Ik Oankaar sat naam kartaa purakh nirbh-a-o nirvair akaal moorat ajoonee

saibhN Gur parsaad.

God is everywhere and in everyone, He is the Truth - Immortal, Creator, Without-
Fear, Without-Enmity, Unborn, and Self-Created. This understanding comes by
the Guru's Grace.
1. SOLUTIONS
Lecture-I By:-
SOLUTION AMRIK SINGH
(b) On the basis of physical state of solute
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or and solvent solutions are of nine types:
more chemically non reacting components whose
composition can be varied in certain limits. S. Solve Solut Example
1. A solution of two components is known as N nt e
binary solution and these two components are
1 Gas Solid Dust in air
called solute and solvent.
2. A solution of three components is known as a 2 Gas Liqui Moisture in air
ternary solution d
3. A solution of four components is known as a
quaternary solution. 3 Gas Gas air
SOLUTE AND SOLNENT
4 Liquid Solid NaCl in water
1. Solvent is generally present in larger amounts
in solution and solute in smaller amounts. 5 Liquid Liqui Ethanol in water
2. In solvent solute is dissolved. d
3. In a solution containing equal amounts of water
and ethanol either may be taken as solvent. 6 Liquid Gas CO2 in water
4. If a solution is formed between a solid and a
liquid then liquid is always taken as solvent. 7 Solid Solid Alloys
5. The physical state of solution is same as that of
8 Solid Liqui Hg in Cu, Hg in
solvent.
d gold
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
(a) Depending upon the quantity of solute 9 Solid Gas Hydrogen in Ni Or
dissolved in a liquid solvent, solutions are of Pt
three types:
1. Saturated solutions:-A solution which cannot Note:-
dissolve any further amount of solute at a given 1. The solution of liquid in gas and solid in gas
temperature is called a Saturated solutions. do not form a homogeneous mixture.
2. Unsaturated solutions:- A solution which can 2. On the basis of combinations type of ternary
dissolve more amount of solute at a given solution =33= 27
temperature is called an Unsaturated solution. 3. On the basis of combinations type of
3. Super saturated solutions:- A solution in quaternary solution =34=81
METHODS
which amount TO EXPRESS
of solute THE
is more CONC.
than it canOF A 4.(I)Not
+ (II)
all the alloys form solid solutions e.g.
SOLUTION
dissolve at a particular temperature is called a some alloys such as n A Bi-Cu,n BMgCu2 are
Concentration of solution.
a solutionThese
is thesolutions
amount of solute X A + X B = + =1−−−(III )
Super saturated can be heterogeneous. n A + nB n A +n B
present inby
given amount of solvent. Thesolution
following 5. Solid solutions
prepared sudden cooling saturated Or can
X A +be
X B=¿1---- (3)
are the methods to express the conc. (i) Substitutional e.g.that
brass, steel, bronze
From (3), it is clear
1. In terms of percentage:- (ii) Interstitial Or e.g.XWC
A = 1 - XB----(4)
Mass of solute ×100
(a) Percentage by mass= Hence if we know the mole fraction of one
Mass of solution
component then we can calculate the other.
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE
 Volume of solution

