35. Fermi-Dirac Energy Distribution Law Basic Postulates. We consider an isolated system of non- interacting idential particles (fermions) whose spin angular momenta are odd half-integral mutiples of f. The system is in equilibsitm atf 36 Ele ments of Statistical Mechanics | absolute temperature 7, with total energy U, volume V, and total ‘number of particles 1. The derivation of the law is based on the basic postulates stated in See. 1:7, with the additional assumption which is as follows : | : The particles are indistinguishable and they obey the Pauli | exclusion principle which states that in each quantum state there cannot ‘simultaneonsly be more than one particle. That is, in a given quantum state the number of particles can be 0 or 1. Now proceeding exactly as in Sec. 3-2 we obtain the following due : wl) Se mt ==) oT Sano -G) i S E,dny=0 i (4) a irac Statistical Count. Since the particles are indistin- there is only one way of selecting particles for each of the els. Therefore, in Eq. (5a) of Sec. 2:2 the value of x is ‘means that we have to consider the possible permutations ‘particles among the gr quantum states in the r* with the condition there can be a maximum of one zr quantum state. ‘case g must be greater than ,, As shown in Fig. 32 er of ways of placing a first of n, particles in one of the g,Bose-Einstein and Fermic-Dirge Staistics a ‘When the first particle has occupied # quantum state, the ‘emaining number of the quantum states is (R-—1). ¢ “+ the number of ways of placing a second particle in (e/—1) ‘states=¢,—1, vied tn bi Similarly the number of placiag r* particle inthe remaining 1)] states leo 4 8g arth The total number of ways of arranging m- particles among &; states im the r# level =8 (&—1) (@-—2) (n+!) (grt) «(B= me) 1 @=m! In cach of these arrangements, the number of permutation of , ‘m particles among themselves is n-! Since the particles are indistin- guishable these permutations do not give independent arrangements. Hence the actual number of independent permutations of ny particles among g, quantum states is given by a! We TG mT on ‘The total number W of independent ways of obtaining a distri- bution (m, Mm. m) particles among the quantum states in the ‘various energy levels, with a maximum of | particle per quantum ‘state, is the product of expressions given by Eq. (5a) for red, 2yecee8 ‘Thus 2 s ba ml @ my Il at a Unte—at 7) ‘Condition for Most Probable Distribution, Proceeding exactly as Boltzmann Statistics we obtain the condition for the distribution : Bx)Elements of Statistical Mechanics gy Distribution Lam. ‘Taking logarithm of both sides of ; van [eee metatog ign) t] atee Now from Stirling's formula, we have tog gs tee Loe ger teen, log m—n, 7) b=(@,—n,) log (6-—n,)—(8-—m) these values in Eq. (7), we get Se Jos gr—ne log m—(gr—m) 106m) | «8 i . ting Eq. (8) partially with respect to m,, and remem= tthe partial derivatives of the terms the except ther termBose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac Statistics eo This is the general form of the Fermi.Dirac energy distribution Jaw for an assembly of fermions If the energy levels of the system are very close ,together, then the distribution law is written in the form (6) d= 8 (E) AE SHE ‘where n (£) dE is the number of particles whose energies lie in the range between E and E+dé. (lt) ‘The value of the undetermined multiplier ¢ is given by (See Seo. 24) 8a yr (12) The temperature has no appreciable effect on a free electron 2s. Such a system of independent particles is said to be degenerate. ‘This means that for a system of independent particles such as free electrons eo! ++ wewrite e in the form A im Eek (3) where Ey is called the Fermi energy of the system; its physical interpretation is given is Sec. 3. ‘Now substituting the values of Band x in Eq. (10), wet get & SEEN THT (4) Fermi-Dirac energy distribution function. Since there can be a ‘one particle per quantum state, the function f (E;) is ‘of the number of quantum states of energy E; ogcupied fo the total number of quantum states available in energy level E,, ‘Therefore, the value of f(E,) for the Fermi- distribution ata particular energy Ey is the probability that ‘equilibrium a quantum state of that energy is occupied by a Eq, (14) f(E;) is given byo Elements of Statistical Mechanics ey 9 ‘ 1 *% Z. AS) EW For continuous distribution , the function |e s of energy at energy E, the 18), 1 I~ TEE T = = F-D energy distribution law for continuous ‘variation of enerey” at range between E and £+-dE is given by n(E) dEmf (B) g (E) dE Al) . _ fis the number of quantum states of energy between the value of f(E) in Eq. (17) n(E)dE~ od A18) ares at particles like electrons of spin angular. momentum +4 2, {wo possible spin orientations. Fora system of such (8) AE is given by (See Sec. 13). £6) db wrx2n v (20 aE the value of g (E) dE in Eq. (18) sn(19)oO arn! wl) This means that at absolute zero all Poraible quantum states of ‘Teas than By, are occupied, ” ¥ 1 we Q) that at absolute z0ro all quantum states of energy ‘are empty.a ements of Statistical Mechantes ay) and) sha that cles he unin 2 ‘constant equal 19 | forall values of energies up to Ey and at fre it falls to zero, ‘Thus at absolute zero /(F) is # SP ie 93). (2) Worm energy at T>0, For T>0, | Be kn 1 S8= or ie | ‘This gives the physical interpretation of the Fermi enersy at & temperature, “Thus the Fermi energy Ep at T>0 is that enersy el in ‘50% of the quantum states are occupied and 50% are ‘can be shown that as T increases Ey decreases slightly for practical purposes Ey at temperature T may be con- ‘of ‘states occupied above Ey, and fraction of states gma, at T>0. The fraction of available quantum ” 1 NO Ei 0) ‘unoocupied states in the same energy level 1 14 On| EBT ERENT fe +1"6 Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac Statistics a ae type EBA tend, 1 ae me Now from Eq. (3) the fraction of occupied states in the energy level Bm Ep +x is 1 SErt =p OUT From Eq. (4) the fraction of unoccupied states in the energ} level , E=Ep—xis If (Er—x)= : S Er—x) > + (6) From Eqs. (5) and (6) we find that at temperature T>0 the fraction of occupied states in an energy level higher than Ep by a ‘certain value is equal to the fraction of unoccupied states in an ‘energy level lover than Ey by the same value, Hence the curve for AE) at temperature 7>0 is symmetrical about the point P(Ep, #) 8s shown in Fig. 3:3. “ 3-7. Energy distribution curve From the energy distribution law (Ea. (2088. 3-5] wget the following conclusions : ) , L at T=0, for E, the exponential term exp (€~ PAT — exp (=) = 5s. Seo = 0. 7: value of chemical potential at T= 0 K is dented by pp Thus at T = 0 K. all he ener fuss below the © = ip are occupied and those above it are empty. The energy © = iy scales erm CNTEY €4(0). Thus, the Ferm energy isthe maximum vale of enery that a fermion can acpure X. In other words, the energy ofthe top most filled level in a Fermi gas at absolute ceo e Fermi energy. ACT # OK, the probability the energy level €= pg = Epis occupied is de oop e+ 2 ‘That is, at Fermi energy one half the energy states will be occupied. The vatation of FD > Tyite isibtion is non-degenerate, The parameter c= ~ RT is negative for degenene syste st) Besiiys fox non-degenerat eysiems, This means that W'5'0 at low temperature and y 20 at hth temperature. IAT = OK the sytem is cmmpleaty deguoerae. a To the sytem is degenerate ado intermediate temperature it is slightly (weakly) degenerate(AUT =0K, fp = 1 fore 0 (a < 0) and at T > Tru < 0 (> 0). The variation of chemical poem wit emperture shown in the Fg (5:12) 1a Wp) : :| T Me 1d Fig. 6.1.2 Variation of chemical potential with temperature ‘The total number of electrons in a Fermi gas is i 42V oq pnp 2? N= frotersterde=2*™ amy2f__©7 __4p S Je (e)atedde=— - emer -AS.1.16) “The result of integral ofthis type can be obtained making use of the following standard result ede 1 5 e pales Se rom (ee wAS.1.17) texpl(e—ep)/AT] p+(use of this result in Eqn. (5.1.16), we have ne=c?