabsorption is also accompanied by retention of water and therefore aldosterone is

involved in the regulation of blood volume and blood pressure too.

Blood potassium levels regulate aldosterone secretion by the adrenal cortex. When blood
potassium levels rise, more aldosterone is secreted. Low blood potassium has the opposite effect.

Angiotensin (see below) also stimulates the release of aldosterone.

Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.

When renal blood flow is reduced or blood sodium levels fall, the enzyme renin is secreted by
kidney cells found in the afferent arteriole (juxtaglomerular cells).

Renin converts the plasma protein angiotensinogen, produced by the liver, to angiotensin 1.
Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), formed in small quantities in the lungs, proximal kidney
tubules, converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2, which stimulates secretion of aldosterone.

Angiotensin 2 causes vasoconstriction and increases blood pressure .

Sex hormones.

Sex hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are mainly androgens (male sex hormones)
although the amounts produced are insignificant compared with those secreted by the testes and
ovaries in late puberty and adulthood.

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Adrenal medulla

➢ The medulla is completely surrounded by the adrenal cortex.

➢ It develops from nervous tissue in the embryo and is part of the sympathetic nervous
system. When stimulated by extensive sympathetic nerve supply, the glands release the
hormones adrenaline (epinephrine, 80%) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine, 20%).
➢ Adrenaline has a greater effect on the heart and metabolic processes whereas
noradrenaline has more influence on blood vessel diameter.
➢ Together they potentiate the fight or flight response by:

• increasing heart rate

• increasing blood pressure

• diverting blood to essential organs, including the heart, brain and skeletal muscles, by dilating
their blood vessels and constricting those of less essentialorgans, such as the skin

• increasing metabolic rate.

• dilating the pupils.

Pancreatic islets

The pancrease is both an endocrine gland and exocrine gland.

The pancreas consists of clusters of cells, known as the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans),
scattered throughout the gland.

There are three main types of cells in the pancreatic islets are:

• α (alpha) cells, which secrete glucagon

• β (beta) cells, which are the most numerous, secrete insulin

• δ (delta) cells, which secrete somatostatin (GHRIH)

The normal blood glucose level is between 3.5 and 8 mmol/litre (63 to 144 mg/100 mL). Blood
glucose levels are controlled mainly by the opposing actions of insulin and glucagon:

• glucagon increases blood glucose levels

• insulin reduces blood glucose levels.

When nutrients, especially glucose, are in excess of immediate needs insulin promotes their
storage by:

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• acting on cell membranes and stimulating uptake and use of glucose by muscle and connective
tissue cells

• increasing conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis), especially in the liver and skeletal muscles

• accelerating uptake of amino acids by cells, and the synthesis of protein

• promoting synthesis of fatty acids and storage of fat in adipose tissue (lipogenesis)

• decreasing glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose)

Glucagon.

Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by stimulating:

• conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and skeletal muscles (glycogenolysis)

• gluconeogenesis.

Somatostatin (GHRIH).

This hormone, also produced by the hypothalamus and pancrease, inhibits the secretion of both
insulin and glucagon in addition to inhibiting the secretion of GH from the anterior pituitary.

Melatonin.

This is the main hormone secreted by the pineal gland.

Secretion is controlled by daylight and darkness; levels fluctuate during each 24-hour period, the
being highest at night and the lowest around midday.

• It induces sleep.

• It inhibits the growth and development of the sex organs before puberty, possibly by preventing
synthesis or release of gonadotrophins.

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By Joseph 0782996295 Page 60
THE RESIPIRATORY SYSTEM
It is the system by which air enters into the body and expelled from the body.

It contains a group of structures that are responsible for conducting air from external
environment to internal environment.

The respiratory system begins from the nose and the mouth and continues through airways to the
lungs, where oxygen from the atmosphere is exchanged for carbondioxide from body tissues.

ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM .

These include. (Upper Respiratory tract and Lower respiratory tract)

1. The Nose and nosal cavity.

2. Pharynx.
3. Larynx.
4. Tracheaa.
5. Two bronchi.
6. Bronchioles.
7. Two lungs.
8. Muscles of breathing i.e intercostal musles and diaphragm.
9. Alveoli.

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THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

THE NOSE AND NASAL CAVITY.

The nostrils (nares) are the opening into the nose and are the main route of air entry into the
respiratory system.

Behind each nostril lies a large cavity , the walls of this cavity are formed by bones of the face.

The cavities are the right and left nasal cavities which are separated by the nasal septum.

The posterior part is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer.

Anteriory, it consists of the hyaline cartilage.the shape of the nose varies remarkably with sex,
race , and tribe.

The nose is composed of two main parts i.e;

1. External nose
This is made up of the hyaline cartilage ( the upper nasal cartilage and lower nasal
cartilage) and bone (frontal bone , nasal bone and maxillary bone).
2. Nasal cavity.

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 It extends from anterior nasal opening called nostrils to posterior openings called
chocxia.
It’s made up of the roof, floor medial wall and lateral wall.
The roof.
It separates the nasal cavity from the cranial cavity.
It is composed of the frontal bone, sphenoid bone and ethmoid bone.
The floor
It is formed by two palates i.e the hard palate and soft palate.
Medial wall.
This is made up of two parts i.e the bone part and cartilaginous part.
The bone part is composed of two bones i.e vomer and ethmoid bone.
The cartilaginous part forms the septum.
Lateral wall
This is made up of bones.
The conha are sites for lodgment of foreign bodies in the nose.
The paranasal sinuses are four groups of tiny cavities opening into the nasal cavity, they
are involved in speech and lighten the skull.
The nasolacrimal ducts extend from the lateral walls of the nose to the conjunctiva sacs
of the eye, they drain tears from the eyes.
STRUCTURE OF THE NASAL CAVITY.

NERVE SUPPLY TO THE NOSE.

1. Olfactory nerve (sense of smell)

2. Maxillary nerve is for general sense of temperature, pain and touch.

BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE NOSE.

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 Maxillary artery and facial artery.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NOSE.

1. Smell (sense of smell) due to presence of olfactory nerve.
2. Warming of air, high vascularity of the mucosa permits rapid warming of air as it
flows through.
3. Filtering and cleaning of air, hair at the anterior nares traps small and large
particles like dust and bacteria which settle and adhere to the mucosa.
4. Humidification of air, as air travels over the moist mucosa, it becomes saturated
with water vapor.
5. Speech.

PHARYNX.

The pharynx (throat) is the passage way about 12-14 cm long, extending from the skull to the
level of the 6th cervical vertebra.