Note:- 3. If two solutions are mixed and they react CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE
chemically with each other, then relation between Q-1 The density of 3M solution of NaCl is1.25 g
their molarity terms is given as: mL–1. Calculate molality of the solution.
Ans. 2.79m
M1 V 1 M 2 V 2
= Q-2 Calculate molality of 2.5 g of ethanoic acid
n1 n2 (CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene
M1, V1 & n1 = Molarity, volume & stoichiometric Ans. 0.556 mol kg–1
coefficient of reactant 1 in balanced chemical Q-3 A sample of drinking water was found to be
severely contaminated with chloroform, CHCl3,
equation supposed to be carcinogenic in nature. The level
M2, V2 & n2 = Molarity, volume & stoichiometric of contamination was 15 ppm (by mass).(i)
coefficient of reactant 2 in balanced chemical Express this in percent by mass.
equation (ii) Determine the molality of CHCl3 in the H2O
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE sample.
Q-1 Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution Ans. (i)15×10-4 (ii) 1.25×10-4
prepared by dissolving its 4 g in enough water to Q-4 Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2)
 Ik Oankaar sat naam kartaa purakh nirbh-a-o nirvair akaal moorat ajoonee
saibhN Gur parsaad.
God is everywhere and in everyone, He is the Truth - Immortal, Creator, Without-
Fear, Without-Enmity, Unborn, and Self-Created. This understanding comes by
the Guru's Grace.
1. SOLUTIONS
Lecture-I By:-
SOLUBILITY AMRIK SINGH
The spontaneity of dissolution process cannot
The maximum amount of solute that can be be decided by just energy. It is governed by
dissolved in a definite amount of solvent (100g) is resultant of two factors:
known as its solubility at that temperature. (i) Tendency towards minimum energy
Solubility of a solute depends on the following (ii) Tendency towards maximum entropy
factors: When solute is dissolved in solvent,
Note:-1. Solubility of H2 & inert gases in non 2. In lungs, O2 is present in air with high
aqueous solvents increases with the increase in pressure, haemoglobin combines with O 2 to
temp. form oxy- haemoglobin. In tissues where
Effect of temperature on the solubility of partial pressure of O2 is low, oxy haemoglobin
solids & liquids releases O2 for utilization in cellular activities.
The effect of temperature on solubility can be 3. In deep sea diving, to minimise the painful
predicted by Le Chatelier,s principle: effects, O2 is diluted with less soluble He gas.
1. NaNO3, KNO3, NH4NO3, NH4Cl, KCl, AgNO3, KI Limitations of Henry,s law
dissolve with absorption of heat i.e. their This law is applicable only at moderate T & P,
absorption is endothermic. Thus according to Le and the solubility of the gas in solvent must
Chatelier,s principle solubility of such compounds be low.
increases with increase of temp. CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE
2. Li2CO3, CaCl2, NaOH, Li2SO4, Na2CO3, Ce2(SO4)3 Q-1. Define the term solution. How many types
& some calcium salts of organic acids etc. dissolve of binary solutions are possible?
with evolution of heat i.e. their absorption is Q-2. Differentiate between unsaturated,
exothermic. Thus according to Le Chatelier ,s saturated & supersaturated solutions
principle solubility of such compounds decreases Q-3. Why do some solutes dissolve with
with increase of temp. evolution while others with absorption of heat?
Effect of pressure Q-4. Define Henry,s Law & explain the effect of
The external pressure has no effect on the temperature on the solubility of gases in liquid?
solubility of liquids and solids. Q-5. How does the solubility of gas depends on
temperature and pressure. Explain ?
But for gases the solubilities are greatly affected
 Ik Oankaar sat naam kartaa purakh nirbh-a-o nirvair akaal moorat ajoonee
saibhN Gur parsaad.
God is everywhere and in everyone, He is the Truth - Immortal, Creator, Without-
Fear, Without-Enmity, Unborn, and Self-Created. This understanding comes by
the Guru's Grace.
1. SOLUTIONS
Lecture-III By:-
AMRIK
Vapour pressure:- The pressure exerted by the SINGH
Thus, for component 1
vapours above the liquid surface in equilibrium p1  x1 and p1 = p10 x1 ----(1)
with the liquid is called vapour pressure. Similarly, for component 2
p2 = p20 x2 ---- (2)
Vapour pressure of a liquid decreases when non
According to Dalton’s law of partial
volatile solute is added to it. This is due to the fact pressures,
that non volatile solute particles also occupies ptotal = p1 + p2 …… (3)
some surface area and number of solute articles Substituting the values of p1 and p2, we get
escaping becomes less. Hence vapour pressure ptotal = x1 p10 + x2 p20
decreases. If = (1 – x2) p10 + x2 p20
P1O = V.P. of pure solvent = p10 + (p20 – p10) x2 ---- (4)
ptotal = (p20 – p10) x2 + p10 ---- (5)
P1 = V.P. of solvent in solution, Then
Following conclusions can be drawn from
Lowering in V.P. = P1O – P1 equation (5).
Vapour Pressure of Liquid-Liquid Solutions:- (i) Total vapour pressure over the solution
Or Raoult,s Law can be related to the mole fraction of any one
