INTRODUCTION

What is History?
History refers to what happened in the past. It is a record of people’s lives, behaviours and
activities; their glories, successes, failures and cruelties. It helps us to understand what is
happening around us and helps us to prepare for the future as today’s society has been
shaped by decisions of the past. These activities are the ones which bring change to the
past. Knowing about the past helps us to avoid mistakes and understand how we are living.

Environment of history
The environment is vital because through that people behave in certain ways. The
environment affects what people eat, wear and the shelter they build. Therefore the way
people try to control the environment determines their course of history.

Factors of Production
Production is an act of producing goods or items. There are three factors of production which
are land, labour and wealth; these are regarded as agents of production. If land and wealth
area shared equally there’s less chance of conflict but if there is unequal distribution conflict
occurs among groups or tribes, this conflict is usually referred to as trouble. People make
their own history through production and struggle.

Stages of Historical development

● Stage 1: Primitive communism
In this stage property was equally shared by the community and work was done together.
Food, wealth and other items were shared by the community.

● Stage 2: Slavery
In this stage people had gained control over the poor and weaker people. Slaves Performed
tasks like producing and these were also forced to do what their masters wanted.

● Stage 3: Feudalism
In this stage agriculture was the main means of production. Land was owned by a few
people known as landlords and the majority worked for the land lords.

● Stage 4: Capitalism
In this stage ownership of means of production was in the hands of a few people. Wealth
was produced by machines and workers worked in Factories and mines. There was unequal
distribution of wealth.

Stage 5: Socialism
According to Karl Marx this was the highest stage of development and in this stage equality
will be restored and wealth will be shared equally and it will also be owned by the
government.

Historical evidence
● Oral tradition
These are narrated by elders to the young. Usually they are interviewed and information is
passed from one generation to another through the word of mouth.

Advantages
⮚ Easy to get information.

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⮚ Easy to understand.
⮚ You can ask questions.
⮚ Every member of the society can have access to the information.

Disadvantages
⮚ Information can be easily forgotten.
⮚ The narrator can also make deliberate lies.
⮚ There might be a lot of exaggeration, bias or dilution of information.

● Written records
These are facts written by people of the past. These facts can be found in libraries or
archives. Information can be grouped into primary and secondary evidence.

❖ Primary evidence
These are diaries, letters or just information written by actual duress e.g. Rulers and
Administrators who wrote official letters.

❖ Secondary evidence
This information is found in published books and it is an analysis of primary evidence.
Therefore a person who analyses, studies or writes historical information is called a
historian. A historian searches for facts about past events and these facts are called
evidences.

Advantages
⮚ Information can be stored for a long time.
⮚ Information could be from actual duress.

Disadvantages
⮚ Only the literate can use this source.
⮚ One may write wrong information.
⮚ You cannot ask questions.
⮚ Records may get lost.
⮚ Information can be distorted, exaggerated or forcibly implied.

● Archaeology
This is a scientific way of studding remains, objects and artefacts of the past e.g. pottery,
hoes and jewellery. These artefacts of the fast are dug out from the ground at historical sites
such as Great Zimbabwe, Khami and Old Bulawayo monuments. They tell us what people
ate, how they obtained their food, how they dressed and equipment they used. Dates are
obtained through a scientific way of dating called Carbon Dating.
Advantages
⮚ It is more reliable than the other two sources as it cannot be distorted or forcibly implied as
one will be dealing with the original remains or objects.
Disadvantages
⮚ The method is expensive i.e. Carbon Dating.
⮚ It needs skilled people to find the information or discover the object from a historical site.
⮚ If not careful information of different groups of people may be mixed up.
⮚ Objects or remains may be destroyed therefore history of a particular group is lost forever.
A.D. – Anno-Domino (After Death).
BC. – Before Christ.
Evolution

First people and their evolvements/developments

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 Africa was the cradle of mankind, it is thought that the first people emerged on the African
continent and evolved over a long period of time into Homo Sapien Sapien (The scientific
name for people as they are today). Evolution is a process of change from animals (apes) to
human beings (Homo Sapien Sapien) over a long period of time. Charles Darwin is the man
who proposed the theory of evolution. He argued that man evolved from animals. In the
theory of evolution, Charles Darwin argues that differences exist between the same groups
of animals if exposed to different environments. Within the different environments, some
animals may die and some survive those that survive produce descendants which are
different from the original species. These animals then spread out to replace these original
species.

Evolution
Africa is regarded as the cradle of mankind, so it is believed that the first people emerged on
the African continent. Several archaeologists found many discoveries of skeletal remains in
Africa and among them were Dr Louis and Mary Leaky who discovered several skulls at
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. In 1959 the Leaky’s found a skull with large grinding teeth which
was an example of an Australopithecus Robustus.

Hominids
These were creatures which were more like humans than apes. They lived on earth millions
of years ago. They were not apes or monkeys and neither were they human. These hominids
became extinct. They were believed to live in Eastern and Southern Africa. Remains of these
hominids had been found covered in dried lakes and these historical remains are also known
as fossils.

● Romapithecus
It is the ancestor of all apes and human beings, they lived millions of years ago. It was not
an ape, hominid or human being but a different creature all together.

● Australopithecus
It lived millions of years ago. These were small creatures that when fully grown looked like a
12 year old and couldn’t walk upright. They are two types which were:
⮚ Australopithecus Robustus
It was sometimes called the nut cracker as it was able to crunch and grind hard food like
nuts as it had large grinding teeth. It was also called Zinjathropus.
⮚ Australopithecus Gracilis
These had small teeth of about the same size and it had no specialised tasks like the
Robustus. It ate all sorts of food like human beings of today eat. The Australopithecus did
not make tools but used their teeth.

● Homo Habilis (Skilful man )

Survived over the early Stone Age period. It was the first hominid to talk using languages, to
use tools and these tools were called Oldwans as they were found at Olduvai Gorge.
Habilines probably got meat by Scavenging, they waited for lions and hyenas to feast on the
meat they would’ve killed and ate the remains. Meat formed a small part of their diet.

● Homo Erectus
The word erect means to walk upright. They used hand axes and cleavers to chop down
trees, branches and for digging. People were able to make tools easily and this period was
referred to as the early Stone Age. The Homo erectus learned to use fire to drive animals
away, protect their shelter at night, to cook and keep them warm.

● Homo Sapien

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 They survived during the middle Stone Age period. They used flex tools for cutting meat,
scrapping skins and making tips of weapons. They used glue to stick a pole on a wooden
handle. A greater use of fire was noticed. They began to build shelter at their camps made
from branches, stones and dry grass.

● Homo Sapien (Neanderthals)

They survived during the middle Stone Age period. They looked after the sick, buried the
dead and believed in life after death. They drove animals over cliffs as groups, trapped,
killed and shared meat equally.

● Homo Sapien Sapiens

The people of today are called Homo Sapien Sapien. They continued with the middle Stone
Age period but developed future Stone Age tools. Future changes are noticed due to
environmental changes that is the reason why people differ because of different
environments.

Effects of tool making

Tool making affected people’s lives positively by making production easier. It was easier
because they used the tools for gathering food e.g. fruits and insects. This also brought
communication and their language progressed and this was where early language emerged.
The transition from collecting to hunting established an important base for the future human
development. By this people learnt how to take care of themselves. The struggle for survival
helped the human development increase.

Early agriculture.
It is a very big helping hand in the process of development. In this stage people began to
domesticate animals and to breed the young ones of the animal. Some of the major crops
which were first grown in Africa e.g. Taff which was first grown in Ethiopia. Tools of
agriculture such as hoes were used. Some got more land than others resulting in slavery and
some of the people gained control over others. In this the first class societies began to
emerge.

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 EGYPT AND KUSH

In Egypt two great civilised groups existed which were Egyptians and Kushians. The Nile
River in Egypt is the longest river in Africa. It has two great tributaries which are the Blue
Nile and the White Nile. The Nile was the centre of life through trade, transport and
agriculture. The early people of the Nile had to learn to understand the river to control its
flooding. Dam walls were built to stop the water from flooding the villages. Canals were also
built to help water run through the fields. To calculate this Egyptians needed accurate
measurements therefore they developed early forms of mathematics and Geometry which
they called Geometrics. Egyptians came up with three seasons which the called Arket (the
time for planting), Peret (the time for harvesting) and Shemou (the time when the Nile river
flooded). Days were counted by phases of the moon called months. The flood cycle started
after every 365 days and each month had 30 days and that left them with 5 extra days
which they called Heryou Renepet.

Egyptian writing
The most vital steps to civilisation were the invention of Egyptian writing. The Egyptians
adopted a picture way of writing called nHyroglyphics. The most important records of
Egyptians which have come down to us are on papyrus (paper). At first Egyptians curved
their writing on stones e.g. on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples. They learnt how to
make paper from papyrus reeds which grew freely on the Nile banks. Ink was made by
mixing soot and vegetable dye. The Egyptian handwriting is called Hieroglyphics which
means picture writing or sacred carvings.

Who learnt to write?

● Pharaohs and their advisers.
● Priests learnt to interpret sacred writing.
● Scribes as they worked in civil services and Literituwed professional writers.
● Sons of rich man learnt to write as part of their education.

What did they write?

● They kept records of their everyday business.
● Plays and stories of all kinds mostly about the gods.
● Letters of state business to foreign countries or personal letters.
● Books of medicine, signs and moral based on religion practises as well as social questions.
● Scribes were present in fields to record the size of the harvest so that proper text/record
could be assessed.
● From this idea modern man developed writing for communication and Egyptian writing has
thus made a great contribution to our present civilisation.

Agriculture
Crops such as wheat, barley and sorghum were grown. Their food was made up of bread and
fish from the Nile. They kept a lot of sheep and goats but few cattle. Their animals were
mainly for paying taxes to the Pharaoh. They also grew flex which helped them to make
cloth.

Shaduf
It was like a see saw, a bucket was fastened to one end to a pole and a heavy stone to the
other side. The pole then supports the crossbeam layered across to short wooden posts.
When the bucket is dipped into the river, a heavy stone acts as a centre weight and the

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 bucket can rise easily and tipped into the irrigation charets. Today we have irrigation in
most of our country but the idea was borrowed from Egypt and as years passed by Egyptian
grew crops as a result of the irrigation system.

Pyramids
Pyramids were the mightiest tombs of all built by the Pharaohs for their burials. Together
there were 80 pyramids which were built near the Nile. The first pyramid was built for
Pharaoh Zhoza and it was designed by an Architect/Imhotep. It was made out of a tomb
layered out of different levels and this gave an impression of steps and it was given the
name Heroe. The largest was built for Pharaoh Khufu and it stands at Gizi near the city of
Cairo, it took many years to build and many men were required for the construction.
Pyramids were built during the season of Shemou were no work was done in the fields.

Egyptian beliefs
● They believed in life after death and looked forward to the same kind of life which they were
living on earth in the next world.
● The book of the dead was listed 2 sins which a man had to avoid which were cheating and
killing.
● The Egyptians believed the soul left the body to be judged by Osiris the underworld god.
● The heart of the dead was placed on a huge scale and weighed against its sins, guilty souls
were at once devoured by the jackal headed god Anubis but good souls entered the world of
the dead and the company gods.
● The soul that had been judged worth of eternal life could eventually enter the body but only
if it was properly preserved and laid in a tomb.
● The re-entry of the soul into the body explained why Egyptians preserved the body of the
dead (mummified).
● For kings and rich man, the preserving process of the body would last over 2 months, vital
organs were first removed and stored in Alabo Jars whilst the body itself was dried and
treated with spices of essence.

NB: Much of Egyptian culture, writing and was lost and other point changed under the rule
of theGreeks, however, the Greeks learnt more from Egyptian arts, religion, architecture and
science.

Egyptian gods
Horus – The sky god, his eyes were the moon and the sun.
Ptah – He invented the arts, the god of the capital menu.
Hathor – She was the goddess of beauty.
Osiris – He was a god of the underworld.
Rechoralchty (Ra) – He was the sun god.

● The word Pharaoh came from Per-au which means great house of leader.
● Pharaoh was the head of state and high priest; he governed with the assistance of Advisors,
Generals and Priests.
● The Pharaoh was seen as a god and different from other humans.
● Women played a very important rule in the state and 4 women became pharaohs
themselves.
● Means of production and distribution of wealth was in the hands of the Pharaoh.
● Building of the temple and mining were state businesses.
● Most people were peasant farmers who worked and lived on land which belonged to the
Pharaoh.

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● Land was given as payment to the priest, officials and soldiers.
● Land which was owned could be passed from parents to their children.
● Those who worked for the Pharaoh were paid in regular gifts like grain, fish and other things.
● There were also crafted people who were involved as potters and sculptors.
● The survival of the economy of the society depended upon the growth and distribution of
land.
● Peasant farmers grew wheat and barley.
● Bread and beer was made from grain as well as vegetables and fruits were the staple food.
● Land was too wet for cattle raising there for they mainly kept sheep and goats.
● Glasses were made from sand.

Egyptian law
● Men and women were equal before the law in relation to royal decisions, legal practises and
penalties.
● They had equal rights to property as well as justice.
● A family was constituted of mother, father and children.
● A strict code of ethics was kept.

Important events in Egyptian history

Historical evidence was obtained from
● Oral tradition.
● Written records.
● Archaeology.

A historian called Manetho sorted the kings into dynasties. A dynasty is a line of family
rulers. He divided the periods into 3 kingdoms.
● The old kingdom (2750-2200 BC)
● The middle kingdom (2150-1800 BC)
● The new kingdom (1580-1100 BC)
The intermediate was the period between dynasties and no records were kept during this
period between civil wars and foreign invasions (Dark ages).

The old kingdom

The first pharaoh was Menes who united lower and Upper Egypt. He was a leader from the
south and his capital was Memphis. The 1st and 2nd dynasties worked hard in
Uniting a society during the third dynasty the first pyramid was built for Pharaoh Zozer at
Sakkara; pyramids were burial places for Pharaohs. Pharaoh Zozer was the founder of the
third dynasty; his pyramid was the only one with stepped sides. Three more pyramids were
built during the fourth dynasty and these had smooth sides. Pharaoh Khufu’s was the
greatest and is one of the wonders of the world.

The middle kingdom

Pharaoh Menthuhotep of the 11th dynasty worked hard to reunite Egypt once again. His
successors extended the power over the rich Nubia at the Sauté. During this period
Pharaohs put their sons as core rulers. During the 13 th dynasty the Pharaohs were more
concerned about the south that the northern defences became weak. Groups of invaders
from Asia began to enter the country and these foreign invaders were known as Hyksos. The
rulers Thebes fought a war of liberation against the Hyksos and this war lasted for 50 years.

The new kingdom

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Between the 18th and 20th dynasties Egypt became powerful again. Pharaohs of that time
were Amenhotep I, Thutmose I and Queen Hatshepsut I. they strengthened and attended
external affairs such as building temples. During Thutmose III’s reign Egypt became an
imperialist power ruling over city states of Palestine, Syria and Lebanon. During the reign of
Amenhotep III he concentrated mainly on the internal as he was more interested in culture
at home than abroad. During his reign a temple at Luxor in the valley of kings was a sight of
one of the most important of all archaeological findings, the mummified body of
Tutankhamen was found in1922 of the 18th dynasty. Great important Egyptian evidence was
found in his tomb.

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 THE EARLY PEOPLE OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA

THE SAN
The San were the first known inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa. They were hunter-
gathers living in highly mobilised groups between 20-50 people either following game
around the country or living in close rhythm with the land and its seasons or maintaining a
more settled life depending on seals, shellfish, crayfish, birds and fruits for food. The Sans
have left a lasting record of their lives through a thousand paintings. These hunter-gatherers
have still survive but in small numbers in the Kalahari desert. Their physical appearance is
small in structure,brown in colour and they have unique click languages. The San were stone
age people so they did not use metals so their weapons were made of wood, stone and
bones. They did not domesticate animals and cultivate crops. No pottery was made instead
they used ostrich egg shells for storing and holding liquids. The San were nomads as they
were always on the move in search of game and plant food so they did not build permanent
shelter, they preferred rock shelter for temporary shelter. A chief controlled their resources
on behalf of the group back in the day before the arrival of shelter. A number of fish bones
were found in caves and this indicates that they were accomplished fishermen. Slivers of
bones and wood sharpened at each end were used to hook fish which were also caught by
means of tidal trap made from walls constructed by river Sanda.

Social and cultural life

● The San had no sense of ownership.
● Disputes were solved by a group known as a consensus.
● The status of women was relatively equal.
● The San of both sex wore many ornaments made of seed, berries, shell and small pieces
stuck together as necklaces and bracelets they used ostrich and tortoise shells to carry and
store water.
● Movement to different campsites was organised by a group.
● Their lifestyle was primitive communism.
● The San men were responsible for hunting and fishing, they went on long hunting trips and
they would gather Hordia Gordidni and chew the bitter miracle plant to supress their
appetite.
● The women did most of the gathering of plants and that included wild fruit and berries as
well as leaves, stems bulbs, corms, and root of a variety of plants.
● They were very good hunters that knew the ways of the animals they hunted.
● The San had to devise many different hunting traps in the form of parts covered by leaves
which was another way of trapping the animals.
● Another way was extracting poison which was then used to hunt.
● The meat was cooked fresh or smoked and dried for later use, only small quantities were
preserved this way because it had to be carried when the group moved to the next place.
● Clothing was light for easy movement, men wore line skirts with a short skin in front tied on
the waist, and they also used skin cloaks and blankets to keep themselves warm especially
in temperate climates.
● Leather work was common and leather was made into Ned bag for carrying food, string bags
were woven from great fibre.
Rock paintings
They painted on rocks and in cave walls and engraved on eggshells. These rock paintings
have given us a lot on their life style. These rock paintings show that the San were tuned to
their environment.

San beliefs

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● They paid tribute to the chief.
● They believed in God.
● The eland was considered the most spiritual animal.
● The taught their children through oral tradition.

THE KHOI KHOI

The other early inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa were the Khoisan herders or Khoi
Khoi. The early Europeans called these people the “Hottentots” meaning stammers. The
exact origin of these people is still being debated by historians. The old theory was the Khoi
Khoi migrated from East Africa with their livestock and settled in Southern Africa but recent
historical evidence has shown it is not true. It is being argued that the Khoi Khoi were among
the original inhabitants of the area. It is also known that some of the San people adapted to
the changes in their environment and began to domesticate animals probably about 2000
years ago. The Khoi Khoi was originated from pastoral culture and language was found. The
exact place of origin of these people is still debated and some say they originated from the
northern place of Bulawayo and migrated to East Africa with their livestock in Southern
Africa. However, recent evidence argues that they were among the original inhabitants. It is
also known that some of the san adopted change in the environment and began to
domesticate animals.

Economic system
● Major economic system was based on lifestyle and production.
● They raised long horned cattle and fat tailed sheep and goats; cattle were a symbol of
wealth and prestige. Their way of life was organised around their livestock therefor they
moved from place to place during different seasons in search of pasture and water for the
animals.
● Animals were kept for meat, milk and blood.
● Husbandry of sheep, goats and cattle provided a stable balanced diet and allowed the
related Khoi Khoi people to live in large groups than the previous inhabitants.
● As time went on Khoisan began to grow crops and a variety of other plants.
● Like the San both sexes were involved in the economic activities.
● Apart from herding animals men sometimes hunted wild animals for meat and skin for
clothing.
● Women milked cows and goats, gathered roots and berries and also made pottery.
● The Khoi Khoi industry was more developed than that of the San.
● Their technology included carvings of shallow dishes, bone ivory and smelting and smiting of
iron.
● Trading of some of these times was developed with traders from the Far East who often
came to the south of the east coast of Africa.
● They also extracted salt from the salt mineral springs through evaporation in soapstone
dishes.

Political and Social organisation

● The village settlement was relatively large often well over hundred persons.
● They did not live in caves because of their large numbers.
● They built dome shaped huts from young branches.
● They covered them with mats from reeds and sometimes with animal skins.
● Huts were arranged in a circle and domestic animals were often kraaled overnight within the
circle.