It lies behind the mouth, nose and the larynx where it becomes the oesophagus.

STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE PHARYNX.

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Superiory – the inferior surface of the base of the skull.

Inferiory – it is continuous with the oesophagus.

Anteriorly – the wall is incomplete because of the openings into the nose, mouthand larynx.

Posteriory – areolar tissue, involuntary muscles and the bodies of the first cervical vertebrae.

For descriptive purposes the pharynx is divided into three parts, i.e naso pharynx, oro pharynx
and laryngo pharynx.

Oral pharynx

This lies behind the mouth extending from the level of the soft palate to the upper part of the
level of the 3rd cervical vertebra.

They contain palatin tonsils.

During swallowing the soft palate and uvula are pushed up wards, sealing off the nasal cavity
and preventing the entry of food and fluids.

Naso pharynx.

These lie behind the nose above the level of the soft palate.

On the lateral walls of the naso pharynx are two openings of the auditory tubes one leading to
each middle ear.

On posterior walls there are pharyngeal tonsils. ( adenoids).

Laryngo pharynx.

The laryngo pharynx extends from the oropharynx above and continues as the oesophagus below
with the larynx lying anteriory.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PHARYNX.

1. Passage way for air and food. The pharynx is involved in both the respiratory and
digestive systems.
2. Warming of air.
3. Humidifying of air.
4. Hearing, the auditory tube extending from the naso pharynx to each middle ear, allows air
to enter the middle ear, this leads to air in the middle ear being at the same pressure as the

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 outer ear, protecting the tympanic membrane (ear drum) from any changes in
atmospheric pressure.
5. Protection, pharyngeal and laryngeal tonsils produce antibodies in response to swallowed
or inhaled antigens.
6. Speech, by acting as a resonating chamber for sound ascending from the larynx, it helps
(together with sinuses) to give the voice its individuals characteristics.
7. Taste of food by olfactory nerve in the roof of the epithelium.

LARYNX.

This is also called ‘’voice box’’.

It extends from the root of the tongue and hyoid bone to the trachea.

Before puberty there is no difference in larynx between sexes, after puberty it grows larger in
males which explain the prominence of the Adam’s apple and general deep voice.

It’s composed of several irregular cartilages which are attached to each other by ligaments and
muscles. The cartilages are.

Thyroid cartilage]
Cricoid cartilage] hyaline cartilage.
Arytenoid cartilage]
Epiglottis] elastic fibro cartilage.

Several ligaments attach the cartilage to each other and to the hyoid bone.

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Thyroid cartilage.

This is the most prominent laryngeal cartilage and consists of two hyaline cartilages fused
anteriorly to form the Adam’s apple.

It’s the largest of the three hyaline cartilages.

Cricoid cartilage.

This lies below the thyroid cartilage and is composed of the hyaline cartilage.

It is shaped like a signet ring and it completely encircles the larynx.

It is lined by ciliated epithelium.

It is lower and marks the end of the lower respiratory tract.

Arytenoid cartilage.

This has two pyramid shaped cartilages.

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They are located at the posterior surfaces of the larynx

They are lined by ciliated epithelium.

Epiglottis.

It is a leaf shaped cartilage attached to the inner surface of the anterior wall of the thyroid
cartilage. It is covered by stratified epithelium.

It acts as alid (cover) to the larynx in that it closes off the larynx during swallowing and protects
the lungs from accidental inhalation of foreign bodies or objects.

FUNCTIONS OF LARYNX.

1. Production of sound. Sound has the properties of pith, volume and resonance.
2. Speech, this is produced when the sound produced by the vocal cords are amplified and
manipulated by the tongue, checks and lips.
3. Protection of the lower respiratory tract, the epiglottis closes the larynx ensuring that food
passes into the esophagus and not into the trachea.
4. Passage way for air.
5. Humidifying air
6. Filtering air
7. Warming air
TRACHEA (WIND PIPE)

The trachea or wind pipe is a continuation of the larynx and extends down wards to about the
level of the 5th thoracic vertebra where it divides at the carina into the right and left primary
bronchi.

The carina is rich in sensory nerve endings, and inhaled partials, irritant gases or physical contact
e.g. with endotracheal tube, triggers a powerful and protective cough reflex.

The trachea is approximately 10-11 cm long and lies mainly in the median plane in front of the
esophagus.

STRUCTURE OF THE TRACHEA.

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By Joseph 0782996295 Page 69
STRUCURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE TRACHEA.

Superiorly- the larynx.

Inferiory- the right and left primary bronchi.

Anteriorly – upper part, the isthmus of the thyroid gland.

-Lower part, the arch of the aorta and the sternum.

Posterory – the oesophagus, which separates the trachea from the vertebral column.

Laterlly- the lugs and the lobes of the thyroid gland.

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STRUCTURE OF TRACHEA

The trachea is held open by between 16 to 20 incomplete (C-shaped) rings of hyaline cartilage
one above the other.

The rings are incomplete posteriorly, where the trachea lies against the oesophagus, this allows
the oesophagus to expand to accomodate the bolus of

food during swallowing.

The cartilages of the trachea are lined by three layers of tissue, i.e.

The outer layer contains fibrous and elastic tissues enclosing the cartilages.

The middle layer consists of cartilages lined by smooth muscles arranged in a helical way.

The free ends of the incomplete cartilages are connected by the trachealis of the incomplete
cartilages connected by the trachealis muscle , which allow limited adjustments of the tracheal
diametet.

The inner layer consists of ciliated columnar epithelium, containing mucus- screting gblet cells.

FUNCTIONS OF THE TRACHEA.

1. It transports air to and from the lungs when a person breathes.

2. Goblet cells in the inner layer secretmucus which prevent micro organisms and debrises
from entering the lungs.
3. The trachea is lined with tiny hair-like structures called cilia, these help o push mucus tht
contain debris or patogens out of the trachea, a person then either swallows or spits out
the mucus, hence defending the body against infections.
4. Softtissue bands in between the cartilages allow flexibility so that the head and neck are
supported to move frrly.
5. The trachea runs parallel to the oesophagus and lies justinfront of it, the back of it is softr
to allow the oesophagus to expand when a person is swallowing.
6. Warming ofair.
7. Filtering of air.
8. Humidifying of air.
9. Cough reflex.

LUNGS.

These are two cone shaped organs lying on each side of the midline in the thoracic cavity.

Each lung has an apex, a base, a costal surface and a medial surface.

Each lung has a concave and roughly triangular shaped area called hilum..