Note:- 1.The composition of vapour phase in (a) Positive deviation from Raoult,s
equilibrium with the solution is determined by the Law:-
partial pressures of the components. Let 1. In case of positive deviation from Raoult’s
y1=the m. f. of the component 1in vapour phase. law, A-B interactions are weaker than those
y2=the m. f. of the component 2 in vapour phase. between A-A or B-B. This means that in such
Then, using Dalton’s law of partial pressures: solutions, molecules of A (or B) will find it
p1 = y1 ptotal………(6) easier to escape than in pure state. This will
p2 = y2 ptotal………(7) increase the vapour pressure and result in
In general pi = yi ptotal positive deviation.
Note:-2. Raoult’s Law as a special case of 2. For such solutions
Henry’s Law:- According to Raoult’s law, the (i) ΔHmix > 0
vapour pressure of a volatile component in a given (ii) ΔHmix > 0
solution is given by (iii) pA > pA0 xA & pB > pB0 xB
pi = xi pi 0 3. Examples are
In the solution of a gas in a liquid, one of the (i) Mixtures of ethanol and acetone behave in
components is so volatile that it exists as a gas and this manner. In pure ethanol, molecules are
its solubility is given by Henry’s law which states hydrogen bonded. On adding acetone, its
that
molecules get in between the host molecules
p = KH x.
If we compare the equations for Raoult’s law and and break some of the hydrogen bonds
Henry’s law, it can be seen that only the between them. Due to weakening
proportionality constant KH differs from p1 0. of interactions, the solution shows positive
Thus, Raoult’s law becomes a special case of deviation from Raoult’s law.
Henry’s law in which KH becomes equal to p10. (ii) In a solution formed by adding carbon
Ideal Solutions:- A solution is said to be an ideal disulphide to acetone, the dipolar interactions
solution if it obey the following conditions: between solute-solvent molecules are weaker
1. It should obey Raoult’s law over the entire range than the respective interactions among the
of concentration . solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules.
2. The enthalpy of mixing of the pure components This solution also shows positive deviation.
to form the solution should be zero i.e., (b) Negative deviation from Raoult,s
ΔHmix = 0 Law:-
3. The volume of mixing should also be zero, i.e., 1. In case of negative deviations from
ΔHmix = 0 Raoult’s law, the intermolecular attractive
4. A-A and B-B interactions should be nearly equal forces between A-A and B-B are weaker than
 Q-7 Give the examples of non ideal solutions
showing positive and negative deviations from
Raoult's law?
Q-8 What are azeotropes?
Q-9 The partial pressure of ethane over a
solution containing 6.56 × 10–3 g of ethane is 1
bar. If the
solution contains 5.00 × 10–2 g of ethane, then
what shall be the partial pressure of the gas?
Ans. 7.62 bar
Q-10 An aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile
solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar at the
normal boiling point of the solvent. What is the
molar mass of the solute?
AZERTROPES Ans. 41.35gmol-1
Q-11Heptane and octane form an ideal
Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same
solution. At 373 K, the vapour pressures of the
composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at two liquid components are 105.2 kPa and 46.8
a constant temperature. In such cases, it is not kPa respectively. What will be the vapour
possible to separate the components by fractional pressure of a mixture of 26.0 g of heptane and
distillation. 35 g of octane?
Ans. 73.43kPa
There are two types of azeotropes :
Q-12The vapour pressure of water is 12.3 kPa
(i) Minimum boiling azeotrope and
at 300 K. Calculate vapour pressure of 1 molal
The solutions which show a large positive deviation
solution of a non-volatile solute in it.
from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope Ans. 12.08kPa
at a specific composition. Q-13 Calculate the mass of a non-volatile
E.g. ethanol-water mixture (obtained by
solute (molar mass 40 g mol–1) which should
fermentation of sugars) on fractional distillation
be dissolved in 114 g octane to reduce its
gives a solution containing approximately 95% by
volume of ethanol. Once this composition, known vapour pressure to 80%.
as azeotrope composition, has been achieved, the Ans. 10g
liquid and vapour have the same composition, and
no further separation occurs.
(ii) Maximum boiling azeotrope.
The solutions that show large negative deviation
from Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope
at a specific composition.
E.g. Nitric acid and water is an example of this class
 Ik Oankaar sat naam kartaa purakh nirbh-a-o nirvair akaal moorat ajoonee
saibhN Gur parsaad.
God is everywhere and in everyone, He is the Truth - Immortal, Creator, Without-
Fear, Without-Enmity, Unborn, and Self-Created. This understanding comes by
the Guru's Grace.
1. SOLUTIONS
Lecture-IV By:-
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES AMRIK SINGH Or
The properties which depend on the number of p1 W × M1
0– p1