| 3[22 s20m(1-1 folie <”)} 2 a 15.118) sor[- Bar| i co am ASAD limit T > 0 m a -AS.1-20) Na3CeR? or C= 5 News ay Lexy” -A5.121) w(t Ey ~ om ne tt st hn py wimp. Teco i te seond term on the right hand sie of Ea (51.1), After pain N = Ce 1.18) we get ser -jor[-t(] an wonle(e]] A512) result (1 + x)~2? = 1. 20/3 we can write ooa(-$(e)] fe Fermi energy (chemical potential) of a Fermi gas decreases with increasing temperature.S16 eto wom Pgs Total energy of electron gas at low temperature ‘The total energy of electron gas is given by took [ats aanearnxeo' 4 ye ] = Men] ef (5.1.24) 7 8 lee ‘Substituting C= SNe? ‘and ¢y and recalling tha ¢ does not change rapidly with temperature swe cam express the total energy of electron gs a8 eoelef-ae 3 Se cm fale ‘The pressure of the electron gas is given by z (5.1.25) ‘The total energy E and pressure P of a degenerate Fermi gas increase with temperature in the ‘same manner. The pressure of degenerate Fermi gas is grater than that of an ideal classical gas. ‘This is because fermions obey Puls exclusion principle. A quantum state can accommodate at mos ‘only one fermion and they are prevented to occupy already occupied low lying energy levels. Femions {end to remain as far apart as possible and hence exert larger pressure. Tis behaviour of fermions is ‘contrary to that of bosons, which do not obey Pauli’ exclusion principle. Many bosons can occupy a Single energy level ic, they can assemble in low energy states. This is why a Bose gas exers less pressure than a classical gas. * Ennis? Beate Pies 2h EBM Prem gus > Possicl gr > Poise sosMB em Fa. 8.1.9 Variation of € of FD and BE gas with temperature jscoding 10 classical theory, ‘when a system of particles is heated, all the particles absorb heat and bute 10 the heat capacity. Thus the classical theory applied to electron gas in a monovalent al pedis electronic contbution to het capacity equal to 3/2. But experimental els. a8 {no bel hn 1 of he clase value. "Ts anomaly i emoved fone wen Ferm Garton function tothe electron gas. When amet shad nl a sal fraction of less which are within an energy AT below the Fermi level are excited thermally to vacant states above |. Geemi level. lectons, which are deply situated below the Fermi level dot participate in thermal cxctaton because the energy AT is not enough to ake them othe vacant Levels above the Fermi te This explains why electronic conibutn o het capaci vey sal ae 3 ? y ‘The heat capacity of electron gas is ae (5.2.2) Let us calculate the value of Cy¢ for copper. For copper ef, = 7 eV. Substituting Nq = 602 x 10% (kmol)", k = 1.38 x 107° JK, Room temperature T = 300 K, KT = 0.026 eV. 2 2 AT py G14) 0026 ev 2 ys (1.38% . ies Re 38x10 116.0210" kot) = 1460 J (kmol) K-", We know that at very Jow temperature, the lattice heat capacity varies as T? (Debye T° law) while the electronic heat capacity varies linearly with temperature T. At very low temperature the lutice heat capacity decreases very rapidly and the electronic heat capacity dominates. At highCHAPTER TT ——— ee pa free Electron Theory of Metals 11, Introduction gin hla propetio of ald, Pal rode, Geran py, ound ep ete stl comcast we a ii th metal, except fru potntil Vr a he srace which prevents O98 ‘Stes fom leaving the metal at room temperature. Hence, the conduction electrons may: fe mmprded as fre electron gos By a free electron Fermi gas, we mean a gas of free and electrons. Inter, Lorentz modified Drude’s theory and the resulting theory is now