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The primary bronchus, the pulmonary artery supplying the lung and the two pulmonary veins
draining it, the bronchial artery and vein to gether wih lymph vessels and nerves enter and leave
the lung at the hilum.

The mediastinum contains the heart, great blood vessels, trachea, right and left bronchi,
oesophagus, lymph nodes, lymph vessels and nerves.

The right lung is divided into three lobes i.e;

1. Superior lobe.
2. Middle lobe.
3. Inferior lobe.
The left lung is smaller because the heart occupies space left of the midline.
It is divided into two lobes i.e.
1. Superior lobe.
2. Inferior lobe.
The divisions between lobes are called fissures.

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PLEURA AND PLEURAL CAVITY.

The pleura consists of a closed sac of serous membrane one on each lung, which contains a small
amount of serous fluid called pleural fluid.

Serous membranes are;

Visceral pleura, this adheres to the lung, covering each lobe and passing into through the
fissures that separate them. It folds back on its self in the region of the hilum to form the parietal
pleura.

Parietal pleura, this adheres to the inside of the chest wall and the upper surface of the
diaphragm.

PLEURAL CAVITY.

This is the space formed by two layers of serous membranes around lungs, it contains no air. It
contains an average of 7-10 mls of pleural fluid, which lubricates lung movement during
breathing.

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PULMONARY BLLOOD SUPPLY TO THE LUNGS.

➢ The pulmonary trunk divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries, carrying
deoxygenated blood to each lung.
➢ Within the lungs each pulmonary artery divides into many branches, which form dense
capillary network around the alveoli.
➢ The walls of the alveoli and capillaries each consists of only one layer of flattened
epithelial cells on a thin basement membrane.
➢ The exchange of gases between air in the alveoli and blood in the capillaries takes place
➢ Across these two very fine membranes.
➢ The pulmonary capillaries merge into a network of pulmonary venules, which in turn
form two pulmonary veins carrying oxygenated blood from each lung back to the left
atrium of the heart

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.

BRONCHI AND BRONCHIOLES.

Two primary bronchi are formed when the trachea divides at the point called carina.

RIGHT BRONCHUS.

This is wider, shorter and more vertical than the left bronchus and istherefore more likely to
become obstructed by an inhaled foreign body.

It is approximately 2.5 cm long.

After entering the right lung at the hilum, it divides into three branches, one into each lobe.

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Each branch then subdivides into numerous smaller branches called bronchioles.

LEFT BRONCHUS.

This is about 5cm long and is narrower than the right.

After entering the lung at the hilum, it divides into two branches one into each lobe.

Each branch then subdivides into smaller branches called………………………………

ALVEOLI (AIR SACS).

Are terminal sac like structures which exchange gases with capillaries in the lungs.

There are around 150million alveoli in an adult lung.

Within the walls of simple squamous cells lining the alveoli, there are septal cells that secrete
surfactant, a phospholipid fluid that stops the alveoli from drying out and reduces surface
tension, preventing alveolar collapse during expiration.

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FUNCTION

External respiration.

RESPIRATION.

The term respiration means the exchange of gases between body cells and the environment.

It involves two main processes i.e.

1. Breathing (pulmonary ventilation). This is the movement of air into and out
of the lungs.
2. Exchange of gases
This takes place:

In the lungs: external respiration

In the tissue: internal respiration.

MUSCLES OF BREATHING.

Intercostalmusle: are 11 pairs of muscles occupying the spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs.
They are of two types which include.

External intercostal muscles, which run from the lower edge of ribs above forward to the upper
edge of the rib below.

Internal intercostal muscles. Which run from lower edge of the rib above then backwards to
upper edge of ribs below.

Note: The main muscles used during quiet breathing are the external intercostal muscles and
the diaphragm.

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Diaphragm : This is a dome shaped muscular structure separating the thoracic and abdominal
cavities.

Accessory muscles of respiration

When extra respiratory effort is required, additional muscles are used.

Forced inspiration is assisted by the sternocleidomastoid muscles and the scalene muscles,

Forced expiration is helped by the activity of the internal intercostal muscles

and sometimes the abdominal muscles e.g.………………,……………………….,

…………………..,……………………..,which increase the pressure in the thorax by squeezing
the abdominal contents.

THE CYCLE OF BREATHING/ MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION.

The average respiratory rate is about 12 – 15 breath per minute.

Each breath consists of three phases: inspiration, expiration and pause.

INSPIRATION.

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 ➢ Simultaneous contraction of the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
➢ The thoracic cavity is pulled outwards and upwards.
➢ The thoracic cavity expands.
➢ The diaphragm flattens.
➢ This expands the lungs.
➢ The pressure within the alveoli and air passages falls.
➢ Air is drawn into the lungs in an attempt to equalize atmospheric and alveolar air
pressure.
➢ This process of inspiration is active as it needs energy for muscle contraction.
➢ The negative pressure created in the thoracic cavity aids venous return to the heart and is
known as the respiratory pump.
➢ At rest inspiration lasts about 2 seconds

EXPIRATION.

➢ Simultaneous relaxation the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.

➢ The rib cage moves downward and in ward.
➢ The thoracic cavity narrows.
➢ The diaphragm gains a dome shape.
➢ The lungs recoil.
➢ As this occurs, pressure inside the lungs rise and expels air from the respiratory tract.
➢ At the end of expiration, the lungs still contain some air, and are prevented from
complete collapse by the intact pleura.
➢ This process is passive as it does not require the expenditure of energy.
➢ At rest, expiration lasts about 3 seconds, and after expiration there is a pause before the
next cycle begins.

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EXTERNAL RESPIRATION.

Is the exchange of gases by diffusion between the alveoli and the blood in the alveolar
capillaries, across the respiratory membrane.

Commented [M1]:

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INTERNAL RESPIRATION.

Is the exchange of gasses by diffusion between blood in the capillaries and the body cells.

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Lung volumes and capacities.
In normal quiet breathing there are about 15 complete respiratory cycles per minute.

The lungs and the air passages are never empty and, as the exchange of gases takes place only
across the walls of the alveolar ducts and alveoli, the remaining capacity of the respiratory
passages is called the anatomical dead space (about
150 mL).

Tidal volume (TV). This is the amount of air passing into and out of the lungs during each cycle
of breathing (about 500 mL at rest).

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV). This is the extra volume of air that can be inhaled into the
lungs during maximal inspiration, i.e. over and above normal TV.