solute particles irrespective of their nature are = 2 −−−¿8)

p10 W1 × M2
called colligative properties
(colligative: from Latin: co means together, ligare Here W1 and W2 are the masses and M1 and
means to bind). M2 are the molar masses of the solvent and
These are: solute.
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure of the From this equation (8), knowing all other
solvent quantities, the molar mass of solute (M2) can
2. Depression of freezing point of the solvent be calculated.
3. Elevation of boiling point of the solvent and
4. Osmotic pressure of the solution. CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure of the Q-1 The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a
certain temperature is 0.850 bar. A non-
solvent:-
volatile, non-electrolyte solid weighing 0.5 g
According to Raoult’s law
when added to 39.0g of benzene (molar
p1 = x1 p10 …….(1)
mass 78 g mol-1). Vapour pressure of the
Lowering in the vapour pressure of solvent (p1) is : solution, then, is 0.845 bar. What is the molar
p1 = p10 – p1 mass of the solid substance?
= p10 - p10 x1 Ans. 170 g mol-1
= p10 (1 – x1) ---- (2) Q-2 Vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is
But x2 = 1 – x1 23.8 mm Hg. 50 g of urea (NH2CONH2) is
p1 = x2 p20 ---- (3) dissolved in 850 g of water. Calculate the
Equation (3) can be written as vapour pressure of water for this solution and
∆ p1 p1 0− p1 its relative lowering.
= =x 2−−−(4 ) Ans. (i) 23.39 (ii) 0.0173
p1
0 p1 0
2. Elevation of Boiling Point:-
Relative lowering of vapour pressure is equal (i)Boiling Point:-The temperatue at which
to the vapour pressure of a liquid become
the mole fraction of the solute. Hence it is a equal becomes to atmospheric pressure is
colligative property. called its boiling point.
The plot of V.P. vs. T for pure solvent & solution is 3. DEPRESSION IN FREEZING POINT
shown in figure. (i)Freezing Point:-The temperatue at
The V.P. curve of solvent is always above the V.P. which the solid & liquid state of a substance
curve of solution because vapour pressure of have same vapour pressure is called its
solvent is always greater than vapour pressure of freezing point.
solution. (ii) Depression in Freezing Point:- The
freezing point of a solvent decreases when
a non volatile solute is added to it. This is
known as depression in freezing point
(iii)Cause of depression in freezing
Point:- Solute particles does not fit into the
crystal of the solvent because of differences
in size. The solute essentially remains in
solution and blocks other solvent from
fitting into the crystal lattice during the
freezing process.
The plot of V.P. vs. T for pure solvent &
solution is shown in figure.

Let Tb0= V.P. of pure solvent.