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● Each village consisted of member of the same clan and a group of male descendants of a
particular ancestor with their wives and children.
● The young people were initiated at adulthood at about 18 years and marriage could take
place after the ceremony.
● The groom paid lobola in the form of an ox for the wedding feast.
● After the marriage a hut was built for the couple near the bride’s mother’s hut.
● Unlike the San the Khoisan community had more organised system of authority.
● Each village had a headman, it was a hereditary position passed to the eldest son of the
founding ancestor for every generation.
● Headman made decisions such as when and where to move.
● They also acted as mediators or judges in criminal and civil disputes.
● Senior people had more privileges than the juniors e.g. they lived in houses to the right of
the elder whilst juniors lived to the left side.
● Each family had their own hut; however, children who were older lived with their age group.
● The Khoisan were polygamous (more than one wife).
● Several villages were united into a larger unit called a tribe.
● Tribes had a kinship base and were made up of a number of linked clans with a Seniority of
one of the clans being recognised.
● The head of the senior clan was recognised as the chief of the tribe.
● The extant of the tribal land was not defined by exact boundaries but reference to land
Tokay water hole.
● Tribal chiefs controlled outside access to their resources.

Religious beliefs
● The Khoisan believed in a supreme being.
● They believed in spirits of natural forces especially water and rain.
● They gave special significance to the moon which they viewed as a physical magnification of
the Supreme Being associated with heaven.
● The time of a new and full moon was a special occasion for dancing.

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 THE IRON AGE SOCIETIES

TRANSITION FROM THE LATE STONE AGE

● Political changes
⮚ Permanent settlements were established. There was a lot of food so people abandoned the
idea of moving from place to place in search of food.
⮚ Village communities were created. This led to formation of classes i.e. chiefs and subjects,
rich and poor.
⮚ Population increase. As the economy improved people got enough food to store for the next
season. People became healthy due to balanced diet thus leading to population increase.
⮚ Rivals amongst villages. Villages fought to control resources and weaker villages were
destroyed by stronger ones. This led to creation of armies as a way of securing land, cattle
and grain.
⮚ Decisions were made by a small and powerful group called a consensus.

● Economic Changes
⮚ The new iron users did not completely break away with the past Stone Age and continued to
hunt and gather to supplement their food.
⮚ However, they began to mine minerals copper, gold, silver and iron ore were mined. Hoes
and axes were vital for mining as hoes were used to dig for minerals and axes for cutting
trees to use for the furnace. Before Iron Age these minerals were ignored and regarded as
colourful rocks. Gold and copper were processed into jewellery and Iron was used to make
tools. These were used for internal and external trade, externally with Swahili, Chinese and
Oman on the Indian Ocean coast.
⮚ Bantu farmers began to pay more attention to farming although agriculture is believed to
have begun in the late Stone Age. A variety of crops were grown e.g. millet, sorghum and
pumpkins. These became the main source of food though hunting and gathering were still
done but on a small scale.
⮚ They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Goats and sheep were killed for meat but cattle were
vital as it was considered as a symbol of wealth. They were killed on special occasions e.g.
deaths, rain making ceremonies and births.
⮚ This was mainly done by women and pottery was decorated, it was used for storing grain,
water and milk.
⮚ They started paying tribute to the ruling class as a sign of respect by the subjects. Tribute
could be in the form of crops, iron tools, minerals, cattle and labour.
⮚ They traded internally and externally, they traded with foreigners from Persia and Arabia.
They traded gold and ivory and sometimes copper for cloth, silk and glass beads. Internally
they exchanged surplus goods, surplus grain could be exchanges for iron tools, pots and
livestock.

● Social Changes
⮚ The early age people abandoned living in caves and began to live in pole and dagga huts.
⮚ There was division of labour which indicated specialisation of jobs. Men went for mining as it
was dangerous and women concentrated on household chores.
⮚ Specialisation led to exchange of goods amongst neighbours especially in times of crisis e.g.
blacksmith could exchange axes and hoes for cattle, sheep and goats.
⮚ Gaps between different classes broadened.
⮚ Chiefdoms emerged.

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⮚ Polygamy was widely practised. It was vital for social status of a person because the more
wives one had the more one was respected. This also meant a lot of labour in the fields and
a good crop yield.
⮚ The boy child was valued more compared to the girl child because he perpetuated the family
name.
⮚ Lobola was wide spread and it was in the form of cattle, hoes, beads and labour.
⮚ They believed in life after death therefor they buried the dead with their belongings.

Impact of the changes

● Food was now in abundance.
● Hunting became effective due to new iron tools.
● Trade became very important.
● More permanent settlements were built therefor people stayed at one place for a long time.
● Exploitation of women and children by men and also exploitation of men by other man
began.
● Displacement of earlier San inhabitants.
● Formation of chiefdoms/states.
● Tribute was introduced where by subjects would pay or give a token of appreciation to their
rulers.
Bantu Migration
Bantu are people who spoke related languages. They originated from Sudan (Benue cross
region) and are between Cameroon and Nigeria.

Migration – The movement of a group of people from one region to another and they moved
with their livestock (cattle, sheep and goats).

Reasons for Migration

● Population Pressure – As population increased, the Bantu were forced to move to spacious
areas.
● Bad Climatic Conditions – Some areas were tsetse and malaria infested e.g. Congo Forests.
These areas became unfavourable and therefore they migrated.
● Land Exhaustion – The land became exhausted and the Bantu migrated in search of fertile
lands.
● Political And Social Problems – Succession disputes and civil wars were greatly experienced.
Some Bantu were running away from cruel chiefs after practicing witchcraft. Most Bantu
therefore migrated and moved to Central and Southern Africa. Therefore, it is related to
introduction of Iron Age hence Early Iron Age.

Results
● Introduction of new farming methods.
● Settlements became more permanent.
● New weapons / tools were made leading to better hunting and farming.
● Land previously unoccupied became occupied.
● Specialization of jobs resulted in farmers, miners, hunters etc.
THE LATE STONE AGE AND EARLY IRON AGE
The Early Iron Age is the period which followed the Late Stone Age. The early began to be
practiced in Central Africa in AD300. The Bantu are associated with the Early Iron Age. They
absorbed San hunter-gathers, they brought with them iron tools which changed mode of

ZJC NOTESPage 13
 production i.e. How people obtained necessities of life e.g. clothes, food housing etc. The
Iron Age was called the revolutionary period therefore it led to the formation of States.

Political Changes
● Permanent settlements were established. There was a lot of food so people abandoned the
idea of moving from place to place in search of food.
● Village communities were created. This led to formation of classes i.e. chiefs and subjects,
rich and poor.
● Population increase. As the economy improved people got enough food to store for the next
season. People became healthy due to balanced diet thus leading to population increase.
● Rivals amongst villages. Villages fought to control resources and weaker villages were
destroyed by stronger ones. This led to creation of armies as a way of securing land, cattle
and grain.
● Decisions were made by a small and powerful group after reaching a consensus.

Economic Changes

Change of tools and their results

LATE STONE AGE EARLY IRON AGE

The hand-axe was blunt, difficult to use when Hand axe was now lighter and sharper
cutting down trees for agriculture and it was therefore it was easier to clear large pieces
also heavy. of land for agriculture

Used the stone tipped arrow for hunting and Used iron tipped arrows for hunting and it
it was difficult to kill a lot of animals. was easier to kill a lot of animals.

Stone knifes were used for cutting meat. Iron knifes were used for cutting meat.

Most people had no food to store for the next A lot of people had food to store for the next
season. season.

Farming was done on a small scale. Farming was done on a large scale.

Population was stable as food was scarce. Population increase as food was in
abundance.

People could die early because of diseases People could live longer because they ate a
associated with malnutrition. balanced diet.

Fish was caught using baskets. Fish caught using iron fish hooks.

● Mining
It came due to iron technology. Copper, gold, silver and iron ore were mined. Hoes and axes
were vital for mining as hoes were used to dig for minerals and axes for cutting trees to use
for the furnace. Before Iron Age these minerals were ignored and regarded as colourful
rocks. Gold and copper were processed into jewellery and Iron was used to make tools.

ZJC NOTESPage 14
 These were used for internal and external trade, externally with Swahili, Chinese and Oman
on the Indian Ocean coast.
● Cultivation
A variety of crops were grown e.g. millet, sorghum and pumpkins. These became the main
source of food though hunting and gathering were still done but, on a small scale.

● Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Goats and sheep were killed for meat but, cattle were vital
as they were considered as a symbol of wealth. They were killed on special occasions e.g.
deaths, rain making ceremonies and births.

● Pottery Making
This was mainly done by women and pottery was decorated, it was used for
storing grain, water and milk.

● Tribute
It was paid to the ruling class as a sign of respect by the subjects. Tribute could be in the
form of crops, iron tools, minerals, cattle and labour.

Social Changes
● The early Iron Age people abandoned living in caves and began to live in pole and dagga
huts.
● There was division of labour which indicated specialisation of jobs. Men went for mining as it
was dangerous and women concentrated on household chores.
● Specialisation led to exchange of goods amongst neighbours especially in times of crisis e.g.
blacksmith could exchange axes and hoes for cattle, sheep and goats.
● Gaps between different classes broadened.
● Chiefdoms emerged.
● Polygamy was widely practised. It was vital for social status of a person because the more
wives one had the more one was respected. This also meant a lot of labour in the fields and
a good crop yield.
● The boy child was valued more compared to the girl child because he perpetuated the family
name.
● Lobola was widespread and it was in the form of cattle, hoes, beads and labour.
● They believed in life after death therefore they buried the dead with their belongings.

Impact of changes
● Food was now in abundance.
● Hunting became effective due to new iron tools.
● Trade became very important.
● More permanent settlements were built therefore people stayed at one place for a long time.
● Exploitation of women and children by men and also exploitation of man by other man
began.
● Displacement of earlier San inhabitants.
● Formation of chiefdoms/states.
● Tribute was introduced whereby subjects would pay or give a token of appreciation to their
rulers.
THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

ZJC NOTESPage 15
 It is situated south east of Masvingo and is believed to have been built by the Shona people
around A.D. 1200. Our country took its name from the ruins which are complex and
beautiful. 1200 to 1500 AD saw the rise of The Great Zimbabwe. It was established on a hill
and had several outlying areas. Great Zimbabwe was believed to have been built by the
Karanga of the Shona tribe. The word Zimbabwe comes from the Shona word
“Dzimbadzamabwe”. The wall covering The Great Zimbabwe was known as The Great
Enclosure. Other Madzimbabwe are Chisvingo, Nhavayatumbare, Mapungubwe, Naletale,
Msimbira, Manekweni, Tsindi, Khami etc.

Origins of the State

It is believed that the kingdom rose to intercontinental trade, this theory is referred to as the
trade stimulus theory. It is argued that the state owes its origins from its control of gold
trade mined across the whole of the Zimbabwe plateau. As traders passed through the state
they were forced to pay tax. The military strength of the kingdom enabled them to force
tributary kingdoms to pay tax. Other historians also argued that the state rose as a result of
the ruler’s ability to accumulate and control cattle.
One of these developing Iron Age villages grew into the biggest and strongest state of its
time. It had a population of more than 10 000 people. The great walls of stone were a
symbol of its power. The walls show the developed into a prosperous and well organised
state. The walls were built from granite which was carefully fitted and set in straight lines.
The walls were built loosely without water to hold them together. Stone walls were built to fit
into the system of domestic life and houses were built inside them. The bird sculptures
found at Great Zimbabwe have become the symbol of the modern state of Zimbabwe as a
reminder of the country’s long history.

Factors leading to the rise of Great Zimbabwe

● Strong Army
Great Zimbabwe had a large population which enabled it to fight and defeat enemies
through its army. Those who were defeated were incorporated into the army.

● Good Agricultural and Grazing Lands

Agriculture was widely practiced, crops such as millet, sorghum and maize were grown and
food was in abundance leading to the growth of the state. Good grazing land led to increase
of cattle, cattle were then distributed to the subjects through a system called “Kuronzera”
and could also be used to pay labourers hired to construct the stone walls and this brought
the community together as the poor and rich were catered for thus leading to the rise.

● Enough Mineral Wealth

They got gold from Mapungubwe and Mapela, iron and copper were also plenty. This
facilitated trade between Shona and Portuguese at Sofala. International trade was through
the east coast. Traders who passed through Great Zimbabwe had to pay tax; tax also came
from tributary kingdoms leading to prosperity of Great Zimbabwe.
● Religious centre
It is believed to be a Hungwe religious shrine as evidence by the Hungwe soap
Stone bird found there. However, some historians disagree with the idea that the
Religion led to the rise of the state.

Reasons for building the Great Zimbabwe

● As an expression of pride and ancestral achievement.
● As a religious centre - the Shona were believed to be connected to God “Mwari”, whom they
worshiped through ancestral spirits.

ZJC NOTESPage 16
● As a trading centre - it is believed that the Great Zimbabwe was built for trade and other
economic activities. Buildings, used for storage purposes are still there as well as artefacts
from the far east¸ Middle East and China.
● As a form of shelter.
● To reflect the king’s power.
● For prestigious reasons.
● To control subjects as well as to separate king from the common people.
For privacy
● As the King’s court
● As a fortress in times of war.
● As an administrative centre.

The Great Zimbabwe

● It is made of granite stone and the stones were cut into almost the same size and arranged
in straight lines.
● No water or cement was used and this is why the buildings are unique.
● The Great Zimbabwe has two main complexes:
⮚ Acropolis
⮚ Temple
● The temple was often referred to as the great enclosure.
● It was the centre of administration.
● Spirit mediums helped the king in making decisions.
● The Acropolis was made up of a number of enclosures.
● This was the oldest part of Great Zimbabwe.
● The hilltop was probably a centre for rain making ceremonies, soap stone birds were found
and these birds were used to interpret the voice of the Hungwe, (shiri yamwari) God’s bird.
● Eastern enclosure was where the spiritual advisors occupied.
● Sacred birds were found indicating the importance of the area as a religious centre.
● The senior wives lived at the “imbahuru”, whereas the junior wives lived at the valley
enclosures. This was suggested by pots and ornaments which were found there, these were
linked to women.

Political Organisation
● The king was the head of the state and supervised trade, commanded the army, received
tribute and judged all cases that were brought before him.
● Chiefs were below the king and had to be submissive, these included provincial chiefs and
district chiefs.
● They paid tribute as loyalty to the king.
● They also collected tribute from the subjects and ruled their own areas.
● Village chiefs and village heads controlled villages; they were submissive to the king and
paid tribute.
● Religious leaders conducted religious ceremonies and advised the king when ruling; they
were part of the council.

ZJC NOTESPage 17
 King

Council

Provincial
Chiefs

District
Chiefs

Village
Chiefs

Village
heads

Subjects

Economic activities
● Cultivation
They practised cultivation - grew crops such as millet, sorghum, pumpkins, barley, wheat
etc. Men cleared land for agriculture and helped when harvesting. Women and children did
most of the work in the fields.

● Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep, and goats. Cattle were regarded as a symbol of wealth, they were
killed on rare occasions e.g. funerals and state functions, they obtained milk and hides from
cattle. Cattle could be exchanged for grain and other food stuffs in times of drought. They
could be used for paying Lobola; many wives meant many children and a lot of labour in the
fields. Goats and sheep provided them with meat, hides and manure.
● Trade

ZJC NOTESPage 18
 Great Zimbabwe was the centre of trade. Internally they exchanged grain for different items
they did not have e.g. hoes and spears. Externally, they traded with the Chinese, Arabs and
Swahili. They exported grain, iron tools, hides, baskets etc in exchange for glass beads,
brassware, seashell, cloth, salt etc.
● Mining
This was mainly done by men. They mined gold, copper, iron etc. Copper was found in
Hurungwe and was used to make jewellery. Gold was found in Mapela and Mapungubwe and
was got through shaft and alluvial mining, it was used for making jewellery and iron was
used to make tools.

● Hunting and Gathering

This remained part of their diet. Hunting was done by men, but on a very small scale.
Animals such as leopards, lions, kudus and impalas were killed for their skins and elephants
for ivory. Women gathered small insects and berries.

● Craft work
This was done by both men and women especially weaving. They produced cloth which was
cheap, but ordinary people still wore animal skin “Nhembe”. Pottery making was vital, pots
were made for storing grain, water, milk and beer.

● Tribute
This was paid by the subjects to the ruling class in the form of grain, tools and cattle.

● Raiding
Neighbouring states were raided for cattle; grain, and women. Women were incorporated
into the state.

● Fishing
Iron fishhooks were used for fishing. Fish supplemented their diet.

Social and Religious organisation

● People worshiped God through spirit mediums.
● Spirit mediums were vital for installation of new chiefs.
● The king himself consulted God through spirit mediums especially in times of drought.
● They believed in life after death and therefore they buried the dead with their belongings.
● Beer was brewed at traditional ceremonies.
● They were national spirits called “Mhondoro” and ancestral spirits called “Vadzimu”.
● Families consulted ancestral spirits in times of illness and crisis.
● Soapstone birds were their religious symbol therefore Great Zimbabwe was the spiritual
headquarters of the Shona ancestors.
● People of the same totem were not allowed to get married.
● Men hunted on their spare time and women specialised in child bearing.

Decline of Great Zimbabwe

● Overpopulation
● Great Zimbabwe became too big a state that the king lost control of the state. This is why
Nyatsimba Mutota moved away from Great Zimbabwe.
● This also encouraged diseases leading to death of some and migration of some. With the
ever increasing population farming land became exhausted.

ZJC NOTESPage 19
● Civil wars
People would fight against each other in times of drought so as to get food.

● Succession disputes
With time people began to fight for leadership and those leaders that were weaker had their
positions taken by those who were stronger. Some were even forced to move away from
Great Zimbabwe.

● Shortage of salt
This is why Nyatsimba Mutota moved away from Great Zimbabwe.

● Land exhaustion
With the ever increasing population farming land became exhausted.

● Shortage of food supplies, minerals and grazing lands

Shortage of food supplies, minerals and grazing lands affected trade negatively leading to
the down fall of the economy.
● The state became too large to be controlled by one king.

● Out breaks of epidemics killed a lot of people.

ZJC NOTESPage 20
 THE MUTAPA STATE
THE MUTAPA EMPIRE
It can be referred to as Monomutapa, Munhumutapa and Mwenemutapa. The Name or title
Mutapa came from a Shona verb root Tapa. Historians have used other meanings munhu in
Shona which means person and when combined with Mutapa means a person who forcibly
takes someone’s property or a kidnapper. This name describes the strategy used to
establish his empire. Among this was the decline if Great Zimbabwe, abandoned resources,
accessibility to foreign trade and a weakness of the local people at the Dande.

Oral tradition has it that sometime in the 15 th century a certain Nyatsimba Mutota son of
Chibatamatosi of Great Zimbabwe was sent by his father to search for salt in the Dande
area. He moved from Great Zimbabwe in search of salt and was accompanied by his son
Matope, daughter Nehanda and Nyakatonje a visitor to the Great Zimbabwe. Mutota the
decided to take over the area and marked the beginning of the Mutapa Empire. The Dande
area was abandoned and had elephants, gold and salt. The availability of fertile land and
rich pasture in the Dande area was important in the rise of the empire. The weakness
fragmented the Tonga and Tavara who failed to join forces and repel the Mutapa and
presented Mutota with an opportunity to conquer with ease. He established the Mutapa
state around 1400AD and later moved his Capital from Great Zimbabwe to Chitako Hill near
Mt Darwin. After the conquest of the entire Dande, Mutota died and was succeeded by his
son Matope who then expanded the state into a large kingdom which some sources
describes as an empire. He expanded the area to Mozambique and took control of foreign
trading coast along the Indian Ocean coast which was a key to trading. The state was said to
have 6 provinces Dande, Barwe, Pura, Guruuswa, Manyika and Uteve.

Factors leading to the rise

● Successful agriculture and pastoralism
Dande was a suitable area for agriculture as it received favourable rains and a lot of animals
were kept due to good grazing land e.g. cattle, sheep and goats.

● Availability of minerals
Rich in gold and iron, these could be used for making jewellery and tools respectively and
thus promoting trade.

● Accessibility of the area to international trade

Dande lay in the area between Ingombe, Ilede and Swahili trade centres.

● Presence of politically ambitious leaders

These leaders became effective in leadership due to their strategic planning.

● Strong army
Could raid and conquer other nearby and weaker local people e.g. Tonga and Tavara.
● Decline of Great Zimbabwe
This forced some people to move away and search for better areas since
Great Zimbabwe was overpopulated hence rise of new states e.g. Mutapa.
Political organisation
● King
He was the overall ruler. He was also commander of the army of about 3000- 5000 soldiers;
Soldiers were treated by witchdoctors before heading for a battle for them to be strong. He

ZJC NOTESPage 21
 received annual tribute and made final decisions in political and judiciary matters. He
elected chiefs but first consulted national spirits.