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Inspiratory capacity (IC). This is the amount of air that can be inspired with maximum effort. It
consists of the tidal volume (500 ml) plus the inspiratory reserve volume.

Functional residual capacity (FRC). This is the amount of air remaining in the air passages and
alveoli at the end of quiet expiration.

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV). This is the largest volume of air which can be expelled
from the lungs during maximal expiration.

Residual volume (RV). This cannot be directly measured but is the volume of air remaining in
the lungs after forced expiration.

Vital capacity (VC). This is the maximum volume of air

which can be moved into and out of the lungs:

Total lung capacity (TLC). This is the maximum amount of air the lungs can hold. In an adult
of average build, it is normally around 6 liters. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproduction is the process by which young ones are brought/ produced to life.

The ability to produce is one of the properties that distinguish living from non-living things.

It also differentiates the primitive, simpler and complex animal from each other.

The more primitive the animal is, the similar the process of reproduction.

In human beings, reproduction is a very complicated process involving two sexes i.e the male and female
organs.

These differ anatomically and physiologically to ensure satisfaction formulation.

A zygote is formed after fertilization of the ovum and spermatozoa by sexual reproduction. The zygote
embeds itself in the walls of the uterus where it grows and develops during the 40 weeks before birth.
The female reproductive system Is a series of organs primarily located inside the body and around the
pelvic region.

It is divided into 3 greoupsi.e

• External organs
• Internal organs
• Accessory organs/ secondary organs.

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 EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA)
Is collectively known as the vulva or ugly face.
It consists of several structures which include;
• The labia majora
• Labia minora
• The clitoris
• The vestibule
• The hymen

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 • The greater vestibular glands
• The mons pubis
Functions of the female reproductive system
Formation of ova/ovum
• Reception of spermatozoa
• Provision of suitable environment for fertilization and fetal development
• Parturition (child birth)
• Lactation (the production of breast milk)

Structure showing the external genitalia

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 1. The mons pubis (mountain of love).
This is a pad of fatty tissue covered with skin and lies over the symphisis pubis.
In mature female, it is covered by pubic hair.
2. Labia majora (large lips)
Are 2 large folds which form the boundary of the vulva.
They open into the vestibule. It contains large amount of sebaceous and sweat glands
embedded in fibrous tissue and covered with skin.
Anteriorly, the folds join in front of the symphisis pubis and posteriorly, they merge with the
skin of the perineum.
At puberty, hair grows on mons pubis and labia majora’s lateral surface.
3. Labia minora/small lips.
This lies within the labia majora and are described as 2 smaller folds of skin.
They contain numerous sebaceous and sweat glands. They surround the vestibule which
contains the vagainal opening, urethral opening and the openings of the ducts of the greater
vestibular glands.

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 Anteriorly, they are divided into 2 parts when forming the prepuce and another the frenulum.
Posteriorly the labia minora are fused to form the fourchette (structures torn during delivery).
4. The clitoris
This is a vestigial organ and corresponds to the penis in males.
It contains sensory nerve ending and erectile tissues but no reproductive function. It is 2cm big
and ½ cm in diameter. It is compared to penis because of erectile function but does not transmit
to the urethra. It helps to stimulate sex in females. Female circumcision in some tribes e.g Sabin,
is at the clitoris.
5. The vestibule
Is a smooth round shaped area lined between the labia minora into which the vagina, urethra
and ducts of the great vestibular glands open.
6. The hymen.
It is a thin membrane of connective tissue covered by mucus membrane which partially occludes
the opening of the vagina. It is perforated centrally. If raptured, the remaining tags of skin are
called carunculae myitiformes.
7. Vestibular glands (bartholin’s glands)
Situated on either side of vaginal opening. About the size of a pea but have small ducts that
open into the vestibule. just behind the hymen. They secrete mucus which lubricates and keeps
the vulva moist.
8. Vaginal orifice is found between the labia minora behind the vestibule.
9. Urethral orifice lies at the back of the vestibule and projecting slightly from the normal surface
level. At the entrance of this orifice are 2 fine glands known as the urethral glands and ducts
known as skenes.
10. 10. Perineum. It’s a triangular area extending from the base of labia minora to the anal canal. It
consists of connective tissues, muscles and fatty tissues. It gives attachment to the muscles of
the pelvic floor.
Blood supply to the vulva

1. Arterial supply; by internal pudendal artery and external pudendal artery.

2. Venous drainage; they drain into the internal iliac veins

3. Lymphatic drainage; they drain through superficial inguinal nodes

4. Nerve supply; by the branches from pudendal nerves.

BREASTS .

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Are two mammary glands which excrete milk and are accessory organs of female reproductive system.
Are present in rudimentary form in males.

They lie on the front aspect of the thorax and they vary considerably in size.

The breasts grow and develop to amature size under the influence of oestrogen and progesterone
(during puberty).

Structure

Breast consists of;

• Glandular tissue
• Fibrous tissue
• Fatty adipose tissue
Glandular tissue

Each breast contains about 20 lobes.

Each lobe contains a number of glandular structures called lobules.

Its in the lobules that milk is produced.

Lobules open into tiny lactiferous ducts which drain milk towards the nipple.

NB Milk producing cells are called acini

Glandular tissue proliferates in lactating breasts to support milk production.

Fibrous tissue

This supports the glandular tissue and the ducts.

Fatty adipose tissue

This covers the surface of the gland and it also surrounds the lobules.

Nipple .

This is a small conical eminence at the centre of the breast surrounded by a pigmented area called
areola.

On the surface of areola are numerous sebaceous glands (Montgomerys turbecles) which lubricate the
nipple.

Functions of the breasts

• For lactation, they become aactive during pregnancy and after birth in secreting milk
• Cosmertic purpose, in order to look feminine
• Acts as a stimulant before intercourse

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE STRUCTURE OF THE BREAST VIEWED FROM THE SIDE (ASSIGNMENT).

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THE INTERNAL ORGANS

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These include the organs that lie in the pelvis/pelvic region:

the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, the ovaries

THE GROSS STRUCTURE OF THE FEMALE INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

THE VAGINA

Is a fibromuscular tube connecting the internal and external organs of the female reproductive system,
lined with stratified squamous epithelium (non-keratinized).

It opens into the vestibule on the exterior (distal end).

Cervix protrudes into its proximal end.

It runs obliquely upwards and downwards, backwards at an angle of 45 between the bladder in front
and the rectum and anus behind.

In adult, the vagina anterior wall measures about 7. 5cm long, and the posterior wall about

9cm long.