Tb= V.P. of solvent in solution.
Tb= Elevation of boiling point.
Then Tb= Tb -Tb0
Calculation of molecular mass of solute:-
Experiments have shown that for dilute solutions
the elevation of boiling point (Tb) is directly
proportional to the molal concentration of
the solute in a solution. Thus
Tb  m …………… (1)
or Tb = Kb m …………(2)
Here m = molality
Kb = constant of proportionality Boiling Point The V.P. curve of solvent is always above
Elevation Constant or Molal Elevation the V.P. curve of solution because vapour
Constant (Ebullioscopic Constant). pressure of solvent is always greater than
K b ×W B ×1000 vapour pressure of solution.
∆ T b= Let Tf0= V.P. of pure solvent.
M B ×W A Tf= V.P. of solvent in solution.
Note:- 1. Elevation Constant may be defined as Tf= Depression in freezing point.
elevation in boiling when molality of solution is Then Tf= Tf –Tf0
unity. 2. The unit of Kb is K kg mol-1. Calculation of molecular mass of
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE solute:- Experiments have shown that for
Q-1 18 g of glucose, C6H12O6, is dissolved in 1 kg of dilute solutions the depression in freezing
water in a saucepan. At what temperature will water point (Tf) is directly proportional to the
boil at 1.013 bar? Kb for water is 0.52 K kg mol-1. molal concentration of
(373.202 K)
Note:- 1. Depression Constant may be defined the flow of solvent through semi permeable
as depression in freezing point when molality of membrane is called osmotic pressure of the
solution is unity. solution.
2. The unit of Kb is K kg mol-1. Or
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE It is the minimum excess pressure applied
Q-1 45 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600 on the solution to stop osmosis. Or
g of water. Calculate The osmotic pressure of a solution is the
(a) the freezing point depression and(2.2 K) excess pressure that must be applied to a
(b) the freezing point of the solution. solution to prevent osmosis, i.e., to stop the
Ans. (a) 2.2 K (b) 270.95 K passage of solvent molecules through a
Q-2 1.00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 semi permeable membrane into the
g of benzene lowered the freezing point of benzene by solution.
0.40 K. The freezing point depression constant of
benzene is 5.12 K kg mol–1. Find the molar mass of the
solute.
Ans. 256 g mol-1
Q-3 Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C,
C6H8O6) to be dissolved in 75 g of acetic acid to lower
its melting point by 1.5°C. Kf = 3.9 K kg mol-1.
Ans. 5.08g
Q-4 A 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in water
has freezing point of 271K. Calculate the freezing
point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of pure
water is 273.15 K.
Ans. 269
Q-5Two elements A and B form compounds having For dilute solutions, it has been found
formula AB2 and AB4. When dissolved in 20 g of
experimentally that osmotic pressure is
benzene (C6H6), 1 g of AB2 lowers the freezing point by
proportional to the molarity, C of the
2.3 K whereas 1.0 g of AB4 lowers it by 1.3 K. The
solution at a given temperature T.
molar depression constant for benzene is 5.1 K kg mol–
1
. Calculate atomic masses of A & B. n B × R ×T
π=CRT or π= or πV =n B RT
Ans. 26 & 43 V
4. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as
(a) Osmosis:- The movement of solvent molecules it depends on the number of solute
from lower concentration to higher concentration molecules and not on their identity.
through a semi permeable membrane is known as Calculation of molecular mass of
osmosis e.g. solute:- We know
(i) Raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in brine (salt
water). n B × R ×T
(ii) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water. π= −−−¿ (i)
(iii) Blood cells collapse when suspended in saline water. V
(iv) Dry vegetables & fruits becomes fresh when placed
in WB
Water. Butn B= −−−¿ (ii)
MB
(v) Water movement from soil into plant roots and
subsequently into upper portion of the plant is partly Put (ii) in (i)
due to osmosis. W B × R ×T
π= −−−¿ (iii)
MB
From (iii) molecular mass of solute can be
calculated.
Note:- 1. SPM is a membrane of parchment
or cellophane which allows only solvent
molecules to pass through it.
Note:-2. Osmosis increases with the
 (ii) As compared to other colligative properties, its all the essentials substances that should be
magnitude is large even for very dilute solutions. left in solution in the blood. In dialysis
(iii) It is useful for determination of molar mass of machine blood from patient runs through
bio molecules as they are generally not stable at the tubes made of semi porous membrane.
higher temperatures and polymers have poor Outside the tubes is a sterile solution made
solubility. up of water, sugar & other components. Red
Isotonic, Hypertonic & Hypotonic solutions & white blood cells & other important blood
(i) Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a components are too large to fit through the
given temperature are called isotonic solutions. pores in the membranes, but urea & salt
When such solutions are separated by flow through membranes into the sterile
semipermeable membrane no osmosis occurs solution & are removed.
between them. Reverse Osmosis and Water
e.g. the osmotic pressure associated with the fluid Purification:-
inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of 0.9% The direction of osmosis can be reversed if
(mass/volume) sodium chloride solution, called a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure
normal saline solution and it is safe to inject is applied to the solution side, now the pure
intravenously. solvent flows out of the solution through the
(ii) On the other hand, if we place the cells in a semi permeable membrane. This
solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume) phenomenon is called reverse osmosis
sodium chloride, water will flow out of the cells and and is of great practical utility. Reverse
they would shrink. Such a solution is called osmosis is used in desalination of sea
hypertonic. water. A schematic set up for the process is
(iii) If the salt concentration is less than 0.9% shown in Fig.
(mass/volume), the solution is said to be
hypotonic.