● Council (Dare)
The council advised the king when ruling. The council included Priest of the Mwari cult,
councillors, blacksmiths, army commanders, sons of provincial chiefs, king’s mother,
queen’s mother, queen and king’s brothers and sisters.

● Provincial Chiefs
Provincial chiefs ruled provinces such as Guruuswa, Mbire, Manyika,Barwe, Uteve etc. The
position of chiefs was hereditary and the provincial chiefs were either relatives of the king or
friends of the king. They collected the royal fire once a year from Munhumutapa as a sign of
respect. They paid tribute to the king. They gave troops to the king in times of war. They
distributed land to district chiefs.

● District chiefs
These were under provincial chiefs. Their position was hereditary. They paid tribute to the
king. They also collected tribute from the subjects in the form of ivory, cattle, grain, gold and
labour. They distributed land to the people. They also tried cases brought before them.

● Village chiefs
These were under District chiefs; they distributed land to the people and tried cases brought
before them. They paid tribute to the king and also received tribute from the subjects. Their
position was hereditary.

ZJC NOTESPage 22
 King

Council

Provincial
Chiefs

District
Chiefs

Village
Chiefs

Village
heads

Subjects

Economic organisation

● Crop cultivation
They grew millet, sorghum and peas. They also grew exotic crops like maize, watermelons,
tobacco, potatoes and citrus fruits. They practised shifting cultivation whereby a piece of
land was left to lie fallow for 2 or more years to gain its fertility before another crop was
grown.
● Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Cattle were a symbol of wealth and those that had many
cattle had many wives. These animals were important for hides, meat and milk.
● Hunting and Gathering
Hunting was done by men and was an important source of meat and hides. Gathering was
done by women and they gathered berries, roots and insects.

● Trade

ZJC NOTESPage 23
 They practised both internal and external trade. Internal trade involved buying and selling
goods among the Mutapa. They exchanged surplus grain, salt, cattle and iron tools. Local
people known as “Vashambadzi” facilitated trade. Trading stations were Zumbo, Tete and
Sena.

● Mining
They mined gold, silver, iron and copper. Mining was done during the dry season. They
practised shaft mining. Gold, copper and silver were used to make jewellery and iron was
used to make iron tools.

● Blacksmiths
They made tools for agriculture like hoes and axes and they also made weapons like spears
and arrows.

● Craftwork
Women made a variety of pots which they traded to earn vast amounts of wealth in the form
of grain, goats and sheep. The Mutapa also made baskets and wood carvings.

● Fishing
Fish supplemented their diet.

● Raiding
Neighbouring states were raided for cattle; grain, and women. Women were incorporated
into the state.

● Tribute
The king received annual tribute in the form of cattle, gold, ivory, agricultural tools and
labour.

Social Organisation
● The Mutapa state had people of different dialects e.g. Karanga, Ndawu and Zezuru.
● There was gender awareness when allocating duties. Men were part of the army and hunted
whilst women were involved in household chores e.g. cooking, taking care of children etc.
● People of the same totem were not allowed to marry one another.
● They believed in life after death and so they consulted family spirits, clan spirits and national
spirits, this was usually done in times of war, drought and harvest.
● Family spirits were believed to help family members achieve their ambitions.
● Clan and national spirits also intervened in political disputes, succession disputes and inter-
clan disputes.
● They believed in avenging spirits (Ngozi).
● They believed in God the creator of mankind whom they worshiped through their ancestors.
● They practised polygamy.

PORTUGUESE PENETRATION OF THE MUTAPA

During the 15th century Portugal was sending exploration voyages to central Africa. One of
the explorers Vasco Da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope. Therefore, the Portuguese
were the first Europeans to settle in the Indian Ocean coast. They discovered the sea route

ZJC NOTESPage 24
 to India and trading activities between Central Africa and east coast. They investigated the
presence of gold at Sofala and Kilwa. The two ports were used to acquire gold and ivory from
Mutapa state and in exchange got Indian spices from India.

Reasons for penetration

● To establish a number of trading posts in the interior especially the Zambezi.
● To gather more information on trade especially presence of gold, ivory and alcohol.
● To drive any Swahili traders from the interior so they could take over trade within African
states. They established Sena and Tete around 1530s.
● Later they developed interest in African politics; they did not aim for this in the beginning.
● Later moved inland to avenge the death of Fr Goncalo Da Silveira.
● To spread Christianity.

Developments

● After the death of Matope there were quarrels over leadership.

● In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu became king; he was the first king to have a European
visitor called Fernandez a Portuguese trader.
● Fernandez gave the king and gun powder and Munhumutapa was able to expand his empire.
● After the death of Chikuyo in 1530 Neshangwe became king and was succeeded by Chivere
Nyasoro in 1550 who crushed the Tavara in the revolt and as symbol of the defeat took their
totem as Nzou.
● Chivere died in 1560 and his eldest son Negomo Mapunzagutu took over the leadership and
was assisted to govern by Mr Chiuyu.

● The Portuguese Priests were pushed/encouraged to move into the interior to convert Mutapa
and his people to Christianity. A catholic called Fr Goncalo Da Silvera became a great friend
of the king and his mother and the Muslim traders (VaMwenye) were angered when the king
and his mother agreed to be baptised. In 1561 the VaMwenye plotted and killed Da Silvera
and dumped his body in a pond. Fr Goncalo Da Silveira death gave the Portuguese a chance
to attack Mutapa as they were against their contact with the Moors.
The In 1570 the Portuguese king sent an army to Mutapa to avenge the death of Da Silvera
and because the Portuguese did not know the area so well they were easily defeated even
though they had superior weapons. 1567 Francisco Barretto was sent by the Portuguese to
invade Mutapa so as to avenge the death of Fr Goncalo Da Silveira as well as driving away
Muslims. Unfortunately he died before invading as they reached Mutapa during the rainy
season and were affected by diseases. In 1574- Father Vasco Fernandes Homem was
sent together with 400 men. Before reaching Manyika, he faced resistance from Chiteve.
Chiteve King was defeated, but the Portuguese realised that the area had little gold
deposits. Most soldiers sent by the Portuguese faced opposition from the Tonga and couldn’t
invade Mutapa. For 35 years there was peace in Mutapa.
In 1607 Munhumutapa Gatsi Rusere asked for Portuguese help to fight a revolt for the
leadership in return for silver mines at Chikova and other mines. However, he refused to tell
them the location of the silver mines and the people of Mutapa refused because they had
seen and Prazero and Portuguese land owners. As more and more Portuguese arrived they
took more land and cattle and forced people to work in the fields and formed their own
private army. They became wild, lawless and no longer obeyed the Munhumutapa.
Portuguese began refusing to pay tribute to Mutapa; Mutapa stopped trade with the
Portuguese and ceased Portuguese properties and the Portuguese declared war but later

ZJC NOTESPage 25
 began to pay tribute. The next Mutapa kapararidze tried to expel the Portuguese after they
refused to pay tribute but he was over powered and replaced by Mavura Mhandu who
agreed to serve the Portuguese and become a puppet king. The new ruling Mutapa Mavura
was baptised to Philip. In 1629 Mavura signed an agreement with the Portuguese,
Portuguese had freedom to:
⮚ Build churches whenever/ wherever they wanted.
⮚ Travel to any part of Mutapa as traders.
⮚ Drive away Muslims from Mutapa.
⮚ Mine in Mutapa.
The Portuguese established Tete, Sena, Kilwa, Zumbo, Sofala, Quelimane and Luanze.

How they took over Mutapa State

● Mutapa was made a vassal state by the Portuguese; the Portuguese began to demand
tribute from vassal chiefs.
● Vassal chiefs rebelled against the Mutapa; Mutapa turned to the Portuguese for protection.
● At first Portuguese wanted an alliance with the Mutapa so as to replace Swahili and Moor
traders in gold, silver and ivory; they also wanted to spread Christianity.
● Moor traders continued to establish more routes into the interior and this influenced
Portuguese to make contacts with the interior.

● However the Mutapa :

⮚ Lost the right to give any gold bearing territories to other whites.
⮚ Had to pay tribute to the Portuguese.
● 1652, Munhumutapa Mavura died and was succeeded by Domingos. Domingos was
assassinated and Nyenyedzi took over.
● Nyenyedzi was succeeded by Nyakunembiri, Nyakunembiri appealed to Changamire Dombo
to assist him in fighting the Portuguese; together they destroyed the Portuguese power and
killed most of the Portuguese.
● No Portuguese were seen in Mutapa until colonisation when BSAC took over Mutapa.
● Mutapa state was now under Changamire Dombo, Mutapa state was dead.

Decline of the Mutapa State

● Inexperienced leaders - there were inexperienced leaders who took over after the death of
Matope (1450) e.g. Nyahuma.
● Overpopulation - the state became too large to be controlled by one king.
● Civil wars and Succession disputes - this was due to power struggle within the Mutapa e.g.
vassal chiefs who rose against the ruling Mutapa. Nyahuma was killed by Changa and later
Changa was killed by Nyahuma’s sons. The State became politically weak.
● Portuguese Influence - they brought Christianity which destroyed the traditional religion of
the Mutapa people.
● Shortage of Salt and Minerals - this affected trade which once made the state a prosperous
one.
● Death Of Many People - Outbreaks of epidemics killed a lot of people.

ZJC NOTESPage 26
ZJC NOTESPage 27
 THE ROZVI STATE
● The Rozvi kingdom was also known as the Changamire state.
● The State is believed to have existed between 1445 and 1695.
● According to oral tradition Changa who briefly ruled the Rozvi in the 1490s was the first
to use the title Changamire.
● Changa was son of Matope and a slave wife.
● After his death his son adopted the title Changamire and moved to Guruuswa area
south-western Zimbabwe.
● The Changamire State appeared to have disappeared for 150 years only to re-emerge in
the 1680’s as a very strong state under the leadership of Changamire Dombo.
● He was believed to be once a herdsman of Munhumutapa Mukombwe.
● Changamire Dombo was also known to be a magician.
● Other schools of thought believe the Rozvi originated from the Torwa State.
● Changamire Dombo conquered the Karanga and established himself in the
Butwa/Buchwa area, later he conquered the Mutapa, Uteve and Manyika areas under the
leadership of Changamire’s son Negomo.
● In the 1670s it is believed to have gathered followers and declared independence and
was forced to move away from the Mutapa towards the southwest where he fought,
conquered and absorbed the Torwa and Karanga people then he established his own
powerful state and Capital called Danamombe.
● The state adopted the name Rozvi from the Shona name Kurozva “Defraud” or
“Destroyers”, soon after the Rozvi embarked on a conquest program from surrounding
areas defeating the Mutapa, Uteve and Manyika.
● All the conquered people were forced to pay tribute.
● The state stretched to Limpopo.
● It existed up to the 17th century.
● Changa’s Rozvi included Changamire, Changamire Dombo, Changamire Negomo,
Changamire Nechagadzike, Changamire Nechapingura, Changamire Rupandamanhanga,
Changamire Gumboremvura, Changamire Chirisamhuru and Changamire
Torwechipi/Tohwechipi.

Military strength
● Changamire Dombo defeated the Portuguese in many battles between 1684-1695.
● Changamire Dombo was said to have had special powers like changing the colour of cattle,
making rain and making soldiers brave, however, the Portuguese thought he was a wizard or
magician.
● This might have been because of the clever tricks he used in battle.
● His soldiers would often form a half circle around their enemy.
● Dombo’s soldiers used many kinds of weapons like wooden clubs, assegais, spears, bow and
arrows, cow hides as shields and Rozvi officials used guns.
● Mambo received guns from the Portuguese as tribute therefore the highest ranking Rozvi
officials had guns.

Political Organisation
● Mambo was head of state, his title was hereditary, succession was collateral and
chieftainship was passed from father to son.
● The king had the duty to install new chiefs.

ZJC NOTESPage 28
● Provincial and District chiefs were responsible for maintaining peace and order in their
areas; they also collected tribute on behalf of the king.
● Vassal chiefs also paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty, failure to pay tribute meant
great punishment by military leader (Tumbare).
● Tumbare took over as leader when a king died until a new one was elected.
● The mambo was the commander of the army; he had a very strong army which maintained
peace and security in the state.
● The army possessed guns acquired from Portuguese through trade therefore they could raid
neighbouring states easily.
● It was also used to punish rebellious chiefs and subjects.
● The mambo conducted religious ceremonies with the help of priests.
● The King was advised by military leaders and provincial governors when ruling.
● He was head of the judiciary and he made sure there was fairness.
● Mambo distributed land to provincial chiefs.
● Headman was responsible for supervising homesteads.

Social organisation
● People were organised into homesteads.
● A linage head ensured good conductions of religious ceremonies and other ceremonies.
● There was sexual division of labour.
● Duties of man included several social duties such as herding cattle, building houses, making
tools, skinning animals etc.
● Females did household chores such as taking care of children, cooking, gathering firewood
and wild fruits, fetching water and making pottery.
● Homesteads were related into Moyo totem.
● They believed in “Mwari” whom they worshiped through Shona priests
● Shona priests linked the living and the dead.
● They believed mambo descended from God.
● Ancestral spirits were also vital; there were other spirits which they believed to live in
mountains and pools of water.
● They practised to “kuronzera” whereby those without cattle were given by the king to use
for manure and milk, but were not allowed to sell them or kill them.
● They sang and danced on important occasions like weddings, funerals and religious
ceremonies.
● Territorial mediums solved succession disputes.
● Spirit mediums formed members of mambo’s council and could make decisions for the state.

Economic Organisation
● Crop cultivation
~ They grew millet, sorghum and peas.
~ They also grew exotic crops like maize, watermelons, tobacco, potatoes and citrus fruits.
~ They practised shifting cultivation and burning farming.
● Pastoralism
~ They reared cattle, goats and sheep.
~ They got meat, milk and hides from those animals.

ZJC NOTESPage 29
● Hunting and Gathering
~ Hunting was done by men and was an important source of meat and hides.
~ Gathering was done by women and they gathered berries, roots and insects.

● Trade
~ They practised internal and external trade.
~ They exchanged cattle for grain in times of draught.
~ They exported gold, ivory, iron, copper and lead.
~ They exchanged these with clothes, beads, seashells, guns and candles with the
Portuguese.

● Mining
~ Gold was the main mineral, it was mined at Buchwa.
~ They also mined copper, iron and lead.
~ Iron was used to manufacture tools and weapons.
~ Copper was used to make bangles.

● Tribute
~ All subjects and Portuguese paid tribute.
~ At an installation of new chiefs the chief was obliged to pay tribute as a ssign of
allegiance therefore the chief paid tribute to the king annually

● Craftwork
~ They made wood carvings and pottery.

● Blacksmithing
~ Blacksmiths made iron tools.

● Fishing
It supplemented their diet.

● Raiding
~ They raided neighbouring states for cattle, women and even for grain.

Decline of the Rozvi State

● Civil wars disturbed economic activities.
● succession disputes which disrupted other economic activities.
● Drought also caused the decline as some people moved to favourable parts of the area and
it also weakened their economy.
● Some people moved to favourable parts of the area and it also weakened their economy.
● Overpopulation - the king lost control and this led to some political divisions.
● Attacks by Nguni groups running away from Mfecane - they were attacked by Zwangendaba
when he was defeated by Soshangane. They were also attacked and incorporated into the
Ndebele State.
● Decline in Trade - they lost control in trade which once made them very prosperous, limited
technology made mining difficult and elephant population was decreasing rapidly.
● Coming of Europeans - they were finally destroyed by the BSAC led by Cecil John Rhodes in
1890.

ZJC NOTESPage 30
ZJC NOTESPage 31
 THE NGUNI STATES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

● The Nguni people lived in fertile land along the east coast which is now South Africa.
● They were Bantu people who understood each other’s languages even though they
spoke different dialects.
● They were Xhosa, Khumalo, Zulu, Tembu, Mthethwa Mpondo, Ndwandwe, and others.

Social system
● Members of one family lived together in a family compound of scattered homesteads built in
a half circle with the cattle kraal built in the sides of hills with the huts facing towards the
east.
● The homestead had up to 1 000 huts with the mother of the homestead living in the centre
hut.

Economic system
● Nguni people cultivated crops.
● Among their crops were sorghum, kidney beans, pumpkins, melons, gourds, millet and other
grains. Tobacco and maize were cultivated later.
● They also practised livestock production (kept cattle and goats). Cattle were herded by
small separate groups of people each herd organised around a royal clan
● Cattle provided meat, hides and milk which were important in the Nguni diet.
● Cattle were also used to carry goods.
● Nguni women made clay pots for cooking and carrying water.
● The Nguni people were hunters, the chief wore leopard skins.
● Women wore copper and iron beads as jewellery; they also wore earrings, ivory bracelets,
shells feathers and various buttons.
● Land was property of the chiefdom and the king had the power to distribute land and
nobody could be deprived of this important means of production and could not be so hard as
there was plenty of it.

Political system
● The king was the head of the kingdom.
● The king was a military leader.
● He was also the final judge.
● He gave final judgement in court cases and carried out religious rituals but was not a
dictator.
● He parcelled out land to his people.
● The king received tribute.
● He ruled with the help of advisory councils which made up all important decisions.

Historical change in Nguniland

Why did the change come at the turn of the 19th century?
● The Nguni clan suddenly changed and began fighting amongst themselves.
● This fighting welded the Zulu nation into the most powerful state of its kind in Africa.
● Some claim that the changes were caused by the coming of the Europeans and better
fighting methods.
● Others suggest that this occurred as a result of the strains caused by the population growth
and land shortage.
● This country was fertile and free from diseases

ZJC NOTESPage 32
● Natural increase in population and shortage of land caused internal conflicts as there was a
competition for grazing land.
● Chiefs began to improve their methods of warfare changed from a game of skill to a serious
struggle for survival.

Dingiswayo of the Mthethwa

● In the late 18th century Dingiswayo removed his brother as chief and took over the
leadership of the Mthethwa clan.
● Dingiswayo was an innovative man who introduced revolutionary methods of warfare to
Nguniland.
● He abolished long initiation ceremonies where young men and women of the same age
group no longer had to attend circumcision schools were they where initiated into
manhood and womanhood by elders.
● Instead Dingiswayo took the young man into his army in groups of the same age.
● He organised them into military units called regiments so they could achieve their
manhood on the battle field.
● Dingiswayo’s army spared people they defeated.
● By the time of his Death in 1818 he had defeated many chiefs in Nguniland.
● He had created an empire united by his rule and by his army.
● In this way Dingiswayo created a standing army in which his soldiers could study and
practise new methods of fighting.

Rise of Tshaka
● Tshaka was born in 1787.
● His father was Senzangakhona, a Zulu chief and his mother was Nandi.
● Senzangakhona and Nandi were never formally married therefor Tshaka grew up with his
mother among the Langeni, Qwabe and finally Mthethwa.
● Tshaka joined the Mthethwa’s age regiment and proved to be very brave as a regimental
leader.
● He became Dingiswayo’s military advisor at a tender age.
● When Senzangakhona died in 1816, Tshaka seized the Zulu throne; he was supported by
Dingiswayo and became the Zulu chief.
● Zulu means rain or heaven. Zulu State is said to have originated from a man called Zulu
ka Ntombela who probably was the ancestor of the Zulu clan.

Factors leading to the rise

Competition for fertile land
~ In Nguniland there was population increase and at the same time herds also increased,
people began to fight for control of land for cultivation of crops as well as grazing
animals, therefore Tshaka proved to be very powerful and defeated a lot of states hence
his rise to power.
Competition for trade with Portuguese
~ Portuguese wanted cattle, fresh meat and ivory.
~ The number of cattle a state had the more it would supply meat to the Portuguese.
~ The Zulu had a lot of cattle and controlled hunting grounds for ivory, therefore Tshaka
emerged as powerful.

Military methods learnt by Tshaka from Dingiswayo.

~ Tshaka had learnt a lot of military tactics from Dingswayo.

ZJC NOTESPage 33
Tshaka’s ambitious character
~ Tshaka was teased by his peers as he grew up, so he was determined to prove to them
that he could achieve something in life and became a chief.

Military reforms
Assegai/ Short stabbing spear
~ Tshaka introduced the assegai, which encouraged hand to hand fighting; it made sure
that the enemy was killed. Loss of this assegai meant harsh punishment / execution.
~ Any stab at the back was considered cowardice and it attracted punishment of death.

Bare-footed
~ Soldiers went to war bare-footed so as to increase speed.

Age regiments
~ Soldiers were organised in regiments according to their ages. Regiments were
disciplined and loyal to Tshaka, they were trained to fight effectively in battles.