The vagina is boarded by the cervix above and sets it forming the anterior and posterior fornicles behind
lateral fornicles.

The 4 fornices of the vagina.

The anterior fornix; it lies in front to the cervix and is in contact with the base of the bladder.

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The posterior fornix; lies behind the cervix Lateral fornices; areas on either sides of the cervix where it
protrudes into external vaginal orifice.

Structure of the vaginal wall

This is composed of 3 layers;

1. An outer layer /covering of areolar connective tissue and elastic tube containing of bundles of nerves
and many blood vessels.

2. The middle layer of smooth muscle.

3. Inner layer/lining of stratified squamous epithelia tissue which forms ridges or folds called ruggaes.
The ruggaes allow the vagina to expand during passage of the baby.

Blood supply: by uterine and vaginal arteries which are branches of internal iliac arteries.

Venous drainage: a venous plexus, situated in the muscular wall drains into the internal iliac vein.
Lymphatic drainage: this is through the deep and superficial iliac glands.

Nerve supply: this consists of parasympathetic fibres from the sacral outflow, sympathetic fibres from
the lumbar outflow and somatic sensory fibres from the pundendal nerves.

FUNCTIONS OF THE VAGINA

• Allows menstrual flow from the uterus

• Act as a passage of the baby. Provides elastic pathway for the baby during labour (child birth).
• Entrance of spermatozoa into the uterus through the cervix .
• Prevents infections into the uterus.
• Supports the uterus
• Leisure in sex that is receives the penis during sexual intercourse.
Note: the vagina has no secreting gland but the surface is kept moist by cervical secretions.

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Lactobacillus acidophilus

Maintains the PH between 3.5 – 4.9 acidic

• Microbes are normally present and secrete lactic acid

• The acidity inhibits growth of most microbes

Blood supply to the vagina

1. Arterial supply; is by uterine artery (upper part) and vaginal artery (lower part). These are braches of
internal iliac artery.

2. Venous drainage; drain into the internal iliac vein

3. Lymphatic drainage; deep and superficial iliac glands

4. Nerve supply;

a. Parasympathetic fibres which come from the sacral outflow.

b. Sympathetic fibres from the lumbar outflow .

c. Somatic sensory fibres from the pudendal nerves.

UTERUS.

The uterus is a hollow, mascular, pear- shaped organ, flattened anteroposteriorly.

It lies in the pelvic cavity between the urinary bladder and the rectum.

In most women it leans forward (anteversion), and is bent forward (anteflexion) almost at right angles
to the vagina, so that its anterior wall rests partly against the bladder below, forming the vesicouterine
pouch between the two organs.

When the body is upright, the uterus lies in an almost horizontal position.

It is about 7.5 cm long, 5 cm wide and its walls are about 2.5 cm thick.

It weighs between 30 and 40 grams.

Relations:

Anteriorly: to the uterus lie the uterovesical pouch of the bladder.

• Posteriorly: to the uterus are the recto uterine pouch of Douglas and the rectum

• Laterally: to the uterus are the broad ligaments, the uterine tubes and the ovaries.

• Superiorly: to the uterus lie the intestines

• Inferiorly: to the uterus is the vagina

The uterus has three main parts i.e the fundus, body and cervix .

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Fundus. This is the dome-shaped part of the uterus above the openings of the uterine tubes.

Body. This is the main part. It is narrowest inferiorly at the internal os where it is continuous with the
cervix.

Cervix (‘neck’ of the uterus). This protrudes through the anterior wall of the vagina, opening into it at
the external os.

Structure of the uterus.

The walls of the uterus are composed of three layers of tissue: perimetrium, myometrium and
endometrium .

Perimetrium. This is the peritoneum, which is distributed differently on the various surfaces of the
uterus.

Anteriorly it lies over the fundus and the body where it is folded on to the upper surface of the urinary
bladder. This fold of peritoneum forms the vesicouterine pouch.

Posteriorly the peritoneum covers the fundus, the body and the cervix, then it folds back on to the
rectum to form the rectouterine pouch (pouch of Douglas).

Laterally, only the fundus is covered because the peritoneum forms a double fold with the uterine tubes
in the upper free border. This double fold is the broad ligament, which, at its lateral ends, attaches the
uterus to the sides of the pelvis.

Myometrium. This is the thickest layer of tissue in the uterine wall.

It is a mass of smooth muscle fibres interlaced with areolar tissue, blood vessels and nerves.
Endometrium. This consists of columnar epithelium covering a layer of connective tissue containing a
large number of mucus-secreting tubular glands.

It is richly supplied with blood by spiral arteries, branches of the uterine artery.

It is divided functionally into two layers: i.e the functional layer and basal layer.

• The functional layer is the upper layer and it thickens and becomes rich in blood vessels in the first
half of the menstrual cycle. If the ovum is not fertilised and does not implant, this layer is shed during
menstruation.

• The basal layer lies next to the myometrium, and is not lost during menstruation. It is the layer from
which the fresh functional layer is regenerated during each cycle.

The upper two-thirds of the cervical canal is lined with this mucous membrane. Lower down, however,
the mucosa changes, becoming stratified squamous epithelium, which is continuous with the lining of
the vagina its

Blood supply, lymph drainage and nerve supply.

Arterial supply. This is by the uterine arteries, branches of the internal iliac arteries.

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Venous drainage. The veins follow the same route as the arteries and eventually drain into the internal
iliac veins.

Lymph drainage. Deep and superficial lymph vessels drain lymph from the uterus and the uterine tubes
to the aortic lymph nodes and groups of nodes associated with the iliac blood vessels.

Nerve supply. The nerves supplying the uterus and the uterine tubes consist of parasympathetic fibres
from the ssacral outflow and sympathetic fibres from the lumbar outflow.

Supporting structures.

The uterus is supported in the pelvic cavity by surrounding organs, muscles of the pelvic floor and
ligaments that suspend it from the walls of the pelvis.

1. Broad ligaments. These are formed by a double fold of peritoneum, one on each side of the
uterus. They hang down from the uterine tubes as though draped over them and at their lateral
ends they are attached to the sides of the pelvis.
2. Round ligaments. These are bands of fibrous tissue between the two layers of broad ligament,
one on each side of the uterus. They pass to the sides of the pelvis then through the inguinal
canal to end by fusing with the labia majora.
3. Uterosacral ligaments. These originate from the posterior walls of the cervix and vagina and
extend backwards, one on each side of the rectum, to the sacrum.
4. Transverse cervical (cardinal) ligaments. These extend one from each side of the cervix and
vagina to the side walls of the pelvis.
5. Pubocervical fascia. This extends forward from the transverse cervical ligaments on each side of
the bladder and is attached to the posterior surface of the pubic bones.
6. Ovarian ligaments. These extend from the cornua of the uterus to the ovary.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE UTERUS.

