Cambridge (CIE) O Level Computer Science

Data Storage
Primary Storage
• Definition: Primary storage is directly accessed by the CPU.
• Importance: Both primary and secondary storage are essential for computer operation.

Comparison of Primary and Secondary Storage

• Primary Storage:
o Volatile (except for ROM)
o Small capacity
• Secondary Storage:
o Non-volatile
o Large capacity

Why is Primary Storage Needed?

• Access times are significantly faster than secondary storage.

• Holds data and instructions needed by the CPU while the computer is on.
• Used as short-term, working memory in hardware directly connected to the CPU (e.g.,
RAM, Cache, Registers).
• Higher performance leads to higher costs, limiting the amount used.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

• Definition: RAM is primary storage directly connected to the CPU, holding data and
instructions currently in use.
• Characteristics:
o Volatile: Contents are lost when power is off.
o Fast working memory, much faster than secondary storage.
o Read/write: Data can be both read from and written to RAM.
o Larger capacity compared to ROM.

Example of RAM Usage

• Smart Television:
o Stores data like:
▪ Current channel being watched
▪ Current volume
▪ Current video/file/TV program being watched
▪ Web browser/applications that are running
 ▪ Data being downloaded/buffered

ROM (Read Only Memory)

• Definition: ROM is primary storage that holds the initial instructions needed for a
computer to start up (Bootstrap).
• Characteristics:
o Contains the BIOS (Basic Input Output System).
o Located on the computer's motherboard.
o Fast memory, faster than secondary storage but slower than RAM.
o Non-volatile: Contents are retained when power is off.
o Read-only: Data can only be read from ROM.
o Smaller capacity compared to RAM.

Example of ROM Usage

• Quinn's Computer:
1. Purpose of ROM:
▪ Stores start-up instructions/bootstrap.
▪ Used to start the computer.
2. Purpose of RAM:
▪ Stores parts of the OS/programs that are running.

Secondary Storage
• Definition: Secondary storage devices are non-volatile and retain digital data within a
computer system.
• Function: Provide means for storing, accessing, and retrieving data (software
applications, documents, images, videos, etc.).

Types of Secondary Storage

1. Magnetic
2. Solid-state (flash memory)
3. Optical

Why is Secondary Storage Needed?

• For long-term storage of programs and data not currently in use.

• Necessary because ROM is read-only and RAM is volatile.
• Holds programs and data while the computer is turned off (non-volatile).
• Slower than primary storage but has much higher capacity, ideal for backup and
archiving.

Characteristics of Secondary Storage

 • Capacity: Maximum amount of data that can be stored.

Data Storage
Key Factors in Data Storage
• Capacity: How much data can be stored?
• Speed: How fast can data be read from and written to? (R/W)
• Cost: How much does it cost?
• Portability: How easy is it to move around? What is the physical size? Weight?
• Durability: How robust is the storage?
• Reliability: What is the probability that the device will consistently perform its function?

Magnetic Storage
What is Magnetic Storage?

• A type of non-volatile media that uses magnets to store binary 0s and 1s.
• A magnetic hard disk consists of several metal discs (platters) coated with magnetic
material.
• Iron particles on each platter are magnetized to represent a 0 or 1.

Structure of Magnetic Storage

• Each platter is divided into concentric circles creating tracks and wedge-shaped sectors.
• The intersection of a track and sector is called a track sector.

Operation

• The hard drive spins the metal disk(s) at high speeds (typically around $5400-7200 \text{
RPM}$).
• A read/write arm, controlled by an actuator, moves the head over the surface of the disc
to access data.
• Data is read/written using electromagnets.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:
o High storage capacity.
o Low cost per gigabyte.
• Disadvantages:
o Moving parts can get damaged if dropped (durability).
o Heavy and bulky (portability).
o Moderate read/write speed.
 o Prone to mechanical failure (reliability).
o Loud operation (noise).

Solid-state (Flash Memory)

What is Solid-state (Flash Memory)?

• A type of non-volatile media that uses electronic circuits to store binary 0s and 1s.
• Examples include:
o Solid state drives (SSD).
o USB flash memory.