known theory of metals Tea 12 Drude-Lorentz Theory faethe basic assumptions of the Drude-Lorents theory ‘exystal consists of positive metal ions whose valence electrons are free to move in fons throughout the confines of the metal as if they constituted an electron {s held together by electrostatic forces of attraction between the positively fons and the negatively charged electron gas. electrons are free to move in a completely uniform field of positive ions, {sno repulsive force between negatively charged electrons so that they move from place in the crystal without any change in their energy, which is entirely kinetic, to the laws of classical mechanics. Lorentz theory has been extremely suocessful in explaining many properties of below are a few important snecesses of the theory. 's Law field is applied across a metallic conductor, the negatively charged electrons long the field direction. Higher the field, higher wil be the velocity of electrons larger will be the nuunber of electrons passing through a unit area, i. the ithe crren rt proportional to tbe aplel potenti. This theoreticallyan fy Me avenge eo Eaton carrying on again accelerated by te before the colison its dit sean pave ws Ba (71) ote amber of electrons per unit volume (that, electron density) and J be the Testy then a“ Jens (#3) ore) nga) ¢ ary = (Sa neP AN) 79) ( hyTT v © ee Ad |e respetivey the roseaectionl aren and the length of the conto and Tit copled potential dference across the length of the conductor. = i term within the bracket on the right-hand sie of Eq, (7.9) «constant, we have IaV sod this proves Obm's law. 122 Specific Conductivity ‘hersistance of a conductor of length I and cross sectional atea Ais given by ia (3) (7.0) sec is constant for a particular material and is known as specific resistance. The reciprocal “ie specie resistance is called specific conductance and is denoted by 0. la terms of the specific conductivity 0, Bq. (7-10) may be written asoe “ where Vis the applied potential diference acroas the conductor Of emg yg resulting electric field. % ‘Using Bq. (7.8), Bq. (7.11) gives ne*d(v) o GheT In the above expression for o, the only factor that may vary from one substance to = ae sped airs coset is the electron density n. Hence, a different materials is du to the diference inthe electron densities in chem, 7.2.3 Specific Resistance ‘The specific resistance p is the reciprocal of ‘the 1_ 6h? o nePA(v) specific conductivity 2. That is, ty Equation (7.18) shows that the specific resistance of a conductor is independent of ccurvet strength in accordance with Olmns law. Assuming the product w(t) tobe inept SF cemperature, it fellows trom Eq, (7.19) that p ie directly proportional to the abet i should vanish at absolute zero. Researches conducted by Deva a, temperature T’so that i ‘Fleming on pure metals confirm this variation of resistance with temperature. 7.2.4 Thermal Conductivity ‘Consider a metalic rod AB with its end A at a higher temperature than its end B. Ase teod A is ata higher temperature than the end B, the electrons near the end A posses bite Kinetic energy than the electrons near the end B. As this is a state of unstable equiltnis the electrons near the end A lose ther kinetic energy while the electrons near the end B ess ‘energy. As a result, we observe that heat (a form of energy) flows from the end A to thee ‘The amount of heat, Q, passing through any given cross section of the rod per unit ans ‘per unit time is given by* Lyd a Q= snore fir a sere FF isthe rate of change of electron energy slong the length of the bar ‘From the kinetic theory of gases, the energy of an electron at temperature 7’ is give"$won (2) a tama (4) 6 fe know that! a QaKe an, comparison of Bas. (7.16) and (7.17) gives K= prbalond (7.18) ‘The ale of thermal conductivity K given by Eq. (7.18) is found to be in close agreement ithe obtained experimentally: The free eeton thay thi mcfly explains the * wity of metals. 