➢ Nourishes the developing foetus prior to birth (main function) .

➢ It prepares for pregnancy each month and following pregnancy expels the products of
conception.
➢ It receives the fertilized egg
➢ It’s the path way for sperms
➢ Attachment of the placenta.

The uterine tubes

The uterine tubes are also known as fallopian tubes, oviduct and salpinges.
They are 2 uterine tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus.
Position
The uterine tubes extend laterally from the carnua of the uterus towards the side walls of the
pelvis.
They arch over the ovaries, the fringed end hovening near the ovaries in order to receive the
ovum.
Measurements
About 10cm in length
It is divided into 4 parts
• Interstitial parts of the uterine tube
• Isthmus
• Ampulla
• Intundibulum
The interstitial portion (parts of the uterus).

Is 1.25cm long and lies with the wall of the uterus. Its lumen is 1mm.

The isthmus.

Is another narrow part that extend for 2.5cm from the uterus.

The ampulla.

Is the wider portion where fertilization usually occurs. It is 5cm long.

The infundibulum

Is the funnel shaped fingered end that is composed of many process known as fimbriae. One fimbria is
elongated to form the ovarian fimbria which is attached to the ovary.

Structure

Composed of 3 layers of tissue

• Outer layer of peritoneum and broad ligaments. The peritoneum covers the posterior, superior
and anterior surface of the tubes but not the inferior surface.

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 • The middle coat consists of muscular tissue which is a continuation of the uterine muscle. The
muscle coat of the uterine tube is much thinner than that of longitudinal and circular fibres.
• The inner lining of ciliated epithelium thrown into longitudinal folds of which almost covers the
lumen of the tube.
Blood supply. From the uterine and ovarian arteries.
Venous drainage: by ovarian and uterine veins.
Nerve supply: from sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
Functions

• To convey the ovum from the ovary to the uterus

• It is where fertilization takes place.

THE OVARIES

The ovaries are components of the female reproductive system and the endocrine system. Thy are also
called female gonads or sex glands.

Position

They lie in the shallow fossa on the lateral walls of the pelvis on either side of the uterus behind and
below the uterine tubes. They are attached to the back of the broad ligaments by a band of peritoneum
known as mesovarian.

Measurements

The size of the ovaries in different individuals length varies from 2.5cm to 3.5cm, width is 2cm and
thickness is 1.25cm.

The structure .

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The ovary is composed of a medulla and cortex converted with germinal epithelium.

1. The medulla. Is the inner zone composed of fibrous tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves
travel through it.
2. The hilum where the vessels enter lies just where the ovary is attached to the broad ligament and
this area is called mesovarium.
3. The cortex. It’s the functioning part of the ovary. It contains the ovarian follicle in different stages of
development, surrounded by stroma.
The outer layer is formed of fibrous tissue known as Tunica albuginea.
Over this lies the germinal epithelium which is a modification of the peritoneum.
The cortex contains ovarian follicles in various stages of maturity each of which contain an ovum.
Before puberty, the ovaries are inactive but the stroma already contains immature (primordial)
follicles which females has from birth.
During child bearing years, about every 28 years, one ovarian follicle (graffian follicle) matures,
raptures and releases its ovum into the peritoneal cavity.
This is called ovulation and it occurs during most menstrual cycles.

Blood supply.
Ovarian arteries which branch from the abdominal aorta.

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 Venous drainage: it’s into the venous plexus which lies behind the uterus. The ovarian vein opens
directly into the inferior vena cava and the left renal vein.

Functions of the ovaries

• To produce the ova
• Endocrine gland activity of producing oestrogen and progesterone from the cell of the
• corpus/uterus.
PUBERTY IN FEMALES

Puberty is the age at which the internal reproductive organs reach maturity.

It is stimulated by hormones secreted by ductless glands; FSH and LH.

The age of puberty varies between 10-14 years and the number of physical and psychological changes
take place at this time.

• The uterus, the uterine tubes and ovaries reach maturity

• The menstrual cycle and ovulation begin (menarche)
• The breast develop and enlarge
• Pubic and axillary hair begin to grow.
• Increase in height and widening of the pelvis
• Increased fat deposition in the subcutaneous tissue especially at the hips and
breasts.
Assignment.
Outline the changes that occur to a female at menopause. (10 marks)

The female reproductive cycle/ menstrual cycle:

Definition: This refers to a series of events, occurring regularly in females every 26 to 30 days
throughout the child bearing period between menarche and menopause. OR Is the monthly shading of
the endometrium in form of blood.

▪ It occurs regularly in the female reproductive system every 21-35 days (average 28 days)
throughout the reproductive period
▪ The cycle consists of a series of changes taking place concurrently in the ovaries and uterine
lining, stimulated by changes in blood concentrations of hormones.

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 Primary organs involved in the menstrual cycle.
1. Brain: hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland.
2. Ovaries.
3. Uterus
4. Cervix
Hormones secreted during menstrual cycle are regulated by the negative feedback and they include
(Hormones involved in the menstrual cycle ;)

1. Gonadotropin releasing hormone GnRH/ Luteinising hormone releasing hormone/- LHRH

2. Oestrogen

3. Progesterone

4. Follicle stimulating hormone

5. Luteinizing hormone

1. Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH):

✓ Stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete; FSH and LH.
2. Luteinizing hormone (LH):
✓ This triggers ovulation
✓ Stimulates the development of the corpus luteum
✓ Triggers secretion of progesterone
3. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):
✓ Stimulates the development of the ovarian follicles in the ovary.
✓ Triggers secretion of oestrogen
4. Oestrogen:
✓ Development of secondary sexual characteristics at puberty.
✓ Stimulates and supports thickening of uterine lining during
proliferative phase.
✓ Triggers LH surge mid-cycle, stimulating ovulation.
✓ Stimulates anterior pituitary secretion of FSH and LH in first
half of the cycle.
5. Progesterone:
✓ Stimulates and supports thickening and increased glandular development of
uterine lining during secretary phase.
✓ With oestrogen, inhibits secretion of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary in
second half of the cycle.
▪ The hypothalamus responds to changes in the blood levels of oestrogen and progesterone.
The menstrual cycle consists of three phases i.e
• Menstrual phase
• Proliferation phase
• Secreting phase
1. Menstrual phase:
• When the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum starts to degenerate.
• Progesterone and oestrogen levels fall (ovarian hormones).