Note:-1.The pressure required for the

reverse osmosis is quite high.
2. A workable porous membrane is a film of
cellulose acetate placed over a suitable
support. Cellulose acetate is permeable to
water but impermeable to impurities and
ions present in sea water.
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Q-1 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a
protein contains 1.26 g of the protein. The
osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300 K
is found to be 2.57 × 10-3 bar. Calculate the
molar mass of the protein.
Ans. 61,022 g mol-1
Q-2 Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals
exerted by a solution prepared by dissolving
1.0 g of polymer of molar mass 185,000 in
450 mL of water at 37°C.
Ans. 30.96Pa
Note:- The preservation of meat by salting and of Q-3 At 300 K, 36 g of glucose present in a
fruits by adding sugar protects against bacterial litre of its solution has an osmotic pressure of
action. Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium 4.98 bar. If the osmotic pressure of the
on salted meat or candid fruit loses water, shrivels solution is 1.52 bars at the same temperature,
and dies.Ik Oankaar sat naam kartaa purakh nirbh-a-o whatnirvair
would be akaal moorat ajoonee
its concentration?
N
Process of Cleaning of Blood Dialysis:- saibhA Gur parsaad.
Ans. 0.061M
Abnormal Molar Masses
Molar mass calculated by colligative properties 1−α +m α i−1
measure- ments is not always correct. It may be
i= ∨α =
1 m−1
lower or higher than the expected or normal value.
Such molar mass is known as abnormal molar Normal molar mass
mass. i=
Observed molar mass
Cause of Abnormal Molar Masses (i)Degree of association:- Let
It is due to the association or dissociation of solute n = No. of molecules of solute associated
particles when dissolved in solvent.  = Degree of association
(i) Dissociation of solute particles:-Let us consider & if we start with 1 mole of solute. Then
the dissolution of if one mole of KCl (74.5 g) in The total no. of moles after association=1-
water. +/n
KCl(s) → K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Observed no . of moles of solute
In this case no. solute paticles becomes double & i=
value of colligative property will be double. Molar Normal no . of moles of solute
mass in this case will be half i.e. 37.25 g.
(ii) Association of solute particles:- Let us consider 1−α +α /n i−1
i= ∨α =
the association of if one mole of CH 3COOH (74.5 g) 1 1/n−1
in water.
CH3COOH(l) → (CH3COOH)2 Normal molar mass
i=
In this case no. solute paticles becomes half & Observed molar mass
value of colligative property will be half. Molar Note:- Van’t Hoff factor modifies the
mass in this case will be double i.e. 120 g. equations for colligative properties as
Van’t Hoff Factor follows:
In 1880 van’t Hoff introduced a factor i, known as p1 0– p1 W 2× M 1
the van’t Hoff factor, to account for the extent of Relative lowering of V.P. =i ×
p1 W 1× M 2
dissociation or association. This factor i is defined
0