Structure and Operation

• Made up of tiny cells that can contain one bit of data (1 or 0).
• Each cell contains a transistor that acts as a switch.
o Control gate: Connects to the circuit and controls current flow.
o Floating gate: Holds a charge and is sandwiched between insulating layers.
• To store data, a charge is placed on the floating gate using high voltage.
• To remove data, a high voltage is applied in the opposite direction.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:
o Medium/high storage capacity.
o Very fast read/write access.
o No moving parts (durability).
o Small and portable.
o Silent operation.
• Disadvantages:
o Very high cost per gigabyte.
o Limited read/write cycles (reliability).

Optical Storage
What is Optical Storage?

• A type of non-volatile media that uses lasers to burn the surface of a disk, creating pits
and lands for storing binary 0s and 1s.
• Examples include:
o Blu-rays (largest capacity).
o CDs (lowest capacity).

Types of Optical Disks

 • CD-R: Read-only (cannot save data).
• CD-RW: Can be written to and read from.
• DVD-RW: Can be written to and read from.

Operation

• A laser shines on the disk and processes the reflection.

• The laser burns data onto the disk by creating pits and lands.
• Changes in the surface are detected by a sensor, interpreted as binary values.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:
o Very low cost per gigabyte.
o No moving parts (durability).
o Small and portable.
o Silent operation.
• Disadvantages:
o Very low storage capacity.
o Very slow read/write access.
o Prone to scratches (reliability).

Worked Example
Scenario

A games console needs secondary storage.

Answer

• Why does a games console need secondary storage?

o To store data once the power is turned off (non-volatile storage).
• Examples:
o Storing games.
o Save games.
o User data/profiles.
o Downloaded content/applications/updates.

Another Example

Zarmeen has purchased a new tablet computer with an internal solid-state storage device.

1. Benefits of solid-state device:

o Faster access/read/write speeds.
o No moving parts (more durable).
 oSmaller and lighter (more portable).
2. Drawbacks of solid-state device:
o Very high cost per gigabyte.
o Limited read/write cycles (reliability).

Smaller in Physical Size

Advantages
• More durable
• No moving parts

Drawbacks
• More expensive (per gigabyte)
• Smaller capacity (usually)
• Limited number of read/write cycles

Guidance
• Portable is not enough on its own
• No moving parts is not enough on its own

Virtual Memory
What is Virtual Memory?
• Virtual memory is an extension of primary storage (RAM) located on secondary storage.
• It is used when RAM is close to being full, allowing the computer to remain operational.

How It Works
• Programs and data not currently being executed are transferred to virtual memory.
• Programs and data are transferred back to RAM when needed.
• Programs are stored as pages of data.
• Pages of data are transferred between RAM and virtual memory as needed.

Performance Impact
• Virtual memory is much slower than RAM.
• Its use negatively impacts system performance.
 • To avoid using virtual memory, increase the size of the RAM.

Example
• When the computer is turned on, the operating system loads into RAM.
• If the user opens software (e.g., spreadsheet and video editing) but RAM is full, the
program not currently in use (video editing) is transferred to virtual memory.
• When the user wants to use the video editing software again, it is transferred back from
virtual memory to RAM.

Case Study
• A student uses software to create 3D models, which requires large amounts of RAM.
• If there is not enough physical RAM, virtual memory is used to:
o Extend RAM's capacity
o Ensure the software does not freeze/crash when RAM gets full

Worked Example
1. Explain how virtual memory can compensate for the lack of RAM in Fynn's
computer [3]
o Virtual memory is used when RAM is full.
o Part of the secondary storage is used as temporary RAM.
o Data from RAM is moved to secondary storage/virtual memory to make space in
RAM.
o RAM can then be filled with new data.
o When data in virtual memory is needed, it is moved back to RAM.
2. Explain why it would be beneficial for Fynn to get more RAM instead of relying on
virtual memory [2]
o More RAM will improve the performance of the computer.
o More RAM will speed up access to data.
o Virtual memory is slower to access than RAM because it has to go back to RAM
first.
o Moving data between RAM and virtual memory takes processor time.