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 • The functional layer of endometrium which is dependent of ovarian hormones, is
shed in menstruation.
• The menstrual flow consists of the secretions from endometrial glands,
endometrial cells, blood from degenerating arteries, and the unfertilized ovum
• During the menstrual phase, the levels of oestrogen and progesterone are very
low because the corpus luteum that was active during the second half of the
previous cycle has degenerated.
2. Proliferative phase:
• During this phase, FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles to maturity.
• The produced oestrogen stimulates proliferation of the functional layer of the
endometrium in preparation for reception of the fertilized ovum.
• The endometrium thickens, becoming very vascular and rich in mucus-secreting
glands.
• Rising levels of oestrogen is responsible for triggering a surge of LH
approximately mid-cycle.
• This surge triggers ovulation, making the end of the proliferative phase.
3. Secretary phase:
• After ovulation, LH from the anterior pituitary stimulates development of the
corpus luteum from the ruptured follicle produces progesterone, some oestrogen
and inhibin.
• Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium becomes edematous and
the secretory glands produce increased amounts of watery mucus.
• The watery mucus assists the passage of the spermatozoa through the uterus to
the uterine tubes where the ovum is usually fertilized.
• The cervical glands also produce watery mucus which lubricate uterine tubes and
vagina.
• The ovum can survive up to approximately 8 hours in fertilizable form (time after
ovulation).
• The spermatozoa deposited in the vagina during intercourse is capable of
fertilizing ovum for up to 24 hours.
• After ovulation, the combination of progesterone, oestrogen, and inhibin from the
corpus luteum suppresses the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, thus making
the levels of FSH and LH to fall.
• Low levels of FSH in the second half of the cycle prevent further follicular
development in case of pregnancy results from the current cycle.
• If the ovum is not fertilized, foaling LH levels leads to degeneration and death of
the corpus luteum.
• The resultant decline in circulating progesterone, oestrogen and inhibin leads to
degeneration of the uterine lining and menstruation.
• If the ovum is fertilized, thereis no breakdown of the endometrium and no
menstruation.
• The fertilized ovum travels to through the uterine tubes to the uterus where it is
embedded in the wall and produces human chorionic gonodotrophin (HCG),
which is similar to anterior pituitary luteinizing hormoneured follicle.

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 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
It consists of;
• 2 testes
• 2 epididymis
• 2 deferent ducts
• 2 spermatic cords
• 2 seminal vesicles
• 2 ejaculatory ducts
• 1 prostate gland
• 1 penis
• 1glans penis.
• 1urethra.

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Diagram of the male reproductive system.

Functions of the male reproductive system Production,

• maturation and storage of spermatozoa

• Transmission of spermatozoa in semen into females
• Produces hormone testosterone• Responsible for secondary characteristics during puberty.
• For passage of urine and semen
• For sexual intercourse.
THE SCROTUM

Is a pouch (sac) of pigmented skin, fibrous and connective tissues and smooth muscles (dartos muscles).
It acts as a bag containing the epididymis, lower part of the spermatic cord and testes.

It has two compartments each containing one testis, one epididymis and testicular end of spermatic
cord.

Location: it lies below the symphysis pubis in front of the upper part of the thigh and behind the penis.
Covering: its covered with a skin deeply pigmented and thrown in folds underneath the skin lies a thin
sheet of involuntary muscles known as daltas muscle.

The muscles from a septum which divides the scrotum into 2 cavities, one testis in each cavity.

THE TESTIS

Are reproductive glands of the male equivalent to the ovaries in females.

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They lie suspended into the scrotum by the spermatic cord.

They are approximately 4.5cm in length, 2.5cm wide and 3cm thick.

They are surrounded by 3 layers of tissue ie;

• Tunica vaginalis
• Tunica albuginea
• Tunica vasculosa.
Tunica vaginalis It’s a double membrane forming the outer most covering which lie anterior to the
dantol muscle.

It’s a down growth of the abdominal and pelvic peritoneum.

During early fetal life, the testis develops in the lumbar region of the abdominal cavity just below the
kidneys.

They descend into the scrotum taking with them coverings of the peritoneum, blood and lymph vessels,
nerves and the deferent ducts (vas deferens).

The peritoneum eventually surrounds the testes in the scrotum and becomes detoveled from the
abdominal peritoneum.

Descent of the testes into the scrotum should be complete by the 8th month of fetal life.

Tunica albuginea

Is a fibrous covering surrounding the testes situated under the tunica vaginalis. Connective tissues In
growth forms septa dividing the scrotum into two and the glandular structure of the testes into lobules.
Tunica vasculosa

Is the inner layer consisting of a network of capillaries supported by delicate tissue which lies the tunica
albuginea.

Therefore each lobule is surrounded by a fine network of capillaries.

A section of the testis and its covering.

STRUCTURE OF TESTIS

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Each testes consists of 200-300 lobules composed of the germinal epithelial cells (these produce
sperms) called semini ferrous tubules. Within the lobules, we have 1 to 4 semiferous tubules.

Between the tubules, there are groups of interstitial cells (of leyding) that secrete the hormone
testosterone after puberty.

At the upper poles of testes, the tubules continue to form a single tubule. This tubule is about 6m in its
full length and is repeatedly folded and tightly packed into a mass called the epididymis.

It leaves the scrotum as the deferent duct (vas deferens) in the spermatic cord.

Blood vessels (testicular artery and veins), nerves and lymph vessels pass to the testes in the spermatic
cord.

Functions of testes

• They produce spermatozoa ie are produced in a seminiferous tubules.

• In the epididymis, spermatozoa are stored after maturation.
• Due to the presence of leydig (interstitial cells) found in the testis, they are capable of
productionof hormone testosterone.

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Note;

a. Spermatozoa production starts at puberty and takes place at body temperature of 30C or below.

b. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the production of sperms.

Spermatic cords

These are two leading from each testis.

They consist of

1 testicular artery

• Testicular vein

• Lymph vessels

• 1 deferent duct

• nerves.

The spermatic cords suspend the testes in the scrotum.

The spermatic cord is covered in a sheath of smooth muscle (the cremaster muscle) connective tissue
and fibrous tissue.

It passes through the inguinal canal and its attached to the testis from the posterior side.

At the deep inguinal ring, the structures within the cord diverge.

Deferent duct

It’s also called vas deferens.