725 Wiedmann-Franz Law Instat that the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of any metal is directly ‘pepartional to the absolute temperature of the metal, that is, Kar K oT Foe Bap. (712) and (7.18), we have thermal conductivity _ }nka(v)A ‘electrical conductivity —ne®\(v) OheT AEB ami tr pen o=n(G)LI - SaQ)e 0 Beet 0-18) sors tat amet gp tems 1 8 Se de, the mean fre path 2. herr, mare wae ae or A ew, i, The ratio 2 is known as the Loren temperature whichis Wiedmann-Frant law. The r880 57> the Loren may, and ha vl 22810" ( 524) at 900K, = Ohm's law, specific condi. tc aay her tio Wht Te ts oper hat Dre Lore they cnn ET etal an” discrepancy between the observed and Srey cme rns once ey and ver > 2 13 Quantum Theory: Sommerfeld Model ‘Toexplain the etwoen the theoretical and experimental values of diferss Bian: dcr id pat forward the quantum sechanical model of the ad features of the theory: aL i is replaced statistics, viz. Fermi-Dirac stats ae an electron is quantiza!, is assumed to consist of 8 large lof array of electrons which are pix ‘energy box with its wall at high potential so that the electrons xy ‘remain within the crystal, but free to move within its confines the electrons move in a constant potential field (V = 0) “ ca Levels of Electron in a One-dimensional Potential Ba confined in a one-dimensional crystal of length L whose ends are ste aimee its pomsa ee We Asin Tr x, wing Bq (7.98) Yo = Asin EE (7.30) ihn teeter Rh 8 ay that te otal probably of fen segment de a2, wana pase) an th ebb of “ J volervstayae 1 $ ‘wo quantum numbers mand take any positive integral values and m, = 1/2, according to its spin ‘bwo electrons can be accommodated in a pair of orbitals characterized by *, one with spin up and the other with spin down. building ofa free electron gas by dropping electrons one by one in & box. when dropped into the bax will take the position of miniraum kinetic energy, when dropped into the bax can also take the position of minimum kinetic ‘orients its spin anti-parallel to the spin orientation of the fist electron, when dropped into the box cannot take the minimum kinetic energy, as two to this energy level have already been occupied and the Pauli exclusion ‘occupancy. The third electron wil, therefore, go to the next slightly ‘The fourth electron when dropped will also go to the same energy level provided it orients itself anti-parallel to the spin orientation of the third7.4 Statistics of Free Electron Gas Consider a unit cube of a metal, having three sides along the three rectangular coors ‘axes, as shown in Figure 7.2(a). The electrons in the conduction band of the metal are fre move within this cube, and at any instant of time, the position of any electron can be sper:s,. to within Az, Ay, and Az, where A= hy=Az=1 If peypy, and p, be the three components of momentum along the three coordinate ax then we can specify the momentum to within Ap,,Apy, and Ap, by applying Heisenbery. uncertainty principle!!. Thus, Apz = Mp, = Ap: =h 76 ‘The uncertainty principle shows that for a unit cube of a metal, the momentum p electron cannot be specified more accurately than to state that the line representing p The uncertainty principle states that the product of in posit hat in momentu op Reopoyrrig ee creion and th it mentum Oprhz=h = Ops =h whral) ; C) pore) Ut metal cube with Gz = y= Az = 1 (b) Momentum diagram showing unit cell ome somewhere within a cell of side hand volume AY. This cell is known as the unit econ cil ss shown in Figure 7.2() Tre spp be the numberof cell in the momentum space having the same energy value! al __ total volume in momentum space in the momentum range dp ‘volume of one cell ° wed = Lf dred JJ dette dp = 20dre