as:
Normal molar mass Elevation of Boiling point, Tb = i Kb m
i=
Abnormal molar mass
Depression of Freezing point, Tf = i Kf m
Observed colligative property
i= nB × R × T
Calculated colligative property Osmotic pressure of solution, π=i ×
Van’t Hoff Factor & extent of dissociation or V
association Q-1. 2 g of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) dissolved
HOME in 25 g of benzene shows a depression in
ASSIGNMENT
(i)Degree of dissociation:- Let
3. SOLUTIONSfreezing point equal to 1.62 K. Molal
m = No. of ions after dissociation
depression constant for ben-
 = Degree of dissociation
1.weWhat zene is 4.9 K kg mol–1. What is the percentage
& if start is relative
with 1 molelowering in vapour
of solute. Then atpressure? asso- ciation of acid if it forms dimer in
2. State Raoult’s law?
equilibrium solution?
No.3.of Define
moles of molal elevation
solute constant?
left un dissociated=1- Ans. 99.2 %.
No.4.of What
molesisofosmosis?
ions formed= m Q-2.6 mL of acetic acid (CH3COOH), having
5. no.
Total Define osmotic
of moles pressure?
of particles=1-+ m density 1.06 g mL–1, is dissolved in 1 litre of
6. When isObserved
value ofnoVan’t Hoff factor
. of moles of solutemore than one?
water. The depression in freezing point
7. Why i= is increase in temp. is observed
Normal no . of moles of solute on mixing chloroform with acetone?
8. What are ideal solutions?
9. What is reverse osmosis. Give its one use?
Q-1 A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a substance A to 18 g of water. Calculate the mass per
cent of the solute.
Q-2 The laboratory reagent concentrated nitric acid is generally 69% by mass of nitric acid.
Calculate the volume of this solution which contains 19.9g of nitric acid.(density of nitric
acid=1.41gcm-3)
Q-3 One litre of sea water is found to contain 5.8×10-3g of dissolved oxygen. Calculate the
concentration of oxygen in sea water in ppm. (density of water=1.03g/cc)
Q-4 Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C 2H6O2) in a solution containing 20% of C2H6O2 by
mass.
Q-5 Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% by mass in carbon
tetrachloride.
Q-6 A solution contains 25% water, 25% ethanol & 50% acetic acid by mass. Calculate mole fraction
of each component.
Q-7 Calculate the mole fraction of ethanol & water in a sample of rectified spirit which contains 95%
of ethanol by mass.
Q-8 Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its 4 g in enough water to
form 250 mL of the solution.
Q-9 If the density of methanol is 0.793 kg L –1, what is its volume needed for making 2.5 L of its 0.25
M solution?
Q-10 Calculate the molarity of a solution of ethanol in water in which the mole fraction of ethanol is
0.040 (assume the density of water to be one).
Q-11 Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions: (a) 30 g of Co(NO 3)2. 6H2O in 4.3 L of
solution
(b) 30 mL of 0.5 M H2SO4 diluted to 500 mL.
Q-12 Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450 mL solution.
Q-13 Calculate the mass of sodium acetate (CH3COONa) required to make 500 mL of 0.375 molar
aqueous solution. Molar mass of sodium acetate is 82.0245 g mol –1
Q-14 Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample which has a density,
1.41 g mL–1 and the mass per cent of nitric acid in it being 69%.
Q-15 What is the concentration of sugar (C12H22O11) in mol L–1 if its 20 g are dissolved in enough
water to make a final volume up to 2L?
Q-16 The density of 3M solution of NaCl is1.25 g mL –1. Calculate molality of the solution.
Q-17 Calculate molality of 2.5 g of ethanoic acid (CH 3COOH) in 75 g of benzene
Q-18 How are 0.50 mol Na2CO3 and 0.50 M Na2CO3 different?
Q-19 A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with chloroform, CHCl 3,
supposed to be carcinogenic in nature. The level of contamination was 15 ppm (by mass).
(i) Express this in percent by mass.
(ii) Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
Q-20 Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2.5 kg of 0.25 molal aq. solution.
Q-21 Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density of 20% (mass/mass)
aqueous KI is 1.202 g mL-1
Q-22 The partial pressure of ethane over a solution containing 6.56 × 10 –3 g of ethane is 1 bar. If the
solution contains 5.00 × 10–2 g of ethane, then what shall be the partial pressure of the gas?
Q-23 An aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar at the normal
boiling point of the solvent. What is the molar mass of the solute?
Q-24Heptane and octane form an ideal solution. At 373 K, the vapour pressures of the two liquid
components are 105.2 kPa and 46.8 kPa respectively. What will be the vapour pressure of a mixture
of 26.0 g of heptane and 35 g of octane?
Q-25The vapour pressure of water is 12.3 kPa at 300 K. Calculate vapour pressure of 1 molal
solution of a non-volatile solute in it.
Q-26 Calculate the mass of a non-volatile solute (molar mass 40 g mol –1) which should be dissolved
in 114 g octane to reduce its vapour pressure to 80%.
Q-27 The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0.850 bar. A non-volatile,
non-electrolyte solid weighing 0.5 g when added to 39.0g of benzene (molar mass 78 g mol -1).
Vapour pressure of the solution, then, is 0.845 bar. What is the molar mass of the solid substance?
Q-28 Vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23.8 mm Hg. 50 g of urea (NH 2CONH2) is dissolved in
850 g of water. Calculate the vapour pressure of water for this solution and its relative lowering.
Q-29 18 g of glucose, C6H12O6, is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a saucepan. At what temperature will
water boil at 1.013 bar? Kb for water is 0.52 K kg mol-1.
Q-30The boiling point of benzene is 353.23 K. When 1.80 g of a non-volatile solute was dissolved in
90 g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to 354.11 K. Calculate the molar mass of the solute. Kb
for benzene is 2.53K kg mol–1
Q-31 Boiling point of water at 750 mm Hg is 99.63°C. How much sucrose is to be added to 500 g of
water such that it boils at 100°C.
Q-32 45 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is mixed with 600 g of water. Calculate
(a) the freezing point depression and
(b) the freezing point of the solution.
Q-33 1.00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered the freezing point of
benzene by 0.40 K. The freezing point depression constant of benzene is 5.12 K kg mol –1. Find the
molar mass of the solute.
Q-34 Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C, C 6H8O6) to be dissolved in 75 g of acetic acid to
lower its melting point by 1.5°C. Kf = 3.9 K kg mol-1.
Q-35 A 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar in water has freezing point of 271K. Calculate the
freezing point of 5% glucose in water if freezing point of pure water is 273.15 K.
Q-36Two elements A and B form compounds having formula AB 2 and AB4. When dissolved in 20 g of
benzene (C6H6), 1 g of AB2 lowers the freezing point by 2.3 K whereas 1.0 g of AB4 lowers it by 1.3 K.
The molar depression constant for benzene is 5.1 K kg mol–1. Calculate atomic masses of A & B.
Q-37 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26 g of the protein. The osmotic
pressure of such a solution at 300 K is found to be 2.57 × 10 -3 bar. Calculate the molar mass of the
protein.
Q-38 Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerted by a solution prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of
polymer of molar mass 185,000 in 450 mL of water at 37°C.
Q-39 At 300 K, 36 g of glucose present in a litre of its solution has an osmotic pressure of 4.98 bar. If
the osmotic pressure of the solution is 1.52 bars at the same temperature, what would be its
concentration?
Q-40. 2 g of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) dissolved in 25 g of benzene shows a depression in freezing
point equal to 1.62 K. Molal depression constant for ben-
zene is 4.9 K kg mol–1. What is the percentage asso- ciation of acid if it forms dimer in solution?
Q-41 6 mL of acetic acid (CH3COOH), having density 1.06 g mL–1, is dissolved in 1 litre of water. The
depression in freezing point observed for this strength of acid was 0.0205°C. Calculate the van’t
Hoff factor and the dissociation constant of acid.