Its 4.5 cm long It passes upwards from the testis to the inguinal canal and ascends medially towards the
the posterior wall of the bladder. Here it’s joined by the duct from seminal vesicle to form the
ejaculatory duct.

The seminal vesicles.

Are two small fibromuscular pouches or bag like structure lined with columnar epithelium lying on the
posterior aspect of the bladder.

They are 5 cm .

At its lower end, each seminal vesicle opens into a short duct which joins with the corresponding
deferent duct to form an ejaculatory duct.

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Functions

• To contract and expel their stored contents,seminal fluids during ejaculation.

• Seminal fluid forms 60% of the bulk of the fluids ejaculated at male orgasm.
• This fluid is alkaline in order acid in the vagina to protect the sperm.
• It contains nutrients (fructose)which gives energy to the sperm during their passage to
femalereproductive tract.
• Acts as a store for semen until they are needed.
Ejaculatory duct
Are 2 short tubes, about 2cm long formed by union of seminal vesicle and deferent duct.
They pass through the prostate gland and join the prostatic urethra , carrying seminal fluid and
spermatozoa to the urethra
Prostate gland.
Lies between the rectum and symphysis pubis .
It completely surrounds the urethra below the urinary bladder.
It is covered by the fibrous tissue and smoth muscles. Its basic structure is glandular tissue.
It weighs 8gin young males but it enlarges in life to about 40g in older men.

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Functions

• The prostate gland secretes prostatic fluid, a thin milky fluid that makes up about 30%of semen•
and gives it its milky appearance
• The fluid also contains a clotting enzyme , which thickens the semen in the vagina , increasing
the likelihood of semen being retained close to the cervix.
Urethra

The male urethra provides a common pathway for the flow of urine and semen.

It measures 19cm-20cm long and it is divided into 3 portions ie

Prostatic urethra;

• This originates at the urethral orifice of the bladder and passes through the prostate gland.
Membranous urethra;

• Is the shortest and narrowest . Extends from the prostate gland to the bulb of the penis, after
passing through the perineal membrane.
Spongiose or penile urethra;

• It lies within the corpus spongiosum of the penis and terminates in the external urethral orifice
in the glans penis. It is the longes
Urethral sphincters

There are two urethral sphincters namely;

The internal urethral sphincters;

• This consists of smooth muscle fibre at the neck of the bladder above the prostate gland. It is basically
under autonomic nerve control.

The external urethra sphincter

• It consists of skeletal muscle fibres surrounding a membranous part. It is under voluntary control.

THE PENIS

The penis has a root and shaft.

The root anchors the penis in the perineum.

The shaft (body) is the externally visible ,movable portion.

The body is formed by 3 cylindrical masses of erectile fibrous tissue and smooth muscle which are well
supplied with blood .

The erectile tissue is supported by fibrous tissue and covered with a deeply pigmented skin.

The two lateral columns are called the corpora cavernosa and the column between them containing the
urethra is corpus spongiosum.

The penis is expanded at its tip into a triangular structure known as glans penis.

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Just above the glans penis, a skin is folded upon itself and forms a movable double layer of the fore skin
or prepuce.

The three erectile tissues

Corpus spongiosum;

This contains the urethra and lies interior to the other two .At its distal end it enlarges to form glans
penis.

Corpus corvenosa ;

Are two erectile tissues which lie above and laterally to the corpus spongiosum. All lie together and help
in erection of the penis.

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Erection

Is a physiological phenomenon in which the penis becomes firm ,engorged and enlarged .

The diameter of blood vessels supplying and draining the penis regulates the filling of its erectile tissue
and its controlled by ANS.

Parasympathetic stimulation leads to filling of the spongy erectile tissue with blood.

This is caused by arteriolar dilation and venoconstriction which increases blood flow into the penis and
obstructs out flow.

The penis therefore becomes engorged and erect, essential for sexual intercourse.

Ejaculation.

This is the expulsion of the spermatozoa from the epididymis ,the deferent duct , the ejaculatory duct
and to the urethra at male orgasm.

Semen is propelled by powerful rhythmical contraction of the smooth muscle in the walls of deferent.
This contraction is mediated by sympathetic activity.

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Muscles of seminal vesicles prostate gland also contract adding their contents to fluid passing through
genital ducts.

The force generated by these combined processes leads to emission of semen through the external
urethral sphincter.

Composition of the final ejaculate

➢ 10% sperm
➢ 30% prostatic fluids
➢ 60% seminal fluid
NB: 2 -5 ml of semen are produced in a normal ejaculate and contain 40 – 100 million sperm/ml. In
cases of no ejaculation , sperms gradually lose their fertility after several months and are reabsorbed by
the epididymis.

Structure of the spermatozoon

▪ The spermatozoa (sperm) are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
▪ They mature as they pass through the long and convoluted epididymis, where they are stored.
▪ Sperm production is stimulated by the FSH from the anterior pituitary gland.
▪ A mature sperm has three parts i.e.
1. Head:
✓ This is filled by the nucleus that contains DNA.
✓ Contains enzymes (acrosome) required to penetrate the outer layer of the
ovum to reach and fuse with the nucleus.
2. Body:
✓ This is filled with mitochondria, a fuel for propelling action of the tail along the
female reproductive tract.
3. Tail:
✓ This contains axial filament that aide movement of the sperm along the female
reproductive tract.
▪ Successful spermatogenesis takes place at a temperature of about 3 degrees below the normal
temperature.
▪ The testis are cooled by their position outside the abdominal cavity, and a thin outer covering of
the scrotum that has very little insulating fat.
▪ Sperm production in males begins at puberty ant continues throughout life under the influence of
testosterone.

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PUBERTY IN MALES

It occurs between the ages of 10-14

LH from the anterior pituitary gland stimulates the interstitial cells of the testes to increase
testosterone production.

Testosterone influences sexual maturation and the development of male secondary sexual
characteristics.

These include:

• Growth of muscles and bone and marked increase in height and weight.
• Enlargement of the larynx and deepening of the voice which breaks.
• Growth of hair on face, axillae chest , abdomen and pubis.
• Enlargement of penis scrotum and prostate gland
• Maturation of the seminiferous tubules and production of spermatozoa.
• Thickening of the skin which becomes oilier.

ANDROPAUSE
Usually occurs at 50 years. In males, Fertility and sexual ability tend to decline gradually with
aging.
The secretion of testosterone gradually declines.
• There is decreased libido
• Increased irritability
• Impaired orgasm
• Reduced organ sensitivity or pleasure.

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