Cloud Storage
What is Cloud Storage?
• Cloud storage refers to long-term (secondary) storage of data in a remote location,
accessible via a wide area network (Internet).
• Data is stored on remote servers, typically using magnetic storage (HDD) or increasingly
using solid state (SSD).
Advantages
• Reliability: Access data anywhere, any time, from any device.
• Security: Automatic backups.
• Availability: No access without an internet connection.
• Capacity: Endless storage space (cost permitting), uses less space on own device.
• Collaboration: Multiple people can access the same file at the same time.

Advantages of Cloud Storage

• Accessibility: Data can be accessed from anywhere and on any device with an internet
connection.
• Scalability: Customers can increase or decrease their storage capacity as needed.
• Reliability: Multiple servers are used to store and backup data, reducing the risk of data
loss.
• Security: Advanced security features, such as data encryption and multi-factor
authentication, protect user data.

Drawbacks
• Slow or unreliable internet connection can hinder access to files.
• Storing a lot of data can be expensive.
• Users may need to commit to an annual subscription.
• High download and upload data transfer limits may incur additional costs.
• Data sent over the internet has the potential to be intercepted.
• Security is managed by the cloud storage provider, meaning users do not have complete
control but are still legally responsible for their data.

Personal and Sensitive Data Security

Disadvantages of Storing Data in the Cloud
• Internet Dependency
o A constant internet connection is required.
o If the internet connection fails:
▪ Teachers cannot access lesson files.
▪ Teachers cannot access student data or take electronic registers.
▪ Students cannot access their work or coursework.
• Security Concerns
o The school relies on a third party to manage security procedures.
o The school remains legally responsible if unauthorized access occurs.
o Data stored in the cloud could be hacked or intercepted.
Advantages of Storing Data in the Cloud
• Scalability
o Additional storage can be purchased if needed.
• Backup and Security
o The cloud hosting company provides backup services.
o The cloud hosting company offers security measures.
• Accessibility
o Data can be accessed from anywhere and any device with an internet connection.
▪ Teachers can access data from home.
▪ Students can access their work from home.

Network Hardware
Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Definition
o A Network Interface Card (NIC) is essential for a computer to connect to a
network.
o It can be wired or wireless, allowing data transmission over a network.

MAC Addresses & IP Addresses

• MAC Addresses
o A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier for devices on a
local area network (LAN).
o Assigned at manufacture, MAC addresses are static and do not change.
o Represented as 12 hexadecimal digits (48 bits), grouped in pairs.
▪ First three pairs: Manufacturer ID number (OUI).
▪ Last three pairs: Serial number of the NIC.
o Sufficient unique MAC addresses exist for roughly 281 trillion devices.
• IP Addresses
o An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for devices on the Internet
(WAN).
o Can be static (unchanging) or dynamic (changing).
o IPv4: Represented as 4 blocks of numbers (0-255), separated by dots (32 bits
total).
o IPv6: Represented as 8 blocks of hexadecimal digits, separated by colons (128
bits total).
▪ IPv6 can provide over one billion unique addresses for every person on the
planet.

Differences Between IP Addresses and MAC Addresses

 1. Changeability
o IP address is dynamic/can change.
o MAC address is static/cannot change.
2. Usage
o IP address is used for communication on a WAN/Internet.
o MAC address is used for communication on a LAN.

Router
• Definition
o A router is responsible for routing data packets between different networks.

Router Functions
Overview
• A router directs internet traffic to the correct destination or devices in your home
network.
• It connects local area networks (LAN) to the wider internet, which is a type of wide area
network (WAN).
• The router manages and prioritizes data traffic, helping to keep connections stable.
• It assigns IP addresses to devices on the network.

Key Tasks of a Router

1. Send and Receive Packets of Data
o Routers facilitate communication by sending and receiving data packets.
2. Connect a Local Network to the Internet
o They link your home network to the broader internet, allowing access to online
resources.
3. Assign IP Addresses to Nodes/Devices
o Routers provide unique IP addresses to each device on the network for
identification.
4. Convert Packets from One Protocol to Another
o They can change data packets from one communication protocol to another,
ensuring compatibility.