Long shields
~ Long shields were developed and were made of cow hides.
~ The fact that the shields were the height of a man made it possible to shield soldiers
from enemies.
~ The shield was also used to hook away enemies shields.

Discouragement of early marriages

~ Early marriages were discouraged as one could not fight well thinking of the family back
home.
~ However, soldiers who displayed skill by killing a lot of enemies later got beautiful
women raided during war.
~ Raided men were incorporated into the Zulu army, sometimes they fought for total
destruction by killing men, women and children.
~ Therefore no soldier was allowed to marry before forty.

Banning of circumcision
~ Tshaka banned the system of circumcision as it prevented young boys from participating
in war.

Use of Guerrila warfare.

~ Tshaka used guerrilla warfare by attacking at night and at times ambush attacks.

Use of witch doctors.

~ Tshaka used witchdoctors to treat injured soldiers.

Use of spies
~ These were sent to gather information about the enemy. They helped in setting a
suitable regiment to attack the enemy.

use of smoke signals

ZJC NOTESPage 34
 ~ Tshaka made use of smoke signals for communication.

Distinctive head-gear
~ Each regiment had a distinctive head-gear.

Cow-horn formation
~ The cow-horn formation proved very effective as it made the Zulu to win wars.

The cow-horn formationv

Economic organisation
● They cultivated near homesteads, they grew maize and millet.
● Men took care of cattle, manufactured and repaired weapons and other household tools e.g.
hoes; they also constructed huts as well as repairing them.
● Some skilful women were involved in bead work; pottery making and making of mats.
Weaving was done to produce mats.
● They traded iron tools with each other.
● They also gathered to complement their diet.
● They kept cattle for meat, milk and hides.
● They paid tribute to the chief in the form of cattle, special animal skins and other iron tools.
● They practised external trade with English traders; beads and cloth were exchanged for
ivory.
● Ivory hunted belonged to the king.
● They also practised hunting and hunting parties were put into regiments.

ZJC NOTESPage 35
 Political organisation
● The king was an absolute ruler; he was supreme administrator though he had a council of
Indunas which advised him when ruling. Though he got advice his decision was final.
● Duties of the king included:
⮚ Allocating land.
⮚ Distributing cattle.
⮚ Commander of the army.
⮚ Chief Judge.
⮚ Initiated inxwala and inkata ceremonies.
● Chiefs were vital as they ruled their chieftaincies.
● Chiefs were loyal to the king.
● The state was divided into regimental towns and a woman was chosen to override each
town. This was a way of controlling regiments and also gave information to Tshaka on the
Induna responsible of that town; this encouraged the checking on the balance of the
administration.
● Each regimental town encircled a huge cattle pen as each town was allocated regimental
cattle.
● Outlying tributary states paid tribute to Tshaka as a sign of respect.
● Youths were divided into military groups which could provide service to the state e.g.
working for the king; they could also raid and hunt.
● The king controlled their work leading to public order.

Social Organisation
● The Zulu believed in God whom they called Unkulunkulu.
● They believed in worldly spirits “Amadlozi” whom people would communicate with in times
of need.
● They believed that every misfortune that people encountered was caused by sorcery
(magical practise).
● Settlements/military towns were circular and each settlement encircled a cattle pen.
● Cattle were vital as they determined one’s social status; they were used for paying lobola.
● Polygamy was widely practised such that a Zulu family was built on a polygamous family.
● Zulu became the national language so those incorporated into the state had to speak the
language.
● Inxwala ceremony was initiated by the king and every Zulu member had to attend.
● Inkata was a national ceremony that promoted Zulu identity.

Problems faced by Tshaka during his reign

● His most trusted Induna e.g. Mzilikazi ran away, this made the state weaker and he felt
insecure.
● He did not get support from his family and relatives.
● He got many threats from British, Ndwandwe and Boers.
● The death of his mother made him rule with anger and also reminded him of his death.
● He had unsuccessful military campaigns and was defeated by the British.

Successes of Tshaka’s rule

● Zulu became a very large state under Tshaka due to raids, a lot of people were incorporated
into the state and the State expanded from Pongola river to the north i.e. Tugela river up to
Indian ocean in the east.

ZJC NOTESPage 36
● Zulu was a unified State because people who were absorbed had the same culture and
language.
● Age regiments brought young people together as they no longer stayed in homesteads, but
regimental towns therefore they became more loyal to Tshaka than the clan head.
● The State became dominant in Southern Africa and was known as the “fighting machine”
due to military reforms introduced by Tshaka.
● Development of pride in the Zulu State due to military success in war.
● The Zulu State became a very rich state economically; cattle raided were a lot and people
benefited through meat, milk, hides and manure etc.

Reasons for the decline of Zulu State

Death of Tshaka
● Ineffective leaders took over.

Death of Nandi
● Tshaka felt empty without her as she was his advisor.

Mfecane.
● His most trusted Indunas ran away e.g. Mzilikazi with some of the Zulu people and the
state was weakened.

Endless military campaigns.

● Tshaka’s endless campaigns made his warriors to be exhausted and they nolonger
wanted these campaigns.
● This led to them hating him and finally assassinate him.

Reasons why Tshaka was killed/assassinated

● Tshaka no longer sought the advice of his advisors
● His relatives became jealous of his success
● Tshaka’s engage in endless warfare
● Tshaka’s strict discipline became so oppressive.
● Tshaka increasingly killed people for petty offences
● Tshaka killed people for not mourning his mother. This was cruelty.

MFECANE
⎯ It refers to wars which took place among then Nguni people around the 18 th century,
Nguni people included many groups speaking dialects e.g. Zulu, Mthethwa, Xhosa, Hlubi,
Mpondo, Zizi etc.
⎯ New states were found due to military power and trading.
⎯ By 1820s, one state had emerged to dominate others (Mthethwa of Dingiswayo, Ngwane
of Sobhuza) i.e. Zulu state.
⎯ Other states were forced to migrate from Nguniland e.g. Ndebele of Mzilikazi and Kololo
of Sebetwane.
⎯ A lot of destruction resulted as warfare spread to Central Africa as death and destruction
was greatly experienced.

ZJC NOTESPage 37
 ⎯ This time was called Mfecane by the Zulu meaning “Great crushing” and Difaqane by the
Sotho meaning “Scattering”. It was also referred to as time of suffering, trouble,
movement etc.

Causes of Mfecane
● Economic and Political development
⎯ Northern Nguni people were farmers during the 19 th century and heavy rainfall was
received leading to good crop yields, the area had good soils and vegetation leading
to surpluses. As a result population increased.
⎯ As population increased herds also increased in size and therefore could not be
moved freely to the hills and villages for grazing.
⎯ There was an imbalance in population density and available resources so competition
to control the best lands for agriculture and grazing purposes developed.
● Age regiments
⎯ As states grew age regiments increased in importance e.g. were Amabutho promoted
unity and provided an army as competition to control land increased, therefore the
role of the army became more important and initiation ceremonies were banned so
that young men would participate in the army.
● Hunting and Gathering
⎯ This led to a large scale destruction of wild game.
⎯ Powerful states could get larger areas for hunting as they could overpower weaker
states.
⎯ Elephant hunting led to a greater demand of ivory at Delagoa Bay by the Europeans,
good control of such trade meant a lot of wealth to a particular state, and this also
meant good rewards to subjects.
⎯ The desire to control trade led to growth of states.
● Drought
⎯ Rains came to an end and drought was experienced for about ten years.
⎯ Crops failed, pastures withered leading to wide spread famine.
⎯ This became known as Madlatule famine meaning Madlatule meaning “let him eat and
keep quiet”.
⎯ Competition for scarce resources became severe as people raided each other for cattle
and stores of grain.

Course of Mfecane
● When raided some chiefdoms broke up and migrated disorganised as desperate beggars,
they had no time to pack up food or cattle.
● Some migrated as strong men and women under leadership and most likely not to beg.
● Whole chiefdoms were terrified of the Zulu and its raids so much that they moved to safer
lands while some remained and paid tribute to the Zulu.
● Ngwane of Sobhuza was defeated by Ndwandwe of Zwide and moved to north part of
Pongola River, his soldiers adapted tactics of the Zulu, Mthethwa and Ndwandwe. This made
him conquer other weak groups and incorporated them into his new kingdom (Swaziland).
● Soshangane of Gaza-Nguni was in Zwide’s army as one of the chief officers, when Tshaka
defeated the Ndwandwe in 1818 he escaped and absorbed some immigrants (Northwards)
and he was able to conquer Southern Zimbabwe and Mozambique but was not as successful
as Sobhuza as his political influence was weak.

ZJC NOTESPage 38
● Zwangendaba of the Ngoni also escaped when the Ndwandwe were defeated, he followed
Soshangane but parted when the two clashed and lost the battle in 1831 and the Ngoni
travelled to Northwest Zimbabwe.
● Zwangendaba had a series of battles with the Shona under Changamire dynasty, failing to
subdue them completely. He crossed the Zambezi river and finally settled in Tanzania.
● After Zwangendaba’s death they separated, one group settled in Eastern Zambia and the
other group caused havoc in Southern Tanzania and Malawi as they used Nguni warfare to
overwhelm weaker groups.
● Mzilikazi of the Khumalo was also part of the Ndwandwe, but presided over the Khumalo clan
as he was loyal to Tshaka, Zwide had conflicted with Mashobane, Mzilikazi’s father so as a
result there was hatred between the groups and Mzilikazi sided with Tshaka, but sooner
conflicted because of resources as he preferred to give them to the Khumalo than the Zulu.

Impact of Mfecane
● Death of many people due to hunger as they lost their cattle, sheep and goats.
● Abandonment of circumcision as it kept young boys away from active duty for a long time
i.e. in the army.
● Destruction of chiefdoms which began Mfecane e.g. Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, Ngwane and new
ones emerged e.g. Kololo of Sebetwane and Ndebele of Mzilikazi.
● Some large areas were left depopulated e.g. South of Tugela river
● Spread of Nguni culture and language through assimilation. However, in some instances the
Nguni language was destroyed.
● New war tactics were spread in Southern and Central Africa.
● People from stronger chiefdoms benefited from the loot taken from weaker chiefdoms.
● Leaders were appointed due to talent and rather than inheriting.
● A balance between human population and land available was established leading to stability
in the region.

ZJC NOTESPage 39
 THE NDEBELE STATE

Ndebele Migration

Ndebele means man of long shields. Mzilikazi’s Khumalo was part of Zwide’s Ndwandwe but
later joined Tshaka’s Zulu State. In 1821 Mzilikazi was sent by Tshaka to raid the Sotho,
Mzilikazi then decide not to hand over the raided cattle. Tshaka sent an army as this was
regarded as rebellion against him; the Zulu army was defeated by the Ndebele. Its leader
was Mzilikazi son of Mashobane of the Khumalo clan. The Zulu army was sent for the second
time and Mzilikazi was defeated at Ntumbane hill but some warriors were left. In 1822 the
Ndebele moved across Drakensburg. Between 1822 1nd 1823 the Ndebele reached Olphant
River and they rested at Ekupemeleni (resting place). They continued to raid neighbouring
states, bringing forth cattle, men and women who integrated into the state. Ekupemeleni
was not a very good area as it was close to Zululand and the Pedi were a threat to the
Ndebele, the area also lacked good grazing lands especially after the 18323/24 draught,
since it was resting place the Ndebele head to move. They moved to Pretoria and their new
settlement was called Nhlahlandela, at Nhlahlandela they attracted the Sotho through their
raids in Botswana, Lesotho and Zimbabwe. The area was still close to Zululand which was
now under Din’ani and in 1830 Dingani sent an army to attack the Ndebele. The Ndebele
also felt insecure as they experienced threats from Kora and Khoisan.

● After the attack by the Zulu the Ndebele were also attacked by the Griguas, Tswana and
Kora continuously attacked the Ndebele especially for hunting grounds, the Ndebele then
sent an army and defeated the groups but lost men , women and cattle.
● The Ndebele moved further to Marico and their new settlement was at Masega.
● The Ndebele left Masega due to frequent attacks and in 1837 they moved further north.
● At this point they divided themselves into two groups since the group was too large to
control and feed.
● One group was under Chief Induna Gundwane Ndiweni also called Kalipi. It had old people,
women, children, sheep, goats and Mzilikazi’s children; Nkulumani and Lobengula. This
group moved to Mzingwane valley hill where they reached
the once Rozvi state, they named the place Gibixhegu (Nhavayatumbare).
● The second followed a longer route. Mzilikazi was the leader and was helped by Indunas
including Magqekeni, they moved westwards towards Lake Ngami leading to the Kalahari
Desert. They moved eastwards towards Zambezi but the area was tsetse infested.
● When Mzilikazi heard that Nkulumani had been installed as king, he rushed to Gibixhegu and
killed Ndiweni and some of the chiefs who had installed Nkulumani as king.
● Nkulumani ran away and Lobengula was hidden and released when Mzilikazi had calmed
down.
● Mzilikazi then established his capital at Inyathi and in 1840 in Matabeleland. It is believed
the Ndebele arrived in present day Zimbabwe in 1841 and found Rozvi state seriously
weakened and established their state in the now modern city of Bulawayo.

● Factors leading to the rise of Ndebele State

● Mzilikazi ability to rule

ZJC NOTESPage 40
 He saved the Khumalo from Tshaka’s ruthlessness by leading them, through a long journey
i.e. from Nguniland to Zimbabwe.

● Strong army
The Ndebele had a very strong army because Mzilikazi had learnt a lot of fighting methods
from Tshaka. The army raided a lot of people for cattle and grain as they travelled and were
able to feed the Ndebele. The army was also able to defend the people from enemies
leading to the creation of the Ndebele state.

● Enough mineral wealth

They had a lot of gold which enabled them to practise both internal and external trade. They
traded with the Portuguese and the Arabs hence prosperity of the state.

● Strong economy
Food was in abundance as they supplemented raiding with agriculture though agriculture
was on a small scale; this led to growth of the state.

Political organisation
● The Ndebele state was more centralised and covered a limited area.
● All Ndebele cattle were located within 80km of the kings’ village
● Outlying areas of the Rozvi Empire were kept in touch through ambassadors and tribute to
the royal court and shrine of Mwari.
● The king occupied central and almost powerful position in the Ndebele state.
● The king was the commander of the army and chief judge.
● He was also chief administrator and religious leader.
● He made major decisions and power of life and death over the subjects.
● He was helped to administer the state by a few wise men in the advisory council.
● The Mpakati was made up of selected chiefs and members of the royal family; they made all
decisions affecting the state.
● A bigger advisory council called the Izikulu included all chiefs, elders known for wisdom,
traditional customs and history; these groups discussed all national issues in accordance to
local tradition before referring them to Mpakati and the king.
● Mzilikazi organised his state in regimental towns.
● Each town was a settlement of soldier and supporting civilian’s commanded by an Induna.
● The Induna was an administrator of the town as well as military commander.
● These regional governors kept the king regularly briefed on the activities and the state
affairs of the province.
● The regimental towns were grouped into 4 provinces headed by an appointed chief.
● Provinces were divided into regimental towns and an Induna was in charge of each
regiment, however, their position was not hereditary, some of the king’s wives controlled the
provinces therefore these wives had power over Indunas, this encouraged total control of
the state as the wives reported any developments and problems to the king.

Socio-Political organisation

The state was divided into three classes:

⮚ Zansi
Constituted of the original Khumalo who formed aristocracy class, they made up 15% of the
total population; although they were few they were very powerful and privileged. Most

ZJC NOTESPage 41
 Indunas were elected from this class; they were not allowed to marry from Enhla and Hole
but with time could, the Enhla and hole were not allowed to marry from Zansi.
⮚ Enhla
This made up all elements that had been in cooperated into the state either by force or
voluntary on their journey from Nguniland to Zimbabwe. They made up 25% of the total
population and included the Sotho, Tswana and Kora etc. they were not as privileged as the
Zansi but were treated better than the Hole class.
⮚ Hole
This was made up of the Shona, Karanga, Leya, Nyayi etc; they made up 60% of the total
population. They were most disadvantaged in the state as they did most of the hard work in
the state. They were not elected as Indunas or any other leadership positions in the state.

Economic organisation
● Cultivation
They practised crop cultivation but on a small scale because the area could hardly
Receive enough rainfall. They grew crops such as maize, millet, sorghum, pumpkins, melons,
potatoes, beans etc. Both men and women cultivated crops.

● Pastoralism
They were also pastoralists who kept sheep, cattle and goats. Cattle were of greater value
compared to sheep and goats. There were Zebutho (National herds) and Inkomo Zamatonga
(Private herds and king’s herds). The rich loaned cattle to those who had none and this
promoted peace among the Ndebele. Cattle were used for lobola payment, as food at
funerals, weddings, inxala ceremony and in times of draught.
● Trade
Ndebele practised both internal and external trade. Externally they traded with the
Portuguese and Arabs for firearms, beads, cloth and ceramics, foreigners were interested in
gold and ivory. Internally they traded cattle for grain and iron tools e.g. hoes, spears and
knifes.

● Raiding
Was vital amongst the Ndebele, they obtained food young men and women. Youngman were
needed to build a strong army to defend the state; this also meant a powerful nation. Herds
also increased through raiding.

● Tribute
It was paid by subjects as a sign of respect; it could be in the form of cattle, grain, firewood,
iron tools, leopard’s skin and labour.

● Hunting and Gathering

There was clear division of labour as men hunted and women gathered. Animals such as,
Impalas, Kudus etc were hunted whilst women gathered berries, bulbs and small insects.
● Crafts work
Women were involved in weaving baskets; baskets could be used to store grain. Pottery
work was done and thus having pots for cooking.

● Blacksmithing
This was mainly done by and made hoes, spears and knives.

Religion

ZJC NOTESPage 42
● Nguni groups worshipped a high God (Mlimo), Mlimo and Unkulunkulu were the same, the
Ndebele adapted Mlimo from the Tswana and when they reached Zimbabwe they adopted
the Shona high God (Mwari), Mwari was believed to be powerful so when rain failed they
consulted Mwari.
● The Ndebele sent annual gifts and offerings to the Mwari shrine.
● The Karanga and Rozvi worshipped “Mhondoro” a lion spirit, powers of God and ancestors
could be only reached through Mhondoro or king.
● They held an annual gathering, inxala ceremony were they thanked ancestors for good
harvests, prosperity and success especially in military campaigns.
Ndebele-Shona relations
● For a long time it was commonly believed that the coming of the Ndebele caused the
breakdown and disappearance of all aspects of Shona life.
● Lobengula also believed that Mashonaland was under his control; it was so because he did
not know to what extent of the area inhabited by the Shona speaking people.
● However, the Ndebele took time to establish control of the Shona groups and even when
they did the impact was not always as disastrous and as brutal.
● It is assumed that despite the raid of the Shona, the Ndebele were more interested in peace
by exchanging grain and iron tools for cattle and they also adopted some Shona religions.
● The impact of the Ndebele dominance was greater to those who lived near than those who
lived further away.
● The interdependence that existed between the Shona and the Ndebele is witnessed by their
willingness in fighting together during the first Chimurenga against European imperialism /
occupation.

Decline of the Ndebele State

● Mzilikazi died in 1868 and was succeeded by Lobengula in 1870, between 1868 and 1870
there were succession disputes between Gwabalanda and a chief Induna who supported
Lobengula and Zwangendaba’s regiments which supported Nkulumani, Zwangendaba urged
that Nkulumani was still alive in South Africa.
● Lobengula experienced threats from Transvaal, Portugal and Britain, they were interested
acquiring colonies for prosperity, and therefore they were defeated by BSAC in 1893.

THE SLAVE TRADE AND ORIGINS OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT

What does slavery mean?

It is when one is taken forcibly from their home and sold. One there for loses their freedom
and their possessions and no longer is in control of their lives and they are ill-treated.

Origins of underdevelopment
Wealth of a society is no longer used for its own development and this is called
underdevelopment. Wealth is exported and the people are robbed of their potential by their
own labour and resources. Africa was developing at her own pace meeting her own
technological needs, however, in the mid of the 15 th century changes took place that allowed
the natural course of her history and development. European traders came to Africa not to
look for traditional items for trade such as gold, ivory and cloth but to purchase people. It

ZJC NOTESPage 43
 was the beginning of the processed of underdevelopment. The progressive development of
Africa was disturbed and never restored.

The Demand for slaves

The sale of human beings was a result of external demand. The growth of political and
economic systems required the use of human labour. The development of mercantile
capitalism in Europe and America led to the setting up of plantations and mines where
human labour was required to produce a mine and warrant of minerals and grew sugar,
tobacco, coffee and bananas needed by emerging capitalists of Europe. A number of areas
in South Africa and the mainland of North America were colonised.