Q-1 Q-2 Q-3 Q-4 Q-5 Q-6 Q-7

10% 20.4 cm3 5.63 ppm 0.068 0.46 0.5, 0.197, 0.88 &
0.302 0.12

Q-8 Q-9 Q-10 Q-11 Q-12 Q-13 Q-14

25.22ml. (a)0.024M 0.278 mol
, dm–3
(b)0.03M

Q-15 Q-16 Q-17 Q-18 Q-19 Q-20 Q-21

0.556 mol (i)15×10-4 36.94g (a)1.5kgm
kg–1 (ii) 1.25×10- ol-1
4
(b)1.45mol
L-1 (c)
0.0263

Q-22 Q-23 Q-24 Q-25 Q-26 Q-27 Q-28

7.62 bar 41.35gmol- 73.43kPa 12.08kPa 10g 170 g mol-1 (i) 23.39
1 (ii) 0.0173
 Q-29 Q-30 Q-31 Q-32 Q-33 Q-34 Q-35
373.202 K 58 g mol–1 121.7g (a) 2.2 K 256 g mol-1 5.08g 269
(b) 270.95
K

Q-36 Q-37 Q-38 Q-39 Q-40 Q-41

26 & 43 61022 g mol- 30.96Pa 0.061M 39 99.2 % (i)1.041 (ii) 1.86 ×
1
10–5