seed lectron has a spin which ean accept either of the two values, +1/2 or —1/2, the ‘al sumber of states in the momentum range dp will be np = Sateen (762) leis frequently convenient to have an expression for the number of allowed states as a sexton of energy. When expressed as a function of energy E, Eq. (7.62) gives!? eye = 28 mE nd See Fa ae wie el ger “Patme ee pip = mde ad p = VIE194 where The Fermi factor" is defined as bw MEME _ Number of tate occupid in cory range 8) = EME “Total number of states available n(E)dE = F(E)g(E)dE (a5) v7 =0 Kal he tao pt the ar lel vig me Br, se cri tlectonm. Hence, the tal numberof electron inthe metal wil be gen tpt fe [ FE) EME ? By we f ceva = 2ceyr rr) = (28) fay myenye” Pe \ 2G. ~ [Bx aw aN)" (a2) _ Re (a2)? () Ga) -a (52) vm Equation (7.67) gives the energy of the highest filled level in a metal having N conduction electrons at absolute zero. It shows that even at absolute zero, electrons have a defnie me zero energy—a result entirely different from classical result which states that the elect hhave zero energy at absolute ero. ‘The average kinetic energy ofthe electrons at absolute zero is given by Br Exp (ey= 2} f eneyae| = 2) fe. reyq eae ol ¥yr on of Pree Hlectron Gan wo ; «5 j ° (bo) = 72 att min a (706) 7 ee . (n= (ro eT #0, the electrons are in excited states and may oocupy states anywhere in the ange from 0 to co. The energy of the Fermi level, Ey, and the average kinetic energy, sey the electrons in Us cage may be found from the following equations: Ne i F(E)g( EME = J aE) atl (7.69) : to te (Fr “ ? * = 5 fe FemeMe=% [16 on (770) 2 PP" en (FFE ‘The evaluation of the integrals in the above equations are too complicated to be given here. When evaluated, we get beste li-E =| on oe 2 r (EB) ~ (Ea) [is S(e) | an In terms of the wave vector kp, corresponding to the Fermi surface, the Fermi energy Er, at sbaolute zero may be expressed as Er, a - = een”. using Eq. (7.67) This gives w= (288)" ars The electron velocity vy at the Fermi surface is given by p= mop = hkywe » . a apr ‘The Permi temperature Tis given by By = koTr eT) Tr ‘where ys the Boltzmann con ‘Note that the Fermi temperature has nothing to do with the temperature of the. eas It simply ives the temperature a free electron must possess to have an en ‘a constant for a given metal. Table 7 sae Farm! nace puremeta foray ‘ble 7.1 Ferm surface parameter for diferent metals at r00m tempering Weal Valeney (inca) cm/s GeV) (in tevin) 0" oi 18s Me 1 113058 a 1 120133551 ie rs cs 2 M128 468 ta 2 st sa 9.30 aI 7 1730216 Ga 3 16s 1911035 io 3 rh 8.0, Ph 7 187 2997 a ee es EO 7.5 Heat Capacity of Conduction Electrons: Electronic Specific Heat Following the Drude-Lorents model et us calculate the heat ea pacity per mole forthe co duction electrons. According to clastcal statistical mechani, the average Kinetic ens ‘electron having three degrees of freedom is ™ 3 (B) = hor For one mol, the average kinetic energy will be 3 3 (8) = 3vkur = Ser ‘where N is the Avogadro number.107 spesmtvnic apc hati, herr, ae) wT ‘onthe other hand, the specific heat C} associated with the Inttie vibration for 3’ modes gotwation i the sum ofits kinetic energy and potential energy, each of which is equal to se2. Tos. a 3 ma 7) ie am ee C= dns drase (r78) trom Eas. (7.77) and (7.78, it follows that the electronic specitic heat is 50% of that jem tice. But, experimentally itis found that the electron specific heat is tmuch less rite preictd value. This discrepancy between the theoretical and experimental values Losfernic speci eat shows the failure ofclaseal electron theory. An explanation for this seas given by Sommerfeld on the basis of FermiDirac statistic. Fron Ea. (772) the average kinetic energy of conduction electrons is given by (&) = (a) [s+ - (2)| Hence, the electronic specific heat is (1.79) ‘here Tp