Why ware Africans Enslaved?

● It is believed that Africans were prepared and could resist diseases.
● Others argued that Africa had many unwanted people who could be sold without disturbing
the existence of the social system.

Supply of slaves
● The demand for slaves led to the capture or buying of many millions of Africans.
● However, millions of people died during the process of raiding, capture and transport.
● One study says the population of Europe and Asia increased by 4 times between 1650-1900,
while that of Africa remained stable.
● The slave buyers preferred their victims between the age of 15-35 thus it had a terrible
effect on the African labour force.
● Most of the people sold into slavery in the Americas and the Atlantic islands came from West
Africa.
● The Portuguese were the first to obtain slaves in 1518. There after the supply of slaves from
West Africa was more as countries such as Britain, France, Netherlands and Spain were
involved.
● The main supplying regions were the Sene-Gambia, Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast of
Benin.
● During the latter part of the 18 th century, the supply of the slaves from West Africa
decreased because of the growing anti-slavery movements in some parts of Europe. This
forced the slave traders to concentrate on the East African region.
● These slaves were exported to Oman, Persian Gulf and India.
● In the 19th century there were also sent to Brazil and the Caribbean islands.
● During the early days of the trade European merchants obtained slaves through the use of
force. They hunted and raided local people of the coast and later then adopted methods of
exchange.
● They offered African middlemen imported and manufactured items such as cloth, metal
work, ornaments, guns and gun powder, spirits and tobacco in exchange for human beings.
● The middlemen were chiefs, clan leaders and headmen.
● The victims were weaker ethnic groups, prisoners of war, criminals, so called witches and
domestic slaves.

Abolition of slave trade

● As anti-slavery movements increased more and more slaves were supplied to the Arab
owned plantations on the island of Zanzibar and Pemba.
● It is said throughout the 19th century about ½ of the population of these islands were made
up of slaves.

ZJC NOTESPage 44
● Despite the fact that it laagered behind Portugal in the slave trade, Britain was the leading
buyer of slaves by the 18th century.
● However, Britain was also the first to abolish the trade of humans.
● Some of the leading British abolitionists were Thomas Clarkson (Writer), William Wilberforce
(Member of Parliament) and Granville Sharp (Lawyer).
● These and others that opposed slave trade were known as Humanitarians.
● Slavery was declared as illegal in 1772 but the British Parliament did not agree in the
abolition of slave trade until 1807.
● Slavery itself in the Americas was not abolished until much later and in the British colonies
in 1833, however, the trade continued illegally from much of the 19 th century.

Effects of slave trade

● Slave migration affected development because of loss in human resources.
● The Big man and the middleman strengthen their political and economic powers.
● Slave landlords became very wealthy.
● The strong military groups were able to build stronger states as a result of slave trade;
however, smaller states were completely wiped out and destroyed as a result of slave
trading.
● Indigenous development suffered through loss of able bodied.
● Trading items such as gold and salt declined.
● Indigenous mining, craft and manufacturing declined.
● The exchange system was unequal to one side and European goods discouraged
development.

ZJC NOTESPage 45
THE RISE OF CAPITALISM

Feudalism
It is a way of producing goods. Agriculture was the main means of production and very few
people known as Landlords were masters. Serfs or tenants worked for the Landlords and got
food as payment. Landlords enjoyed most of the benefits and passed on the land to their
children meaning a landlord would always remain a landlord and a serf a serf for the rest of
their lives.

Capitalism
It is a way of producing goods by machines. The means of production was formed by
Capitalists or Bourgeoisie and workers or proletariats did work for the capitalists for very low
wages. During the 16th century there were improvements in trade as ships had been
invented so a group known as commercial middle class emerged. Trade became very
successful during this period as gold, ivory, spices and beads were on demand by European
capitalists. This marked the first stage from feudalism to capitalism.

The 2nd stage of development was in the 17 th century were by great growth of factories was
experienced. This led to a class struggle as people were fighting to control the few
resources. The growth of industries led to the demand of raw materials.

The 3rd stage was around the 1870s. It was imperialism. Many countries e.g. Germany, Italy,
France, U.S.A. and Japan etc. began to compete for the control of the raw materials.

The Renaissance
There was a rebirth of science, arts and ideas in general, before this period all knowledge
was based on Catholic beliefs such as writing of art followed by Ancient Rome and Greek
beliefs. The period before renaissance was called Medieval meaning middle age. In the
Renaissance period people were more interested in Geography, Geometric navigation,
biology (working of the human body).
Painting
In the medieval period painting about religion dominated as church was powerful. When
church powers had been weakened, painters’ painting throughout Gietto painted portraits,
animals and sins of dirty life and was the 1 st Renaissance Italian men Rafael, Leonardo Da
Vinci, Michael Angelo and Dante painted to show beauty and they marked the period of
Renaissance.
Architecture
This in concerned with building structures such as libraries and theatres were put up.
Peruzzi, Rafael and Michael Angelo made plans of this using mathematics.
Literature
Dante an Italian writer became the first in the Renaissance period to use the local language.
It was passed on from Italy to several countries like Spain, France and England was William
Shakespeare and Spencer in England became popular.

Ideas of Humanism
Education dealt with human matters (Humanism) rather than religion and church rules of the
medieval period. Scholars concentrated on human needs and sciences. These included art of
persuading i.e. history, poetry and ethics. The first humanist was Petrarch (1304-1374) and
he was an Italian.
Scientist Year Discovery

Copernicus 1473-1545 Earth moves around this sun rather than the

ZJC NOTESPage 46
 sun moving around the earth.

Galileo 1564-1642 How to make accurate clocks.

He also studied astronomy and he supported

the idea that the sun is stationary and the
planets move.

Isaac Newton 1624-1727 Force of gravity and his famous laws.

Harvey The way which blood moves around the

body.

Gutenberg 1600-1648 Printed the 1st book.

Achievement of the Renaissance

● Managed to make people think outside spiritual.
● Things were no longer safe for public criticism.
● Before the Renaissance kings could not be criticised by ordinary people as they claimed that
they had powers over people.

Shortfalls of the Renaissance

Even though the renaissance questioned and challenged the church and the rule of the
traditional monarch it did not criticise the questions or systems which were developing to
take the place of the church and the monarch.

The Reformation
● It means making something better by eliminating faults.
● It started in Germany and aimed at renaming traditional beliefs including those of the
church.
● As reformation ideas fled through Europe protestants/protestant churches emerged and
these felt that the Catholics had gone away from the original teachings.
● Popes were now corrupt to the extent of asking sinners to pay money for their sins to be
forgiven.
● The church was now being accused of immorality and failing to do its duties.
● The printers made bibles readily available such that it made the people realise much of what
they heard in the church had little support in the bible.
● Those who criticised the church during this period were the kikes of Dr Martin Luther King
Junior and John Calvin.
● The new mode class freed itself from the Catholic Church resulting in many religious groups
such as Methodists, Anglicans and Protestants.

The Voyages of exploration

During the middle ages Europeans believed that tropical seas boiled and if ships sailed west
from Europe they would fall of the earth to the sky.
Why voyages of discovery
● They wished to find the route to India and the Spice Islands.
● They wanted to buy silk, carpets and scents from Asia.
● They wanted to get areas and their money on them and became richer e.g. Prince Henry the
navigator who led the sea route to India.

ZJC NOTESPage 47
 Explorer Area explored Achievement

Prince Henry. India. He prepared maps to help

the Portuguese sailors.

Christopher Columbus. Atlantic Ocean. Discovered America.

Vasco Da Gama. Round the Cape of Good Opened the route to India by
Hope. sea.

Bartholomew Diaz. Cape of Good Hope. Passed the most southerly

point of Africa.

Conclusion
● The Renaissance bridged the gap between feudal and modern times.
● The feudal societies had been dominated by the Catholic Church.
● The Renaissance with its humanist emphasis of truth and ethical evidence destroyed the
ethical feudal order where the church’s beliefs and ideas dominated.
● The church had been at the centre of scientific understanding, political thoughts and
education.
● During the Renaissance there was now a re-examination of all religion beliefs including
those of the Catholic Church.
● A great religious movement and the teachings and structure of those of the Catholic Church
had started in the 16th century in Germany and spread throughout the world.
● These predestines failed that the Catholics had gone away from the original teachings and
disciplines of Christianity.
● For many centuries the Catholic Church claimed great wealth from its subjects all over
Europe and it strengthened its power from feudal rulers.

ZJC NOTESPage 48
 THE AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

Capitalism replaced feudalism in Britain when wealth was created by new farming methods.
Firstly banks were established and people borrowed money to build factories and machines.
Peasants were forced to work in factories and supplied labour for capitalists for low wages.
In a capitalist system the main source of social struggle was between the working and the
capitalist class. The capitalists used workers to make profits. Capitalists are therefore
parasitic because they can’t live without exploiting the workers. Britain is the father of
capitalism in Europe and in the world in general. It was made the workshop of the world
because of its industries.

THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLITION

Instead of farming for subsistence (to feed the landlords and serfs) the landlords began
farming to make a profit. By the 18 th century commercial agriculture was fully established.
Those working had no time to grow crops so they had to buy crops.

Factors leading to the Agricultural revolution

● Wealth from agriculture.
● Wealth from industries.
● Wealth from slave trade.
● Wealth from plantations of the Caribbean Islands.
● Improvements in transport, roads, railways and bridges.

The Enclosure system

This was when large open fields were fenced or walled into strips of land, either for growing
crops or grazing lands for animals. The peasants suffered because the (common) land was
enclosed for the landlords’ agriculture so the peasants had no more land to graze their
animals leading to the struggle between landowning and landless classes.

Crop rotation
Crops were grown in rotation instead of leaving the land to fallow.

Advantages of crop rotation

● Soil maintained fertile.
● There was more production of food.
● Intensive use of lands.

Lord Townsend introduced crop rotation. John Sinclair and Jethro Tull were big land owners
and demonstrated how agricultural capitalism worked.

Effects of Agricultural revolution

● Struggle between peasants and landlords over land existence.
● Landlords became richer either by buying or claiming large areas of land.
● Peasants were forced to become agricultural workers or industrial workers.
● There was harsh exploitation of defenceless peasants of profit making landlords.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

ZJC NOTESPage 49
 Industrial revolution is the change in industrial methods from hand work to work done by
machines driven by power. People had to change from working in homes to factories.
Production was now on a large scale. Britain was determined to produce cheap and
abundant goods in order to supply markets worldwide rather than country wide.
Comparison

Before After

Manufacturing done at home. Manufacturing done in Factories.

Goods produced were used by few Goods were used for several purposes and
neighbouring families. sold to different countries.

Society depended largely on land. Society depended largely on machines.

¾ of population lived in rural areas and ¼ in ½ population lived in towns and ½ in rural
towns. areas.

Causes of Industrial revolution in Britain

● Desire to engage in foreign trade by means of merchant fleet, fleet enabled Britain to trade
in many parts of the world.
● She used the money she had and she got developed due to scientific inventions which made
work easier.
● Population growth led to a creation of a big market to manufacture goods; domestic
industries could not cope with demands of population and thus different methods of
manufacturing goods in large quantities were used.
● Merchant fleet enabled British to conquer a big empire i.e. India, Canada and overtook the
Ports so Britain had a big market to cover for.
● Stability in Britain - as it was never colonised by any other country.
● Strong concentration was on Economic development rather than war
● Large quantities of iron ore were vital for development of factory machines and most factory
machines shifted to steam power, Britain was at an advantage as large coal deposits existed
in South Wales.
● Invention of machines by scientists - this precipitated industrial revolution and this was
possible due to capital from trade.

Factors leading to Industrial revolution

● Establishment of banks by 1890, there were 70 banks in London and 400 in Britain.
● Availability of cheap labour to operate machines, landless peasants were turned into
desperate job seekers and worked under harsh conditions.
● Increased demand for produce in Europe e.g. Industrialists had more money to spend and
also demand from overseas markets.
● Improvement in transport spared in industrial revolution.
● Raw materials and labour reached factories easily, quickly and cheaply.
● Finished products were easily transported to markets.

Power
More reliable sources of power were developed especially steam engines which replaced
animal power, wind power and water power. Steam engines used coal and thus mining was

ZJC NOTESPage 50
 developed. Thomas Newcomer invented the steam engine and James Watts improved it. The
new source of power was invented between 1705 and 1720.

Changes in textile industry

Textile industries refer to cotton manufacturing industries. The manufacturing of cloth

included spinning and weaving.
Spinning - The process of piecing together wool and cotton to form yarn.

Weaving – the process of intertwining the yarn lengthwise and crosswise to form cloth.

Name of Inventor year Machine invented Purpose of machine

John Kay 1733 Flying Shuttle. Weaving - Became faster than

spinning

James Hargreaves 1767 Spinning Jenny. Spinning –Produced 11 spindles of

yarn at once. Yarns were stronger
for weft and not strong for warp. It
could be worked by hand.

Richard Arkwright 1769 Water Frame. Spinning – Produced a stronger

warp than spinning journey. It
could also produce weft which was
stronger and could work by water
power.

Samuel Crompton 1779 The Mule. Spinning – it combined the

principles of the spinning jenny and
the water frame. Produced
stronger yarn than before and 100
spindles at once.

Edmund Cartwright 1785 Power Loom. Weaving – Weavers caught up with

spinners.

Results
● Shift of population
Factories shifted from riversides to coal mining centres, big towns began to develop and a
larger number of people began to be employed in towns, people migrated from rural to
urban areas to seek employment.

● Development of middle class

The middle class became wealthier than all landlords as most factory owners were middle
class people. The middle class included doctors, traders, teachers and lawyers.

● Development of working class

The working class was forced by landlords to work in factories. They got very low wages and
had poor working conditions. Their children became exploited by factory owners, but later
the working class formed trade unions to stand for their interests.
● Improvement in agriculture and transport

ZJC NOTESPage 51
 People survived by buying food in towns as they had nowhere to grow crops. New method s
of farming meant industrial revolution. Goods had to be transported to rural areas therefore
a new means of transport for transportation of goods was required. Roads and railways were
improved.

● A variety of iron and steel

Little steel was produced from iron and a variety resulted in cheaper and reliable equipment.

● Manufacturing industries developed

Between 1850 and 1914 Britain experienced foreign and stiff competition as there were few
raw materials. Each country needed raw materials for its industries and most workers lost
their jobs. This led to scramble and partition of Africa.

● Growth of banking sector

In 1750 there were less than 12 banks, but by 1773 they had risen to 400. This was because
of entrepreneurs who wanted money for their factories and canals.

● Development of local government

With time villages became towns as industrial towns stopped being industrialised. Therefore,
administrative structures became obvious and local authorities were put in place.

● Emancipation of women
This was a long term result of the industrial revolution. Women who went to towns were
later employed in textile factories. These women received same rate of wages as men where
they were employed in the same kind of work.

● Child and women labour

Over half the working forces in the industrial sector were women and young boys, some of
the boys were as young as 3 years. This was because children were cheap to employ and
obedient (child abuse).

● Rise of representation in parliament

New industrial towns were not represented in parliament. Wealthy merchants and
manufactures were denied admission to House of Commons therefore there was a great
demand for parliamentary reforms.

EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA

SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION FOR AFRICA

ZJC NOTESPage 52
 It took place between 1870 and 1914. As Britain began to develop in industries, she began
to invest in India and other countries as she continued to get a lot of profits so she decided
to colonise Africa so as to continue profiting. Around 1880s the world economy recovered
France and Germany began investing by colonising Africa. Britain and Portugal responded by
declaring ownership of many colonies hence the idea of scrambling and fighting for
resources.

Causes
● Political factors
⮚ Nationalism
European countries competed to colonise Africa for supremacy. A European state which had
many colonies was of importance and was of value. The Franco-Prussian war between 1870-
71 between Germany and France was an example. This greatly caused the expansion of
other European states in colonisation of most of Africa as many European states wanted to
be valued.

⮚ Strategic purposes
Other parts of Africa e.g. Egypt, Morocco, Mozambique, Angola and the Cape were obtained
to control trade in times of reservoir (peace and war). Britain’s interest in Egypt was the
Suez Canal as it was a faster route to India.

⮚ Balance of power
After the Berlin congress was held and the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 there was a
realisation by European countries that there was no power in Europe which was more
powerful than the others. This meant that no country in Europe could expand its territory
without risking a major war hence they turned to Africa where there was no resistance.

⮚ Source of troops
European nations also obtained colonies in Africa so as to provide a source and
base for troops e.g. France obtained Senegal and Britain obtained South Africa and used
Africans from these territories to fight for their respective sides during the First World War.

● Social factors
⮚ To civilise Africa
The fact that Europe was technologically advanced made Europeans feel superior to Africans
therefore Europeans felt they had the duty to civilise Africa and bring it out of darkness
characterised by cannibalism and barbarism. They considered Africans to be like children
who needed instructions on everything and they were to be dragged from their beliefs to the
civilised ones of Europe.

⮚ To end slavery and slave trade

⮚ The scramble was also as a result of need by Europeans to abolish slave trade and introduce
Christianity. Slave trade was popular in Africa so other Europeans felt that it was unfair to
continue treating Africans like this.
⮚ Extra living space and search for jobs
The scramble was also as a result of the need to create extra living space for growing
population. This was because most of the people in Britain had lost their jobs in Britain
therefore they needed to be employed elsewhere.

● Economic factors

ZJC NOTESPage 53
⮚ Need for raw materials
The 19th century marked the importance of raw materials. Industries began to produce
goods in abundance and at faster rate. Therefore, raw materials could not meet the demand
for the production of goods. This led to competition for raw materials gold, cotton, rubber
and vegetable oil. When gold was discovered at Kimberly and Witwatersrand, new hopes
were raised for Southern Africa especially South Africa and Zimbabwe which were believed
to have second rand gold.

⮚ Markets
The home population in Britain was largely made up of lowly paid workers and ordinary
people who could hardly buy goods. Britain imposed high tariffs on imported goods and this
made it difficult to sell goods to industrialised countries. As a result, most countries had to
seek markets in Africa.

⮚ Search for investment

During the European depression (1875-1900) investment of capital became lucrative and
this forced capitalists to view Africa as an investment opportunity bringing a lot of profits.
This proved true in the Kimberly diamond mines were their profits doubled or trebled those
in Europe.

⮚ Population increase
Population of industrialised countries increased and it became difficult to provide enough
food for them. Therefore, open spaces were a necessity so as to cater for all population.
Above all, European governments feared that extra and poor population could rise against
those in power as a way of expressing their needs so they wanted to avoid this.

● Local factors
The colonisation of Africa would not have been possible if there were no conditions in Africa
that led to the defeat of Africans by settlers.
⮚ There were men who were already working as agents for European countries and for charted
companies i.e. Mulatoes.
⮚ Many African states had been weakened by devastating effects of slave trade.
⮚ Minerals that were found in Africa attracted European settlers.
⮚ Some chiefs had invited the Europeans to their states and this showed lack of unity among
Africans.
⮚ Traders and missionaries urged their countries to establish political control and this made it
easier for them to accomplish their missions e.g. Charles Helm, Robert and John Moffat etc.
⮚ Influence of businessmen e.g. Cecil John Rhodes who initiated the influence of Britain in
many parts of Africa including Southern Africa. He had a dream of painting “Africa red” from
Cape to Cairo.

Berlin Conference
To avoid fighting over claim to territories in Africa, the European countries called a meeting
in Berlin, Germany in 1884-85 to discuss and decide on how to divide Africa among
themselves. No African country was invited to the conference; it showed clearly that Africa
had lost power to Europe. The future political affairs of Africa were to be decided in the
offices of Europe and not Africa.

Aims of the meeting

⮚ To draw up rules for the effective occupation of Africa. Therefore, Africa was divided into 20
territorial units known as ‘spheres of influence.’

ZJC NOTESPage 54
⮚ They agreed that any country willing to occupy African land had to inform other interested
powers so as for them to make their own claims different from the ones claimed.
⮚ To plan an effective way of conquest - effective conquest meant a colonial administrative
structure and failure to do so meant that any country had the right to occupy the particular
country this was article 35 of the Berlin Conference.
⮚ To end slavery and slave trade in territories occupied.
⮚ Major water ways e.g. Congo, Niger and Zambezi had to become open for trade to all
European countries.

Territorial terms
● Portugal which had claimed the territory at the mouth of the Congo River and got a piece of
land to the mouth of Congo.
● French claims along the Northern bank of the Congo were recognised, this became French
Congo.
● Germany claims on Tanganyika were recognised.

Results
● Africans lost power and independence to Europeans.
● Africa became a source of raw materials needed by European capitalists.
● Africa was under developed as profits were sent back to Europe.
● Africans lost their land and were forced to produce labour in farms.
● Slavery and slave trade began to be experienced in Africa.
● Africans lost their culture in most areas due to introduction of Christianity.
● Technological changes were noticed e.g. bigger ships were made to carry weapons and
larger cargo, better weapons were also made.
● Shift of population as most people moved from rural to urban areas due to construction of
industries and markets.
● Africans gained skills in carpenting, metal work, building etc.
● Development of transport system e.g. railway lines, roads and telegraph lines.
● Establishment of social services e.g. schools and hospitals.
● Improvement of agriculture due to the Agrarian revolution whereby new crops and farming
methods were introduced.

COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
It was part of imperialism brought forth by the scramble for Africa in the 19 th century. Mainly
four groups of Europeans i.e. Germans, British, Boers and Portuguese were interested in the
Limpopo Zambezi area.

British – Thought second rand gold was present across Limpopo and into Zimbabwe. They
also wanted to stop Boers from expanding into Central Africa.

Portugal – wanted to occupy Zimbabwe so as to link her colonies to South East Africa.
Portugal was familiar with trade with the Mutapa and minerals in the territories.

Germans and Boers – They dreamt of expanding their territories and therefore had to occupy
and colonise African states e.g. Cecil John Rhodes who colonised
Zimbabwe.

Early European contacts with Zimbabwe

● The Portuguese traded in Mashonaland from the early 16th century.
● Other European missionaries, traders and Adventists visited north of Limpopo in the 1820s.

ZJC NOTESPage 55
● Robert Moffat was one of the first missionaries who paved the way of the British occupation.
● He signed a treaty with Mzilikazi in 1836 which was called the Moffat treaty of 1836 which
established friendship between the Cape Government (The British) and Mzilikazi.
● Between 1836 and 1868 when Mzilikazi died he also signed a treaty with the Boers but was
not that important.

Reasons for colonisation

⮚ Expected mineral wealth
Europeans believed that as gold was discovered at the Rand in 1886, it was most probably it
also existed in Zimbabwe which could become the second gold bearing area. Previously
Portugal had benefited from gold trade in Mutapa. This caused Boers, British and Portuguese
to occupy Zimbabwe. However, the British won the fight.

⮚ Presence of good savannah soils.

Across the Limpopo there was suitable land for European commercial agriculture; this would
in turn bring about profits to Britain. The British turned to land after realising that there was
no second rand gold they envisaged.

⮚ Rhodes imperialism
He felt that the British were a superior race in the world due to their civilisation
Therefore, he felt it was their duty to civilise Africa. He intended to seize Southern Rhodesia
due to his dream to occupy Cape to Cairo.

⮚ Competition between the British and Portuguese for Zimbabwe

Britain hoped to use Zimbabwe and Central Africa transport routes to link South Africa
and East Africa, this could be done by the Cape to Cairo railway. Portuguese wanted to link
Mozambique and Angola.

⮚ Good climatic conditions

Zimbabwe was believed to have a cool climate favourable for good health. This explains why
Cecil John Rhodes came to Zimbabwe to recover from his ill-health.

⮚ Considerable population of elephants for ivory

This would promote trade and Europe would get a lot of profit since there was great demand
for ivory.

⮚ Illiterate leaders
Most African leaders were illiterate. Therefore, they were cheated in signing treaties with
Europeans.

Steps taken to colonise

● Tati concession (1870)
It was signed between Lobengula and John Swinbourne. It was created on the borderlands of
Matebeleland and Bechuanaland (Botswana). Swinbourne was granted permission to search
for gold and other minerals in that particular area.

● Gobler treaty (July 1887)

It was signed between the Boers and the Ndebele and it was a friendship treaty. Piet Gobbler
negotiated the signing of the treaty.

Terms

ZJC NOTESPage 56
⮚ Enforced peace between Matebeleland and South Africa Republic (Transvaal).
⮚ Lobengula was regarded as a Paramount chief and an ally.
⮚ Lobengula had to assist the Boers with troops if asked to help.
⮚ Anyone with a pass from the Transvaal President had the right to hunt and trade in
Matebeleland.
⮚ All criminals who could have escaped from South Africa were to be sent back to South Africa
by Lobengula.
⮚ South Africa Republic to appoint a council which would reside in Matebeleland and
administrate justice to those who might violate Lobengula’s laws.
Later Lobengula renounced the Gobbler treaty arguing that there were no independent
witnesses when the treaty was signed. Also Boers were the only ones who could read
considering the people who had signed. The Transvaal government insisted that the treaty
was still valid. Rhodes was forced to act quickly so he sent John Moffat to negotiate a treaty
with Lobengula; he wanted Matebeleland to be a British sphere of influence.

● Moffat treaty(11 Feb 1888)

Renounced the Gobbler treaty of 1887.

Terms
⮚ Peace to prevail between the British and the Ndebele.
Lobengula not to deal with any other power without permission from the British high
commissioner in South Africa.

The Rudd Concession (30 October 1888)

Rhodes sent a lawyer Rochford Maguire, his friend Charles Rudd and Francis Thompson who
spoke Ndebele well to negotiate the Rudd concession. Lobengula was unwilling to sign the
treaty but one of his Indunas called Lotshe misled him into signing the Rudd concession
because he was bribed by Thompson. Other agents of imperialism at Lobengula’s court was
a missionary Rev Charles. D. Helm, he pretended to be Lobengula’s friend as said he was
someone who did not take sides but was advancing the interest of Britain. He persuaded the
Ndebele king to sign the Rudd concession. Lobengula did not realise that Helm was actually
being paid by Cecil John Rhodes.

● Terms
Lobengula was promised:
⮚ £100 per month for an unspecified period.
⮚ 1000 loading riffles.
⮚ 100 000 rounds of ammunition.
⮚ A gun-boat to be placed on the Zambezi River.

In turn Lobengula would:

⮚ Grant mining rights to Cecil John Rhodes’ men.
⮚ Grant them power to do all things they deemed necessary in order to carry out their mining
activities.
⮚ To give legal rights to Cecil John Rhodes’ men to stop other fortune seekers such as Boers to
enter Matebeleland.

Non-verbal terms

ZJC NOTESPage 57
 ● Only ten whites were allowed to mine. They were not allowed to mine near towns, they had
to surrender their fire arms to the king.
● Obey Ndebele rules.
● Dig one hole at a time.

NB: After receiving the Rudd concession, Rhodes rushed to Britain to apply for a Charter (a written
document) to enable him to form a company for the occupation of Zimbabwe.

OCCUPATION OF ZIMBABWE BY EUROPEAN SETTLERS

Cecil John Rhodes

● Cecil John Rhodes made an effort to colonise as many African countries as possible, he
wanted to paint the continent red.
● He had moved away from Britain as a result of his illness.
● He saw business opportunities and started two businesses:
⮚ BSAC (British South African Company).
⮚ Kimberly.
● He traced his gold mine and saw that the belt was reaching Zimbabwe so he thought of
colonising the country.
● Rhodes was an imperialist at heart; he wanted to construct a railway line from Cape in South
Africa to Cairo in Egypt.
● He felt that the British were the finest race of all; he spent sleepless nights thinking how
lucky he was to be British.
● He even told Starr Jameson that they are lucky to belong to the finest flower of civilisation.

The Charter

The Charter was granted on 29 October 1889.

Objectives
● Construction of a railway line and telegraph
● Encouragement of migration and colonisation
● Development of mining
● Promote trade and commerce

ZJC NOTESPage 58
 The Charter also included that:
● Imperial government had full control of Southern Rhodesia and could act upon the
advice of the Secretary of colonies.
● The company to have its head office in Britain
● Religion in the country was not to be interfered with
● Rhodes was given permission to occupy the country for 25 years and after that
permission had be granted renewed for terms of ten years.
● Rhodes had to maintain a police force and undertake public works.

Cecil john Rhodes formed the BSAC for the occupation of Zimbabwe and a Board of Directors
was formed to lead the BSAC. Adverts were made of Engineers, Miners and Doctors etc.
Many applied, but only 200 were accepted. Every member was promised 3000 acres of land
and 15 gold claims. A police force was also formed to protect the members. Army members
and their wagons were referred to as the ‘Pioneer Column.’

The Pioneer Column

● It was a march regardless of what Lobengula said.
● Soon after being granted the Charter, Rhodes went to South Africa to gather a gang of
mercenaries which he called the pioneer column.
● The Gang consisted of 200 mercenaries supported by 500 policemen.
● To reduce danger of conflict, a decision was made to avoid Matebeleland and march into
Mashonaland.
● F.C. Selous led the way marking trees to be cut to make a road.
● About 170 wagons followed him and the nearest Ndebele village was left 150km north.
● Lobengula sent his men to ask them why they were marching but were brushed aside by
Colonel Penne-father who was commanding the Pioneer police.
● On the way the Pioneer column established Fort Tuli and from there Fort Victoria and then
Fort Charter and on September 12 1890 they got to Salisbury and hoisted the British flag
and declared Mashonaland occupied.
● As they established Fort Charter on their way, a segment of it headed by Jameson branched
off and trekked to Mashonaland to pre-amp the efforts of the Portuguese who were driving
from the east.
● The whole aim of this was to seize the east and establish Beira as an independent Port for
new BSAC territory.
● The most important Shona Chief Mutasa was persuaded by Jameson and his party to sign a
treaty known as the Mutasa treaty on the 14 th of September, 2 days after the establishment
of fort Salisbury.

The War of disposition of 1893(Anglo-Ndebele war)

● The Ndebele Kingdom was doomed from the moment Rhodes decided to colonise
Zimbabwe.

Causes
● Conflicts over control of the Shona

ZJC NOTESPage 59
 The British and the Ndebele wanted the Shona, but for different purposes. The Ndebele
needed them for raids and the British as a source of labour. The British prevented the Shona
from the continuous Ndebele raids therefore the two clashed.

● Boundary issue
After reaching Mashonaland, Jameson marked a boundary to separate Mashonaland and
Matebeleland on the Inyathi and Shashi rivers. This angered Lobengula as he continuously
asked who Jameson was, to demark such a boundary. Therefore, Lobengula refused to
accept the boundary.

● Railway link
The British felt that the Ndebele blocked the route of communication between Salisbury and
Mafeking (South Africa) as they intended to construct a railway line to link Salisbury and
Mafeking through Matebeleland. Such a route minimised costs to South Africa. This seemed
to be impossible as they feared Lobengula and above all they had not invaded
Matebeleland, but Mashonaland.

● Failure to find second rand gold in Mashonaland

British failed to get as much gold as they expected so they thought it was in Matebeleland,
they also believed that Matebeleland was built on a hill of gold.

● Rich soils and cattle

The British wanted the good grazing lands and great herds of Ndebele cattle. They believed
they would make a lot of profit from agriculture if they failed to get the gold.

● The Ndebele were warning light

They were a military threat to the British.

● Quick Victorious war

The Ndebele war would make Rhodes popular in Britain; they wanted to fight and defeat the
Ndebele as soon as they possibly could.

● The Victoria Incident

In 1891, Lomagundi and Chibi were killed by Lobengula. Lobengula continuously raided the
Shona in Masvingo who were providing labour to the British. May 1893, some men under
headman Gomara cut some 500 yards of telegraph wire between Fort Tuli and Fort Victoria.
Gomara paid the fine demanded by the British using Lobengula’s cattle. Another Chief Bere
stole Lobengula’s cattle and Lobengula became furious and sent an army under Munyawo
and Umgandani to teach Gomara and Bere a lesson. By July the army reached Masvingo,
burnt down homes, killed men and took young children and women in Zimuto and other
areas in Masvingo.

● Farms and mines were attacked and a lot of cattle were taken even the ones belonging to
the whites.
● Shona stopped providing labour in European farms and mines in Masvingo.
● The Ndebele demanded the handover of the Shona who had taken refuge in white farms and
towns.
● Lendy refused to comply and a meeting was held between Umgandani/Manyawo and
Jameson/ Lendy and this was called the Victoria Agreement.
● They agreed that the Ndebele had to withdraw from the Victoria district within 2 hours and
accept the boundary proposed.

ZJC NOTESPage 60
● Jameson felt that the Ndebele army had not gone as far as expected so he attacked them
killing 30 people including Umgandani. Lobengula became angry and sought revenge.
● War became unavoidable between the British and the Ndebele.
● After the Victoria incident, Lobengula refused monthly payments as per the Rudd
concession, Rhodes began to buy horses from South Africa and looked for volunteers to
occupy Matebeleland.
● Each volunteer was promised a farm (3 000 acres), 15 gold claims and half the cattle
captured in Matebeleland to be shared amongst volunteers.
● The first column left Harare leading to Bulawayo, the second left Victoria and met the Harare
column near Kwekwe and the last column left Botswana and went directly to Matebeleland.

Course of the War in Matebeleland

● The war began in October 1893, the Ndebele prepared 18 000 men where-as BSAC had 3
500 men including 2 000 Tswana auxiliary fighters.
● The company moved faster as it had horses.
● It used modern weapons e.g. machine guns, gun powders and wagons to help in the
providing of war material.
● The Ndebele used spears and shields.
● The first battle was the Shangani (25 October 1893).
● The Ndebele came at night and killed people camped outside.
● By sun down the Ndebele were defeated and some of their warriors died.
● The second war was at Mbembezi (November 1893).
● The Ndebele routed the Laager by the river at night and three Ndebele regiments ambushed
it. A fierce battle was fought and the Ndebele lost due to inferior weapons.
● When Jameson and company entered Matebeleland the found it deserted. Jameson’s plan to
capture Lobengula was in vain.
● Allan Wilson was sent to fetch for Lobengula, the Shangani River flooded before he could
cross over.
● The Ndebele king attempted to prevent a war with the Europeans by offering them 2 bags of
gold as a peace wish of gift.
● However, the gold did not reach Starr Jameson leading to the war of disposition in which the
settlers succeeded in taking the land from the Ndebele and destroying the state.
● The Ndebele army attacked Wilson and his men; they were slaughtered with their horses.
● In 1894 Lobengula was said to have died of Malaria. The Ndebele Indunas lost hope and
surrendered themselves to the BSAC.

Results
● The Ndebele were defeated.
● Matebeleland became company territory.

ZJC NOTESPage 61
 Chimurenga 1
● Chimurenga means war of liberation. It was also known as the Chindunduma due to the
founders booming sounds which were used by Europeans against Africans.
● Because of the wars were many and the fact that both the Shona and the Ndebele took part
in the war reflect the wide spread to opposition to colonisation. They had similar problems
and unified to fight the settlers.

Causes
● Loss of land
Land belonged to community and not the chief even everything in it i.e. animals, firewood,
fruit trees etc. The British pegged farms in best areas in the country owned by Shona and
Ndebele. The Ndebele and Shona were driven away from their farms and had to work as
labourers for Europeans and farms which once belonged to them. Therefore, they felt
offended and degraded when their land was taken away from them. They had to fight to
regain their lost land.

● Introduction of reserves
Gwaai and Shangani reserves were created for the Ndebele after their defeat. Reserves
could not accommodate all the Ndebele and were very hot, dry and tsetse infested. Some
Ndebele refused to occupy the areas, but to no avail.

● Loss of cattle
Cattle was a symbol of wealth, they distinguished chiefs from subjects; rich from poor. Police
boys helped in the administration of the country, but abused their powers as they began to
demand cattle, goats and sheep from Africans and thus became unpopular. The settlers
themselves lacked capital to invest in Rhodesia so they stole cattle from Africans, raided
them and subjected them to taxes especially chiefs who failed to supply the labour required.
They were either punished or forced to pay a fine in the form of cattle.

● Taxation
The company introduced hut tax in 1894. Every adult was made to pay a dollar for every hut
he had. The motive behind this was to force Africans to leave their homes and be employed
and accommodated by the settlers on farms. Both the Shona and the Ndebele resisted, the
company seized goats, crops and cattle from people who failed to pay tax. Animals were
driven to the hills and hid.

● Abuse of African women

In 1903 the company introduced immorality suppression act. It mainly affected the Shona.
No white woman was to have sexual intercourse with a black man. Police boys also took
advantage and abused African women as whites were interested in black women and no law
governed it. Africans resented this as some husbands lost their wives forever. Whites never
married and yet in-laws expected lobola according to their custom. Therefore, Africans felt
that war was the only solution to end this.

ZJC NOTESPage 62
● Forced labour
The company forced black men to work for the whites for a certain period of time per year.
The Ndebele and Shona ran away to the hills to avoid being overworked. Some chiefs and
headmen openly resisted forced labour e.g. a Mutoko headman was punished by receiving
ten lashes and a fine of 6 goats and 3 heads of cattle. The sjambok was applied on Africans
to force them to work; at times whole villages were burnt for failing to provide labour. This
disrupted African way of life completely.

● Ndebele confidence
In the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893, some regiments did not participate. Therefore, they felt
that as a combined force they would definitely win the war. They were so determined to re-
establish their supremacy in Matebeleland therefore they were very confident.

● Natural/Physical disasters.
Favourable rain was received in both Matebeleland and Mashonaland, but thereafter the
area was struck by a drought. Huge swarms of locust devoured the few crops left and this
worsened the situation and famine was being experienced. Rinder-pests wiped huge herds
of cattle and this was associated to the Shona high Priest at Matopos Mlimo/Murenga, the
spirit believed that the white had to be driven away from Matebeleland and Mashonaland for
all these problems to be solved.

● Loss of independence
The Ndebele were forbidden from choosing another king after the death of Lobengula; they
had to fight the whites to regain their independence as well as an opportunity to choose a
new king. The Shona also felt that the settlers did not sign any treaties with them, but they
had also lost their independence.

Uprising in Matebeleland
● March 1896, white attacks began with the killing of Thomas Murdock a miner.
● March 1896, about 30 whites were killed as the Ndebele attacked farm houses, missions and
collaborators.
● Ndebele were organised by high priest Umlugulu with help of regimental Indunas e.g.
Nyanda and others.
● Officials of Mwari/Mlimo such as Mkwati and Siginyamatshe helped Umlugulu.
● Mkwati’s shrine was at Ntabazikamambo and it became the centre of the war.
● Around June 1896, the whites got reinforcements from Salisbury, South Africa, Botswana and
Britain; there were about 2 050 troops altogether.
● The Ndebele were defeated at Umguza in June 1896 and this implies they retreated mostly
into the Matopos hills.
● The Ndebele were defeated as they faced food shortages, most of their crops were
destroyed as well as their grain stores.
● Ntabazikamambo was stormed and forces gathered around Mkwati were war broke up.
● Rhodes became afraid of the war because:
❖ It was becoming expensive as the Ndebele were taking too long to defeat.
❖ Mines had closed down so the company was running a loss.
❖ The British parliament was about to withdraw the B.S.A.C. charter to rule Rhodesia.
❖ War had begun in Mashonaland so Rhodes was not able to fight the Ndebele and the Shona
at the same time.
❖ Whites were losing in terms of both man power and resources.

● Rhodes therefore quickly settled an agreement.

ZJC NOTESPage 63
 The Ndebele were promised:

1. Supply of both food and seeds.

2. Salaries for Indunas (aristocracies) e.g. Umlugulu the Induna of Gwanda district.
In return the Ndebele were asked to:
1. Surrender all their weapons.
2. Handover all who performed all the numerous settler murders.
The war ended not because the Ndebele were defeated, but because of a settlement.

Mashonaland Uprising.
● Suprised the settlers as they felt that they protected the Shona from Ndebele raids.
● Signs of war had begun at Chief Makoni’s court in Manicaland.
● June 1896, fire was seen at hilltops around Hartley (Chegutu area), it spread to Mazoe,
Murehwa, Mtoko Headlands and Makoni; it was their sign to begin the war.
● Mwari religious leaders united paramount chiefs, these included Mkwati with his
headquarters at Ntabazikamambo.
● In western Mashonaland, Mashayamombe’s kraal was the centre of rebellion.
● Settlers were killed including traders; Beatrice mine was attacked as well as areas 70km
away.
● Kaguvi and Nehanda coordinated people, Kaguvi worked with Chinamora, Chikwaka,
Nyandoro, Zvimba, Mangwende, Mashayamombe, Rusike etc.
● Nehanda worked with Chiweshe, Hwata, Nyamweda, Negomo, Nyachuru etc.
● Fighting was organised at local levels by traditional, political, and military leaders.
● Shona used guerrilla warfare, they would attack and after attacking they would hide and
pretend to be ordinary people, therefore many settlers were killed.
● Whites were outnumbered and about to be defeated so settlers asked for reinforcements
from Britain, Whites burnt down Shona villages and seized their cattle.
● A force of horse troops attacked Mashayamombe; the settlers used dynamites on Shona
caves.
● Mashayamombe together with 230 people were killed whilst escaping. As a result
paramount chiefs were defeated one by one and these included Makoni, Mangwende etc.
● Spirit mediums were hunted down. Kaguvi was captured in October 1897 and Nehanda in
December and they were both hung on 27 April 1898.
● Chief Mapondera who was also active died in prison.
● 1903 Chimurenga in Mashonaland ended.