is the Fermi temperature. Considering for one mole, that is, for N electrons (where N is the Avogadro number), we wt “P(e)- F(a) a ‘ ‘Taking T = 300 K and the Fermi temperature Ty for silver as 6.36 x 10 K, Eq. (7.80) ins ic z 7 a (781) ‘hteas classically, we see from Eq. (7.77) that198 Free Electron Theory of Qualitatively, the Pauli exclusion principle and the Fermi-Dirac statistics predict that is very low kinetic energy associated with the electrons at absolute zero. But, with the temperature, thermal excitation is possible only when the electrons from the occupied are excited to take a seat in the unoccupied states and this will happen only in the vici of the Fermi level!®. Hence, we conclude that only a few electrons near the Fermi | the region shown shaded in Figure 7.3, will absorb heat energy and will be excited to unoccupied states. This is not possible for all the electrons of the system. So, the elect specific heat is low and agrees well with the experimental result. Figure 7.8: deen i Only the electrons in the shaded region can be excited to the vacant states aboveoa Estimate the Fermi energy, Fermi temperature, and Fermi pressure of “atomic weight 107.87 and density 10.8 gm/ce. Assume that ench silver ator awe Sakon: We have n= (F)- (4). A where Na is the Avogadro's number, M, is the atomic weight and p isthe denny N) _ 10.5 x 10° x 6.023 x 107° rity ( ) T0787 = 5.862 x 10/ m°, (Femi ever, 0) = (E) ei ® )-34)2 i pom thor slectron = OXY, x (g x 5.802 x 10") 2x 9.1 x 10-9 = 8.80 10" J= = 6.376 x 10' K. ‘The temperature is too high for ae of metal. (ili) The electron degenerate pressure he Zncr(0) ha ; x 5.862 x 10% x 8.80 x 107” = 2.0 x 10° N/m? = 2.03 x 10* atm, ‘The Coulomb's attraction between ion and electron gas counter balances this presIB. Why the electronic contribution to the specific heat of a metal can be neglected 3 room temperature? Seluion: At very low temperature 7’ < T'p, the Fermi distribution deviates from that at T= 0 (see figure), mainly in the neighbourhood of 1 = j1(0) in a layer of thickness of the order of kT. So the particles at energies of the o ; rder of kpT below the Fermi energy are excited. Since the number of particles is N’, the number of particles excited may be roughly estimated as -w(4).‘The internal enerRy of particg, ce w (2) any - Mgr ‘The contribution to the specig.. fic heat = (SU 2Nki7 = Con), = ee M0 oe Nie? i) Electrons in a metal home ¢r ~ 2 eV and Tp ~ 2x 104 K, Tr 5 woos. cy, Hence, 57 = 0.030. So at room temperature the contributions to specific heat due to excited elect, are extremely small and can be neglected. ms F Estimate the electron contribution of specific heat k mele of copper at 4K aa 300 K. The fermi energy of copper is 7.05 eV at 0K. Solution : Given : ug = 7.05 eV = 7.05 x 1.6 x 10-19 J (Cv)e + electric specific heat, N = 1 kmol = 6.023 x 10%. 2NKET : (Cy)e = = S*eT (Cn.= AT =4K : _ 7? x (1.38 x 10-8)? x 4 x 6.023 x 10% (Cv)e = 2x 7.05 x 16x 10-* me AtT = 300K 2 x (1.38 x 10-9)? x 150 x 6.023 x 10° r (Cue = ox oe Texto = 150 J/kmol/K.4 se ape ratio of the mean square speed to the square of the mean speed ‘oon We bave the density of states given in the energy range ¢ and ¢ + de siode= a» (FL) Cembchae = aba, br V ee A= 9 (r) (2m)! ise constant. ‘us. the mean energy @ = fe where dx = g(e)f(e)dt. ‘ dz is the Fermi distribution function. At 0K f(¢ dx = g(c)de sr) oe a a “af aa: 0 1 ‘ Agu, 7 = 5mi7, where is the mean square velocity194 . — Y . inl Sie Eramgle 3. Fin with energy: between ion of electrons in a free electron gas: at 01 occupying stay (0) — cand er (0), where e ¢r(0) a Selon :"Fhe wnuber of eleteons in the enerRy sane bewern €1(0) end ey () ml n [ af ode Oe Pore < er(0), (= 1 N -{° alejde fer(or-e We have 9(¢) = ys (3¢) (amped ~» (Fr) 0 (& +) came hoe (cx(0) 03] ) = 0 (AY) e emer [ (: aa) | ‘h ¢ aa) |: Thus, " [) ( aati , i iar sinew ¢-€ c(0). mt f " 2a) camyh?2 jter(ld is the total number of fer[il] Solved Problems troblem RI sic ttt poi fom with nr op fot Fer) yy probability of state with energy Ac below Fermi level when it is empty. Solution : The probability of occupation of a state with energy ¢ by fermions is 10= qoaETT The probability of occupation of a state with energy € = er + Ac is Nee +80) = SFT" Similarly, the probability of a state below Fermi level with energy € = er — Ac to be occupied is ; Ser - 80) = rer So the probability of a state being empty with energy cr — Ae below Fermi level is given by 1 en Ae/koT 1 1 flee — Ac) = 1— age yy = G-aebeT Gg] ~ CeeT ST It is same as the probability of a state above Fermi level with energy cr + Ae t6 ¥e occupied. Problem BEA consider the density of stots for a two-dimensional elecron gas. Hence, find the total numba o fermen.= pg Ferm gas is Solan Te density states of odie e ioidn= oA REE, whee Ai the src aren 2 ye, ES pbninde olp)ap = g(e)de = Asm oan A, isis the density of states for two-dimens ‘The total number of fermions i given by Ne ft soslede = 0 8 | a Lets put ent/M 4 ert =, 1 (eT) neler, de = dz. When ¢=0, when ¢=00, 2= 2aAm it" 8 NAOT Josrngt = aed) 9" ae sp tha? Brdm(teT) ga ett) —Iner?7| 2x Am(keT) Lt erte/teT TT a PeAmbtoT) iy er !47) frablem EW cope cos 8.5 x 107 feelers arm 7 . pm, suming tha copper alam does one ee ‘ei, culate he Ferm nergy for thes bcos. ‘sind te numberof quantum tts in the energy range « Ke fo the fre elecrons ct 300K nthe ‘nlume oh m3Ba reais 2 anny! x 20-8) (B92 8.5 10 Solution : We have ep = (4) oy ed AC ACE Tad) im \V Too = 11.20 x 10°" J 7.0 eV, ‘The density of tates ge) = w (24) Od ged umber of states inthe energy range and c+ de ven by ator = a (257) (myth Now the number of states n the eneny ange cr and cr ka x sim (S) (omAeh(2kor) 1 BRD (2110-998 (7.00 16 10-1)4 21.38 (6.62 x 10-F ~ = 58x 10, Problem EBV consider ays amps of tenor 1 fess ie cn of vole V. Show (= pf tongs cade sti icwsg hon Solution : ‘The total number of fermions is given by Ne [sods vm soars, (*2) ombac a, (2Z) amt [° ae, Weput 2= 5 f 2nV(2mkyT)4 a tds . rs po meri Thus, equation implicitly defines a = ~ply as a function of T. As T increases the expression multiplying the integral increases. Therefore, since Nis fixe, the integral decreases which implies a increases. Thus, ex = ~ py is a strictly inrewsine function T. We must note that as NV is finite, the integral must converge and so ¢ ‘must be always non-negative. rblem FF sino homers wiht crn sci! and te mr pth ol he a shaogo srs 21K ad Fem 0 lst oo 55h Solution: The equality occurs at a very low tem del R ‘ccurs ata very low temperature. According to Debye mode the specific heat ae ‘where Op is the Debye temperature and also electronic specific heat.dol 175K. SkaOh )' = [88.62 x 10-8 eV/K x (210 K)t = (aeRO), UKs ‘Thus, result indicates that electron dow temperature. Problems for Solution putin {BL At = 300 K ii found thatthe Fermi energy of centain metals reduced from its value at 0 K by 1.2 x 10-* eV. What is the Fermi energy of this material at heat conduction will be noticeable only at a very ox? (Ans: 4.58 eV] ution (Z) Estimate the temperature at which the electronic specific heat is 5% of the intice molar specific heat? Ans: 7.83 K] Potien '$) The metallic sodium has free electron density 2.5 x 10?8/m?. Estimate the Fermi energy, Fermi velocity and Fermi temperature. (h = 6.62 x 10% J-s) [Ans: 3.1 eV, 1.048 m s~? and 3.62 x 10! K] Prien '# Show that at 0 K (i) the average kinetic energy is 3er(0) and (ii) the average velocity up, where cr(0) is the Fermi energy and up is Fermi velocity. ftlen 5) The Fermi energy for sodium at 0 K is 3.1 eV. Find its value for aluminium at 0K. The electron density of aluminium is 8 times that of sodium. [Ans: 12.4 eV]