Duties and roles of spirit mediums

● They prepared and mobilised people for war.
● Inspired people to fight.
● Provided logistics needed during uprising.
● Gave medicine to warriors, treated and healed the wounded and the sick.
Reasons for defeat of the Shona
● They used inferior weapons e.g. spears, shields, clubs and arrows whilst Europeans used
superiors weapons e.g. guns and cannons and also dynamite.
● Africans were not united as some regiments were against uprising and therefore did not
fight.
● They lost hope after their leader had died.
● Whites destroyed some Shona crops, villages and water source. As a result the Shona were
starved.

ZJC NOTESPage 64
● Whites got help from Britain (1 000 soldiers).
● Lacked a single army and a leader to coordinate.
● Surrendering of the Ndebele made settlers concentrate on the Shona.
● Spirit mediums misled the people by informing them that the white man’s bullets were going
to turn to water.

ZJC NOTESPage 65
ROAD TO RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT

● Between 1890 and 1897, the BSAC failed to make progress in Southern Rhodesia
economically and politically.
● This was due to the Anglo-Ndebele war, Chimurenga, rinder-pests which destroyed
cattle and locusts which destroyed crops.
● Therefore, the company used a lot of capital on war as well as finding means for
survival.

Developments in Agriculture
European type African type

They began to grow tobacco, maize, cotton, New methods of farming such as crop
groundnuts etc. Southern Rhodesia became rotation and construction of contour ridges
one of the major maize growers and were introduced.
exported to Britain for the first time in 1909.

Markets were established for exporting Domboshava and Tsholotsho schools were
tobacco. set up by the government to train
agricultural demonstrators. They were issued
badges or master farmer certificates

In 1912 the land bank was established for Those who were able could buy plots of
exporting tobacco. This helped Europeans to about 200-300 acres.
establish themselves on land as they were
able to get loans.

The Department of Agriculture was set up in They could also sell their produce but not on
1908 to implement agricultural policy to the same markets as Europeans.
white farmers.

Research station e.g. Gwede 1909, Rhodes

Nyanga and Matopos Estates were
established.

A pricing policy which discriminated against

Africans was implemented; the levies which
were paid were for one to be able to sell
goods produced were too high that Africans
could not pay.

Africans were further subjected to forced

labour and most of them lost their land.

Industrial developments

ZJC NOTESPage 66
● Development of a railway line from Bulawayo to Harare in 1897 and then Harare to Mutare
in 1898. This was vital for transportation of equipment in the industrial sector as well as the
exportation of goods.
● Industries were built near towns e.g. Gwelo, Que Que and Gatoma. Most people moved from
rural areas to urban areas to seek employment.
● Asbestos replaced gold as the most valuable mineral in Southern Rhodesia.
● Establishment of electricity supply commission in 1937. This prorated the use of power lines.

Legislative council
● In 1908 the first legislative council was elected.
● It had 9 members, 5 elected from the company and 4 elected by the settlers to
represent settler’s needs.
● The Chairperson of the council was also chairperson of the

Resident commissioner
● The resident commissioner was elected by Britain to check if African were being
treated fairly by the BSAC.
● The commander General controlled the company’s army therefore no police force
was to be used without knowledge of the commander General.

Voters for the council

● A voter was expected to be able to fill an application form and had to earn $100 per
year or more.
● This meant most Africans were excluded from voting.
● In 1898, the settlers began to complain that they were not benefiting as compared
to the company.
● They also argued that mining royalties charged by the company were too high to
benefit ordinary people.
● In 1925, settlers won against the company, instead of the company rule ending 1914
according to the charter.
● More years were added as settlers were benefiting from the company’s investments.
● However, clashes continued to exist between the company and settlers, they were
mainly for land.
● There was alienated land (shared land) and unalienated land (unshared land).
● The settlers demanded to know the owner of the unalienated land but the company
did not answer.
● The company had reserved land for their unborn children.
● Therefore, the company handed in the government to the settlers, but not the land.

Administrative issues
● The company had given off around 16 million and the settlers demanded to know who was
responsible for paying money back after the termination of the company. Settlers demanded
that the company was responsible so they clashed with the company.
● The issue was passed on to a judicial committee in Britain which finally ruled out that land
belonged to the British government. Britain offered to pay 3.5 million as compensation for
administration deficits. The company was offended as it needed land.

ZJC NOTESPage 67
● South Africa offered a larger amount than Britain only if Joined South Africa as a fifth
province.
● Charles Coughlan leader of the legislative council was against the joining of South Africa and
Southern Rhodesia; he argued that Rhodesia had a small population and could be swallowed
by South Africa. This also diluted British influence as she would be flooded by the Boers.
● In 1919, Charles Coughlan formed the Responsible Government Association (R.G.A.), to fight
for a responsible government in Rhodesia.
● A referendum was held on 22 October 1922 in which Coughlan won against unionists (those
who voted for the union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia) and those prevented
Southern Rhodesia from being incorporated into South Africa, R.G.A. got 8 774 votes and
Unionists 5 589 votes.
● 1 October 1923 Southern Rhodesia won the self-responsible government with Charles
Coughlan as the first Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia.
● The country was divided into 15 districts and each district had to send 2 members to
represent them in the parliament.
● Elections were to be held after every 5 years, but Africans were still excluded from voting.
● 1923 Britain surrendered the African majority to the settler regime.
● Federation of Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia was also suggested, but it failed.

ZJC NOTESPage 68
 CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION

Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland

Federation – It is when individual countries keep their territorial government but sends
representatives to the federal assembly.

Amalgamation – It is when several countries are joined to come up with one country.

In this case Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland
(Malawi) had to be joined as one country.

Reasons behind Amalgamation

● Settlers in Northern Rhodesia wanted to share the profits of Zimbabwean gold field as well
as the profits from the copper.
● The settlers in Southern Rhodesia wanted to use the huge reserves of Zambia labour as they
believed that blacks were the only valuable source of cheap labour.
● Settlers supported federation as custom barriers would be removed so that Southern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland could benefit as Northern Rhodesia which was a potential market
for goods, this meant goods could be exported and imported without paying duty.
● Post war Europeans could be attracted.
● Whites in Northern Rhodesia would get their territories commission to send representatives
to amalgamation.

The idea of amalgamation was rejected as Northern Rhodesia was not producing much; they
also feared that a few whites in Northern Rhodesia would not resist nationalism.
Therefore Gore Brown a settler from Northern Rhodesia continued to suggest the idea of a
federation. He felt that Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland should form a
federation but interest of Europeans in Southern Rhodesia had to be respected whereas
African treatments in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland had to be respected.
Roy Welensky of Northern Rhodesia and Godfrey Huggins of Southern Rhodesia began to
campaign for federation arguing that there would be partnership between Africans and
whites and yet it was partnership of a “rider and horse”. The Africans equated the
partnership to that of a ladder which the Europeans wanted to use to climb on. Africans also

ZJC NOTESPage 69
 saw this as an instrument designed to perpetuate white and racist supremacy while others
saw it as a ploy to delay their independence. This meant exploitation of Africans. Africans
therefore protested against federation. Proponents of federation argued that a Federal State
would attract massive foreign investment thus, stimulate economic growth in the region. A
Federal state would also mobilise resources as one unit, therefore enable the development
of infrastructure such as power generation, roads, railway and industries. In 1953 the British
Government approved federation. The white settler population of Southern Rhodesia greatly
outnumbered the settler population of both Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. This
population growth greatly shaped the way towards a Federation and the future
developments.

Structure of Central African Federation

It was made up of five arms of government namely:

● The Federal government
● Three Territorial governments
● The British government

Central African Federation had a legislative Council of 36 seats which consisted of 29

Europeans and 6 reserved for Africans representatives. The six seats for Africans were not
necessarily meant for blacks but Europeans representing African Affairs. This was despite
that Africans were the majority and needed better representation. Southern Rhodesia had
18 seats, Northern Rhodesia 11 seats and Nyasaland 7 seats in the Federal Assembly. The
capital of federation was Southern Rhodesia (Salisbury). The Federal government was
responsible for key Ministries such as Finance, External Affairs, Trade, Communication and
Defence. The Federal government also received revenue from the three territories for its
upkeep. Each territory had a territorial government led by a Prime Minister in the case of
Southern Rhodesia and Governors in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The territorial
governments controlled the Ministries of Local government, Land, Agriculture, Health and
African Education. Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were part of their
governments unlike in Southern Rhodesia were such a partnership was unacceptable.
Africans gained little as they were excluded from the political cake. Economically they did
not gain much either as taxes, prices of goods remained high, discrimination persisted and
wages remained low compared to that of European settlers. Amenities like hospitals,
education and others also remained separate for blacks and whites.

Federation meant;
● Southern Rhodesia was benefitting more than Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia as the
Kariba Dam was to be built in Southern Rhodesia, this meant promotion of tourism and
electricity.
● University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was to be built in Southern Rhodesia (University of
Zimbabwe).
● Construction of a railway line from Northern Rhodesia to Lourenzo Marques (Maputo).
● Roads and bridges were constructed.
● Agriculture and industries were to be created.

ZJC NOTESPage 70
 However, development was skewed in favour of Southern Rhodesia as the Capital of the
Federal government was in Salisbury. Many of the developments were thus undertaken in
Southern Rhodesia. Southern Rhodesia also received 60% of the Federal revenue, thus
relations became sour leading to the collapse of the Central African Federation. Other
factors which contributed to the collapse of the Federation were:
● In 1950 Africans in both Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia campaigned to end federation.
● Racial attitude of Southern Rhodesia.
● Changing attitudes towards colonialism.
● Granting of independence / self rule of Nyasaland in 1962.
● The British government terminated the Central African Federation in 1963.

THE SETTLER COLONIAL ECONOMY

The Land Question

⮚ The land segregation policies were implemented and Africans remained without land for
Agriculture.
⮚ They were forced to work as labourers in mines, factories and mines which Africans were
exploited as they were given low wages considering the work they did.
⮚ Reserves were created for Africans after the 1896-97 war.
⮚ In 1898 the order in council ordered the company to provide enough land for Africans.
⮚ In 1902 order in council ordered creation of more reserves instead of redistributing land as
for the 1898 demand.
⮚ Settlers began to buy land such that by 1902, 2/3 of the Highveld was belonging to the
Europeans.
⮚ The land commission of 1914 reflected what they thought was final by 1920, land was said
to be redistributed as follows:
❖ Land bought by Europeans: 31 484 095 acres.
❖ Native reserves: 21 203 493 acres.
❖ Land not allocated: 43 529 880 acres.
NB: one really wonders what the land not allocated was for.

The Land Apportionment Act (1930)

● It was a system in which settlers wanted to be divided between blacks and whites in such a
way that they could keep some land for their unborn white children.
● Out of a total land of 96 000 000 acres, Europeans were given 49 149 174 acres and
Africans were given 21 127 040 acres. During that time there were 1 081 000 Africans and
50 000 were Europeans.
● The devastation of land apportionment Act is that it caused a lot of overcrowding in the
reserves.

The Native Land Husbandry Act

● This was an effort to reduce effects of the Land Apportionment Act of the African population.
● It stated how land in the reserves could be used and divided.
● One family was allowed to keep 5 cattle only and to farm 8 acres only.
● District commissions distributed land which had been formerly distributed by chiefs. it was
hoped that the Native Husbandry act would prevent Africans from coming to urban areas to
seek employment.
● They also expected that it would result in better farming methods being used.

ZJC NOTESPage 71
 Effects of the Land Acts on Africans
● It created a serious land shortage among African peasants.
● Crop production declined as 1 acre could only produce one bag of maize.
● African were turned to low paid labourers as they could get 1 mealie meal, beans and salt as
payments.
● Africans had to pay rent to whites.
● Africans were forced out of the rural areas to the urban areas to seek employment.
● It contributed to the raise of nationalism in Zimbabwe e.g. The African National Conference
of 1957 which aimed at reversing the Land Apportionment Act and relocation of land on non-
racial base.

The Land Tenure Act (1969)

● It was introduced by the Rhodesia Front to tighten the Land Apportionment Act.
● It increased the eviction or removal of Africans from European areas.
● The Land Tenure Act caused some hardships in the African community.
● Several Acts were later introduced to discriminate against the black people.

Chief Rekai Tangwena

● He was an African leader who opposed the policy of land segregation.
● Tangwena lived around the Inyangani Mountains, this land was sold to the whites without
him knowing and therefore he became a squatter.
● In 1962, the Rhodesian Front removed all squatters but Tangwena refused to move.
● He was taken to court and lost and in June 1968 he appealed to the high court and won the
case.
● The Rhodesian Front became angry in the victory, abandoned in rule of law and resorted to
violence and murder.
● September 18 1968, the Rhodesian Front government evicted Rekai Tangwena by force,
arrested him, burnt villages down and his people fled mountains where they lived without
shelter.
● Tangwena was later accompanied by Robert Mugabe to Mozambique in 1974 and only
returned after independence.
● The Tangwena’s returned to their land and are now happily settled.

Rhodesian Law
● In Rhodesia the law was used as an instrument for oppression and underdevelopment.
● In the early years of settler rule laws were passed to force Africans to work for Europeans by
confiscating their land.
● Later laws introduced prevented Africans from competing against white in employment,
selling produce and residential areas.
● There were also laws of governing African movement from one part of the province to
another.
● However, these laws did not stop Africans from fighting to achieve independence.

Laws Passed
LAW YEAR PURPOSE

Land Apportionment Act. 1930 Creation of reserves e.g. Gwaai and Shangani.

ZJC NOTESPage 72
 Cheap labour

Native Land Husbandry Act. 1951 Deprive Africans of their land.

Cheap labour.

Land Tenure Act. 1969 Deprive Africans of their land.

Force them to sell their labour cheaply.

Industrial Conciliation Act. 1934 To govern labour relations.

The law stopped Africans from forming trade

unions.

Registration of Labours Act 1895 Records of finger prints and details of each
worker’s village, tribe etc.

Native Registration Act. 1936 Controlled movement of Africans.

Forced Africans to carry passes wherever they

went.

Native Passes Act. 1937 Controlled movement of Africans.

Forced Africans to carry passes wherever they

went.

Maize Control Act. 1931 Created better marketing opportunities as a

higher price of European maize.

Cattle Levy Act. 1934 Made it possible for Europeans to sell their
cattle for better prices.

Sedition Act. 1936 Speeches and action intended to make people

rebel against the authority of the state were
forbidden.

Unlawful Organisation Act. 1959 Accused the leaders of the A.N.C. of addressing
ignorant and unwary persons in stolen and
threatening language.

Preventive Detention Act. 1959 Gave the Minister of Justice power to distinct
people concentration camps without trial in a
proper court.

A.N.C. leaders were arrested and detained

Law And Order Act. 1960 Replace preventive detention.

(Maintenance Act)

ZJC NOTESPage 73
African Labour Regulation Prevented people from leaving their jobs and
Act. from strike.

Masters and Servants Act. Prevented people from leaving work.

Made sure labour was available to European

masters.

ZJC NOTESPage 74
 MODERN AFRICAN NATIONALISM AND LIBERATION

Nationalism is a feeling of oneness and love for one’s country. Modern nationalism grew in
opposition to colonial and other settler occupation of the country. The ill-treatment of
Africans and other social and economic problems which held back African development led
to increasing protests as blacks struggled to end oppression and inequality that the settlers
created and tried to kill. Instead of seeing the protest movements as a sign that conditions
need to improve the legislations were tightened. Despite the brutality and abuse of colonial
governments the Africans did not stop to organise and redress themselves.

Early protest movements

● After the first Chimurenga, protest movements were formed all around the country and dealt
with grievances in those areas.
● The leaders came from the black elite which included teachers, priests. Trade unions and
the working.
● The organisations formed protested about particular grievances such as:
⮚ Land.
⮚ Wages.
⮚ Representation in parliament.
⮚ Educational opportunities.
● Some of the movements were reformed Industrial workers unions, Rhodesian Bantu voters
association and British African Voice Association.
● However, during this period these organisations did not die with issue of ending minority
rule.

The rise of mass nationalism

● When the World War II broke out, many Africans in the colony served in the war to support
their colonial masters.
● The Rhodesian Africans were not an expectation during the war, people of different races
were made equal as they suffered and died at the war front.
● Once the war was over, the experience of equality was carried home and as a result the
nationalist voice demanded Political participation to grow.
● They fought and died as equal alongside whites but once home there were no longer equal
in the settler system.
● The 1st mass nationalist political movement was African National Congress (A.N.C.) in 1957
and whose leaders were James Chikerema, Michael Malema, Joseph Msika, George
Nyandoro, Joshua Nkomo, Standake Samkange and Edson Sithole.
● The A.N.C. was banned in February 1959 by Sir Edgar White and many nationalist leaders
were detained.

Formation of National political parties

The National Democratic Party (NDP)

● It was 1st led by Michael Mawema the Joshua Nkomo took over.
● Although N.D.P. leaders included Robert Mugabe and Leopold Takawira.
● Other African countries like Ghana made Zimbabwe nationalist demands stronger.
● In 1961 representatives for the party went to London to discuss a new constitution with the
British government, however, they were not offered equal representations.

ZJC NOTESPage 75
● The party was then banned on 9 Dec 1961.

ZAPU and ZANU

● The banning of the N.D.P. led to formation of the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU)
with Joshua Nkomo its leader.
● After violent protests in the country ZAPU was banned in September 1962, lack of
agreement among the nationalists led to the formation of Zimbabwe African National Union
(ZANU) in August 1963 with Ndabaningi Sithole as its leader.
● In August 1964 both parties were banned and the leaders were detained.

Developments in Southern Rhodesia

● Unlike in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were Africans campaigned to end federation, in
Southern Rhodesia Africans were exploited.
● Most Africans were excluded from voting therefore the protested against colonial rule.
● In 1962 elections were won by the Rhodesian front (R.F) led by Sir Winston Field.
● Ian Smith threatened to declare independence as he claimed that majority rule should not
exist in Southern Rhodesia but minority rule.
● He detained political leaders, banned televisions and declared U.D.I. illegal on the 11 th of
November 1965.
● Britain responded by introducing sanction on Ian smith.

Revolutionary Nationalism
● On 11 November 1965, Ian Smith declared U.D.I. against African nationalism.
● It became clear that the settlers would not listen to black demands.
● ZANU and ZAPU then sent more of their leaders out of the country to prepare for an armed
struggle.
● ZANU was allowed to setup camp0s in Zambia, Ghana, Tanzania and China whilst ZAPU
organised joint training camps with A.N.C. (S.A.) in Zambia, and the Solvent Union (Russia).
● Herbert Chitepo was leader of ZANU and its Military leader was ZANLA and James Chikerema
was leader of ZAPU’s military wing ZIPRA.
● The armed struggle began on the 28th of April 1966.

The Armed struggle

● Because of early defeats the Guerrillas began to listen to the grievances of the mass which
they referred to as National grievances.
● These are:
⮚ Land struggle.
⮚ General poverty.
⮚ Constant harassment by Rhodesian Front.
● The guerrillas’ full understanding of these grievances encouraged people to join the armed
struggle.
● Political education was introduced to fighters so that they would be aware of the exact aims
of the struggle.
● Political education was introduced to fighters so that they would be aware of the exact aims
of the struggle.

ZJC NOTESPage 76
● Old men and women provided food and other supplies to freedom fighters whilst the youth,
both boys and girls were organised into security groups to watch enemy movements and
supply information and food to the guerrillas.

Financial support
● Both ZAPU and ZANU received political and financial support from people outside Zimbabwe.
● Countries such as Tanzania, Mozambique, Angola, Zambia, Ethiopia, Algeria, Yugoslavia,
China, Romania, North Korea, Soviet Union (Russia) and other socialist countries supported
armed struggle.
● Many countries in the world including frontline states (Angola, Botswana, Mozambique,
Tanzania and Zambia) supported the first struggles of the African people and opposed the
illegal state of Rhodesia.
● The increasing guerrilla struggle led to the loss of discipline and confidence among white
settlers.

Settler response to armed struggle

● The government created protected villages surrounded by wire and guarded by Rhodesian
forces. This was aimed at stopping support for the guerrillas.
● African homes were burnt down, crops destroyed and cattle killed in order to deny the
guerrillas food.
● Thousands were detained and hanged for supporting guerrillas.
● Botswana, Mozambique and Zambia were attacked by the Rhodesia Front.
● The Rhodesian government used agents to kill top leadership of the liberation movement.

Pearce commission
● Edward Heath, the leader of a Conservative party negotiated for a settlement with Ian smith
disregarding the fact that Ian Smith was not interested, Goodman was therefore sent to
negotiate.
● However, he felt that the British Government had to negotiate
● The settlement he came up with meant continuous exploitation of Africans, some African
protested by carrying demonstrations in the streets.
● In 1973, Ian Smith desired to have talks with Bishop Abel Muzorewa (UANG) but failed to
reach any consensus.
● He tried Dr Joshua Nkomo of ZAPU but failed again.
● Ian Smith began to fear armed struggle from Africans so he decided to negotiate with less
militant African leaders.

Internal Agreement
● Besides attempts by South Africa and Zambia to end the war, attempts were also made by
the U.S.A.
● A meeting took place and Ian Smith announced acceptance of majority rule on 24
December 1974, however, Police army and vital agencies had to remain in white hands.
● This called for great opposition from African and British called a Conference in Geneva,
Switzerland which failed again as Ian Smith was not ready to amend anything.
● In 1976 the American Government sent Henry Kissinger the American secretary of state to
organise the Geneva Conference at which Ian Smith was to meet ZAPU and ZANU leaders, as
they feared the defeat of Ian Smith through war of liberation. However, at this point Smith
did not want to grant majority rule.

ZJC NOTESPage 77
● As the cost of the war became burdensome, it led Ian Smith to adopt the idea of negotiating
with internal leaders as a way of ending the war.
● African leaders who supported the settlement include Muzorewa, Sithole, Chikerema and
Chirau.
● On March 3 1978, the internal settlement was signed and the leaders agreed to form a
government of national unity.
● Under this arrangement Muzorewa became Prime Minister of the brief Zimbabwe Rhodesia
in1979 but even during this period the settlers continued to hold politic and economic
power.
● The settlement had been a desperate attempt to stop the armed struggle, unfortunately this
did not happen as Muzorewa and others did not have any control over guerrillas so the
struggle continued.

Lancaster House Conference

It was held in London in September 1979 and it lasted for 4 months

Members present
● British Delegation – Lord Carrington – 3 representatives.
● ZANU – Robert Mugabe – 57 representatives.
● ZAPU – Joshua Nkomo – 20 representatives.
● Zimbabwe Rhodesia Delegation – Bishop Abel Muzorewa –20 representatives.

⮚ The Patriotic Front was threatening to fight the colonial government and therefore a
Conference was called for , the Question of land became critical at Lancaster
⮚ ZANU wanted land which was owned by the whites to be redistributed to the rightful owner
i.e. the Africans.
⮚ Whites refused to hand over the land arguing that they had to be paid for the land to be
released.
⮚ ZANU argued that if any payment had to be made the international community was
responsible.
⮚ The British government later agreed to pay the whites so that they hand over the land they
owned for redistribution.
⮚ Elections were held and ZANU won the majority box.
⮚ I8 April 1980 independence was granted to Zimbabwe.
⮚ Cde Canaan Banana the late became the first President of Zimbabwe and Cde Robert
Mugabe was Prime Minister.

From liberation to Independence

● The British government in September 1979 called the warring parties to a conference at the
Lancaster House.
● Bishop Muzorewa led the Zimbabwe Rhodesia Delegation while Robert Mugabe led the
patriotic front.
● The meeting was chaired by British foreign secretary Lord Carrington.
● The conference ended in December 1979 with an agreement that they will be a cease fire
followed by elections involving all parties.
● In the elections Robert Mugabe’s ZANU won the elections.

ZJC NOTESPage 78
● The birth of a new nation was witnessed on the 18 th of April 1980 with the hoisting of the
Zimbabwean flag.

Post-independence Zimbabwe
● The new government of Zimbabwe was faced with serious problems of receiving economy
and sociality had been destroyed in the armed struggle.
● From the onset government started to address the political and economic problems faced by
the country.

Socialist ideology
● During the armed struggle Zimbabwean government material support from socialist states.
● ZANU was assisted by China whilst ZAPU got help from Russia.
● It is therefore not surprising that the 1980 government chose to follow socialist ideology
which was to support equality in the distribution of wealth.
● However, socialism was difficult to implement as it did not get whole hearted support from
everyone as some quickly assumed personal wealth.
● Such behaviour destroyed socialism as it showed double standard in practise.
● With the collapse of socialism in the Soviet Union (Russia) in 1989 Zimbabwe back tracked
and openly they accepted capitalism.

Political developments since independence

● Although there was no voters roll in 1980, true democracy was achieved.
● People voted freely and the outcome of the elections was welcomed by the majority of the
people who wanted the war to end.
● During the armed struggle there were many armed groups in the country and it was now
necessary to maintain peace and security.
● As a result General Solomon Tapfumanei Mujuru was given that task.
● A multi-racial Cabinet was appointed.
● However, because of misunderstanding among the political groups a bloody civil war broke
out in Matebeleland in 1982.
● This ended with the unity agreement of December 1987 and Mugabe became President.

Economic development since Independence

● The Zimbabwe economic problems started at independence when the government
attempted to do too much with every little resource.
● Among the other things were introduction of education at primary level and health services
for other disadvantages groups.
● At independence the economy was determined by foreign companies.
● Zimbabwe had gained political freedom but not economic freedom and as a result as late as
2000 the majority of the Africans remained as workers and peasant farmers.
● However, some progress has been made in giving economic power to Africans.

Education
● The colonial government aims in education were:
⮚ To spread Christianity through work of various missionary societies.
⮚ To train people who would be useful for capitalists’ extraction of wealth from the colony.
⮚ For education to be used as instruments to separate Africans from their culture.
● Only European history was learnt e.g. Hitler, Napoleon, Mussolini etc.

ZJC NOTESPage 79
● Missionary societies were the first to start formal; schools for African in Southern Africa.
● The first mission station was established at Inyathi by The London Missionary Society
(L.M.S.) in 1859.
● In 1870 a 2nd mission station opened at Hope Foundation.
● The Jesuits followed the L.M.S in 1879 and the Dutch Reformed Church established one
school near Masvingo in 1891.
● In 1899 the Government passed its 1st education for white children and not Africans.
● The ordinance also stated that individual training was to be included in the curriculum for
African children.
● In 1903 ordinance was passed, it aided on teaching African Children enough English to be
able to understand. Therefore this education assumed at making Africans better labourers.
● In 1946, the 1st government school Goromonzi was established and it courted for skilled
labourer power in both private and public sectors.
● The African demanded that the government had to run with the education sector as they did
European education.
● The partnership between Missionaries and government had continued in the education
sector.

Education during Federation

● During federation, the federal government became responsible for education.
● However, primary and secondary education became under territorial government.
● The federal government had a list of resources: The University of Zimbabwe was built.
● A department of native education was established as a separate body.
● The colonial regime did very little to respond to African demands.

African Education System

The education during U.D.I.
● After the Illegal declaration of Independence in 1965, Africans were trained for semi-skilled
labour in local areas.
● There was a plan for training teachers and building schools (306) over 10 years.
● Africans who were allowed to go to the full 4 year secondary program constituted 12.5% and
the rest ended at primary school.
● This was because grade 7 markers were instructed to fail the rest after a certain number
had passed.
● The Skilled Man Power Development Act and The Industrial Conciliation Act prevented
Africans from training and working in technical fields.
● White trade Unions stopped blacks from getting technical education and training.

Post-Independence period
● Before independence the education system had favoured the white minority whilst they
were bottlenecks for African children who forced them out of schools.
● This system produced Africans who were only able to read and write that they could be
accepted in the mines, farms and industries.
● In 1981, the government set out to provide better educational opportunities for Africans.
● There was to be no discrimination in education on grounds, voice class and gender.
● An expansion in education led the government to introduce a fast track teacher in schools.
● Other universities were opened/ established to relieve the University of Zimbabwe to
accommodate those finishing their A level studies.

ZJC NOTESPage 80
● To promote the girl child, in 1996 the government came up with the affirmative action
policy, this encouraged female enrolment at higher institutes.
● Since independence the education system has received outstanding achievements.
● On the other hand the quality of education has been limited by lack of funds and brain drain.
● Equality has also been difficult to achieve as some schools have excellent facilities whilst
others have to do with bare minimum.

ACHIEVEMENT OF INDEPENDENCE IN AFRICA

● Partition of Africa after 1884 led to the occupation of the continent by European colonial
power except for 2 countries; Ethiopia which had been independent throughout its history
and Liberia.
● The exploitation of African people and their resources followed a similar pattern but in some
countries there was strong resistance to colonisation.
● The liberation of the liberation of the African continent has been a long struggle.
● Egypt became the first country to gain independence in 1922.
● The first black African country to become independent was Ghana in 1957; this encouraged
other African nationalists in other parts of the continent.

Liberation of Ghana
The gold coast as it is known during the colonial times became independent on the 6 th of
March 1957. At the beginning of the 18 th century the British company of merchants sent an
official to make a treaty with regional chief. In 1821 the British government took over the
company and in 1874 the Fante and Ga Coastal areas became a British colony and 2 years
later the Asante area was occupied because of its gold.

Protest movements
● Despite a few Africans having being members of the Accra Legislative council 1877.
● The colonial government kept Africans out of the senior posts in the civil service.

ZJC NOTESPage 81
● In 1897, members of Ghana’s 2 elite groups the educated and chiefs formed the gold coast
Aborigines Rights Protection Society (A.R.P.S.).
● They had been united by their opposition to laws which did not allow Africans legal
ownership of their land.
● In response to growing discontent, The United Gold Cross Convention (U.G.C.C.) was formed
in 1947.
● The U.G.C.C. invited Kwame Nkrumah a graduate in the United States to come back and
become the party’s secretary general, he was a good speaker and organiser.
● In 1948 he and others were detained and a state of emergency was declared following
demonstrations and riots after he had called for a boycott of European firms until firms were
forced to lower prices.
● The constitution of 1950 gave Africans more representations.
● In February 1951, C.P.P. won the legislative elections and became leader of government
businesses and the Prime Minister the following year.
● In 1954 he led his party to victory in the new elections, the regional and capitalist’s forces
were mobilised against the C.P.P. and the British demanded a new set of elections.
● In these elections the C.P.P. won again.

Ghana After independence

● Nkrumah’s victory inspired nationalists all over Africa.
● In his speech he promised his country’s support to Africa’s total liberation.
● Ghana was the first country to train Zimbabwean guerrillas and many other liberation units.
● Nkrumah was overthrown by his army in 1966 and died in exile in 1972.
● However, Nkrumah is remembered as father of African independence.

THE ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY

It was a loose association of 30 African countries. The O.A.U. was an attempt to establish an
Inter African organisation of independent states. Then O.A.U. organised to fight against
colonialism in Africa.

Pan-Africanism
● This was a feeling of African inside and outside Africa to free themselves from white people.
● The origins of Pan-Africanism are traced to North America were people from African descent
desired to establish links of Brotherhood with Africans in Africa.
● Its aim was to bring together all the black people of the world in a common struggle for
freedom, equality and self-determination throughout the world.
● Pan-Africanists believed that Africa is a single unit that should unite; there was a deep
cultural unity among all Africans.
● Europe and America developed because of slave labour and raw materials from Africa.
● Because of these beliefs some of the African in America organised Africans to come back to
Africa and a number actually came and stayed in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
● The movement of African unity and solidarity was known as Pan-Africanism.
● With prominent figures such as Henry Sylvester Williams, Marcus Garvey and Dr William E.B.
Du Boise.
● The early Pan-Africanists were Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and
Julius Nyerere of Tanzania.

ZJC NOTESPage 82
● Henry Sylvester Williams came from Trinidad in the West Indies; he was the first person to
champion Pan-Africanist ideas in 1900. Williams advised African chiefs to fight against
colonialism in order to be independent.
● Marcus Garvey came from Jamaica, he called for black people to return to Africa and his
movement was called “Back to Africa movement”. To help the black Americans go back to
Africa, Garvey formed a shipping company and told black Americans stop to rely and depend
on white employers.
● Dr William E.B. Du Boise. Was regarded as father of pan Africanism, Du Boise ideas were
shared by most afro Americans. He regarded America as his native land. Du Boise pan
Africanism aimed at encouraging and uniting Africans against oppression and exploitation
wherever they were.

Formation of the O.A.U.

● Before the formation of the O.A.U. there were several attempts to create an Inter African
organisation, however, these attempts failed because of political, economic and linguistic
differences.
● The independence of Ghana speeded up the process and Ghana’s first black leader Kwame
Nkrumah worked on the independence of African states, he wanted to see Africa as one
country.
● These ideas of federation were not widely accepted leading to the split among independent
African states namely Casablanca and Monrovia.
● They opposed each other because the Casablanca group favoured a federation for Africa
whilst the Monrovia group favoured a loose association.
● The Casablanca group was radical, militant and violently to the west whilst the Monrovia
group was very friendly to the west.
● Although the two opposed each other they both agreed on the need to form an organisation
with an African interest.
● Eventually Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, Modibo Keita of Mali and Sekou Toure of
Guinea joined the two together leading to the approval of a charter which established O.A.U.
in Addis Ababa on 25 May 1963.

Aims of the O.A.U.

● To promote unity and solidarity of African states.
● To coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for people of
Africa.
● To defend their sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence.
● To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa.
● To promote international cooperation, having due regard to the charter of United Nations
(U.N.) and Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Principles of the O.A.U.

● The sovereign equality of all member states.
● Non-interference in internal affairs of the state.
● Respect for all sovereignty and territorial integrity of each state and for its inalienable right
to independent existence.
● Peaceful settlements of disputes by negotiation, mediation, conciliation or arbitration.
● Unreserved condemnation in all its forms of political assassination as well as subversive
activities on the part of neighbouring states or any other state.

ZJC NOTESPage 83
● Absolute dedication to the total emancipation freedom on the African territories which are
still dependent.
● Affirmation of a policy of non-alignment with regard to all blacks.

The O.A.U. organs and their duties.

The most important organs of the O.A.U. are:
❖ The assembly of Heads of States and Government (The Assembly).
❖ The Council of Ministers.
❖ The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration.
❖ The General Secretariat.

The Assembly of Heads of States

● The supreme or most powerful organ of the O.A.U. formed by Heads of States and
Government which met once a year.
● Decisions were made by a consensus or agreement or 2/3 of a majority.
● It made decisions, policies and adopted resolutions.

Policy
making
Approves body
budget

ASSEMBLY OF
HEADS OF
STATES AND
AGOVERNMENT

Makes Adopts
decisions resolutions

Council of Ministers
● It is made up of foreign ministers of member states and met twice a year.
● It prepared conferences and agendas and approved the O.A.U. budgets for the assembly.

ZJC NOTESPage 84
 Adopts
budget.
Prepares
Labour Agenda for
The
Assembly.

Cultural co- Makes

operation recommend
ations
THE
COUNCIL
OF
MINISTER
Transport, S
education,
Meets twice
health and
a year
science co-
oparation

Commission
for
Economic
Mediation,
and Social
Councilation
co-operation
&
Arbitration
Defence

The General Secretariat

● It is the civil service and permanent organ of the O.A.U.
● It prepares reports on the O.A.U. activities, keeps all documents and files of the
organisation.
● It also writes minutes and prepares the program and budgets of the O.A.U. for each year.
● It is headed by the Chief Executive who is appointed by the assembly.

ZJC NOTESPage 85
 Permanen
t organ of
the O.A.U.
Coordinatin Keeps all
g documents
committees and files of
for the
liberation of organisation.
Africa.
The
General
Secretariat
Informatio
Organises n and
meetings. Public
relations.
Prepares
programs
and
budgets
annually.

Achievements and failures of the O.A.U.

● End of colonialism in Africa was O.A.U.’s greatest achievement.
● Not successful in ending conflicts and preventing conflicts which left hundreds and
thousands of people dead, maimed and displaced.
● The O.A.U. failed to prevent and end civil wars.
● The factors divided Africa.
● The African unity has remained a dream.
● The O.A.U. experiments on African Unity and has not been successful so far.

How the A.U. was formed

● The O.A.U. was formed to liberate Africans from colonialism.
● This was its major role besides other social and economic aims.
● By 1999 almost all African states were liberated and no foreign power directly ruled Africa.
● This development made the O.A.U. an old organisation in a new world because its main aims
of liberating Africa had been achieved.
● This was thus agreed for a new body with aims to address the challenges that Africa was
facing in the global village.

● Calls to have a United States of Africa were shot down.

● Under this agreement there was to be a continental leader with federal governments in the
member states.
● The assembly agreed to form the A.U. at Lome in Togo on 11 July 2000 and at the Lusaka
Summit in Zambia in July 2001.

ZJC NOTESPage 86
● The 53 members of the O.A.U. signed the constitution of the A.U., it was called the
Constitutive Act of the A.U. and on 1 July the A.U. was formed at the O.A.U. after 38 years of
life and the A.U. became problems on the continent.

Aims of the A.U.

● To achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and people of Africa.
● To defend sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member states.
● To promote and defend common African interests on the continent and beyond.
● To encourage continental cooperation through the United Nations (U.N.) and Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (U.D.H.R.).
● To promote peace, security and stability on the continent.
● To promote economic cooperation and sustainable use of resources.
● To improve living and working conditions of Africans.
● To promote research in education, science and technology.
● To eradicate poverty and diseases.

The organs of the A.U.

The Assembly
● This is the supreme or most powerful organ of the A.U.
● It was made up of the Heads of States and Government.
● It met once a year.
● The office chairman of the assembly is held for a period of one year by Head of State or
Government.
● Decisions are made by consensus, agreement or 2/3 majority.
● The assembly determines the policies of the union and adopts commissions.
● It monitors improvements of policies by member states.

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 Assembly
Financial
Executive
council.
institution
s

Economic,
Pan-
Social and
African
parliament. Africa Cultural
council.
n
Union.
Specilised
Court of technical
Justice. committee
s

The Permanent
commissio representativ
n e committe.

The Executive council

● It is made up of foreign affairs ministers of member states.
● It meets twice a year and its decisions are by consensus, agreement or 2/3 majority.
● It coordinates policies in areas of common interest to member states.

Specialised Technical committees

● These are committees that report to the Executive Council.
● Each committee prepares projects and programmes and make follow up supervision.
● It then reports to the Executive Council on progress being made.

Pan-African Parliament
● This is made up of representatives of all member states.
● The purpose is to ensure full participation of all African people in the development of their
constituency.
● The parliament also reports to the Executive Council on emerging challenges and the
progress made on development projects.

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 Financial Institutions
The council had the following financial institutions:
● The African momentary fund.
● The African Investment Bank.
● The African Central Bank.

The Commission
● It works as the secretariat of the African council.
● It consists of a Chairperson and a group of commissioners,
● The commissioners report to the assembly which alternates its structure, functions and
regulations.

The Permanent representative committee.

● It is composed of permanent representatives to the African Union.
● Its members came from the member states.
● Their task was to prepare the work of the Executive Council and carry out their constituents.
● This committee works with various sub councils here and other groups.

The Economic, Social and Culture Councils

● This is an advising organ composed of different social and professional groups of member
states of the Council.
● The works of this organ is outlined improving the economies of member states as well as
changing the living standards of the people.
● It also promoted culture exchanges on the constituent.

Challenges of the A.U.

● The A.U. has taken over the political work left by the O.A.U.
● The main task facing the A.U. is the one of promoting democracy and good government in
Africa.
● Other challenges are:
❖ Poverty and unemployment is worsening.
❖ International terrorism.
❖ Lack of financial resources to establish a standing army to maintain peace and security.
❖ Disunity and selfish interests among member states which is causing lack of progress in
development plans.
❖ Human rights abuse on Constituent is increasing.
❖ Africa is still cheap exporter of raw materials.
❖ Lack of cultural identity.

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