INTRODUCTION INTO CHEMISTRY

The word chemistry comes from the word Pure chemistry deals with the attempt to get
alchemy, which means “of metals”. Alchemy a better understanding of nature.
may have come from the word al chem which
It involves the research work in chemistry,
means “country of dark soil” and is the ancient
which comprises of making investigations,
name for Egypt.
experiments, observations and recording to
Chemistry is thought to have begun about 6000 discover the hidden properties of matter and the
years ago in Egypt when chemical industries interaction they undergo.
started to flourish. Attempts by men to have a
Pure chemistry is subdivided into
better understand of nature and be able to utilize
its resources has led to the study of chemistry.  Inorganic chemistry
 Organic chemistry
 Physical chemistry
Definition of chemistry
Chemistry is a branch of science that deals Inorganic chemistry deals with the study of
with the study of matter: the composition, chemical element and their compounds. Only
properties and its conversion from one form certain compounds of the element carbon are
to another and energy. OR studied under this branch of chemistry. Example
Chemistry is an experimental subject of of these compounds are carbon (II) oxide,
matter or substances which concerns itself carbon (IV) oxide and the trioxocarbonate
with the study of composition, behaviour and compounds.
the changes substances undergo.

Organic chemistry deals with the study of

Central position of chemistry. carbon compounds in which the carbon is the
principle element.
The subjects’ biology, physics and chemistry are
considered as a basic science. Chemistry
occupies a central position among these subjects Physical chemistry deals with the study of the
and other disciplines of science. effect of the structure of the elements and their
It is linked with biology through biochemistry. compounds on their physical properties.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of It deals specifically with the principles, theories
living organisms. Chemistry is linked with and laws that govern the reactions of the
physics through physical chemistry. Chemistry elements and their compounds and the energy
is said to occupy the central position of these changes that occur when one form of matter is
basic sciences because it links both physics and converted into another.
biology.

Applied chemistry is the branch of chemistry

Divisions and branches of chemistry that deals with the use of the knowledge in
Chemistry is divided into two major divisions: chemistry to provide goods and services.
 Pure chemistry Examples of applied chemistry include:
 Applied chemistry. Biochemistry, pharmacy, medicine,

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 biotechnology, environmental chemistry, Attitudes expected of every scientist are
petro chemistry, and geochemistry.
 Open mindedness and tolerance. i.e. a
scientist should be ready to listen to others
views, ideas or statement as possible and only
Some careers in chemistry
reject or accept after experimentation
A person studying, trained in or engaged in  Be an active questioner of events.
chemistry is called a chemist. Chemists study  Be able to sort out good facts from others.
the subject chemistry or practise it as a career.  Proper keeping of records
Some careers in chemistry include: Science  Critical attitude involves patience, curiosity,
teacher, medical doctor, biochemist, inquisitive, carefulness
environmental chemist, veterinary officer,  Be a deductive thinker. i.e. ability to arrive at
metallurgist, Nurse, pharmacist, chemical a conclusion based on observations. This
engineer, etc. involves being honest in drawing conclusion
based on experimental observation.
 Able to accept their shortcomings and
Importance of chemistry develop new strategies to overcome it.
Through the study of chemistry many
substance are being produced.
Some early scientific works
Some example of these substances are soaps,
detergents, textiles, plastics, fertilizers and Scientific investigations did not start with
Priestley and Lavoisier but in ancient Egypt
pesticides, drugs, etc.
with the start of alchemy in the 12th and 13th
centuries.
Scientific method During those periods, alchemist tried to make
the “elixir of life” which was believed could
Scientific method is the systematic way a give eternal life and cure all sickness.
scientist tackles problem with the aim of
solving it.  Oxygen gas was discovered in 1774 by an
English priest called Joseph priestly. He
Important steps in scientific method observed that red solid mercury (II) oxide
produces a colourless gas when heated
 Identification of problem to be solved.
strongly. After further experiments he called
 Hypothesis (suggestion put forward to be the gas oxygen.
solved)
 Experimentation and investigation.  The discovery of radioactivity was by the
 Observation and recording of results. Frenchman Henri Becquerel in 1896. He
 Analysis of results and drawing conclusion. decided to manufacture X-rays from
 Controlled experiments ( testing the uranium salts. His observations eventually
conclusions drawn) led to the discovery of radioactivity.
 Using the conclusion to predict or explain
what happens.
 The discovery of penicillin was made by
 Carry out further experiments to confirm or accident in 1928 by alexander Fleming
reject predictions or test for unexpected results. while working on the bacteria,
Staphylococcus.

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Important safety rules observed in the laboratory
1. Protective clothing should be worn before Question 1
entering the laboratory. Examples of protective
List four protective equipment in the laboratory.
clothing are hand glove, shoes, goggles,
laboratory coat. Answer
2. Permission should be sought from your Hand glove, boots, goggles, laboratory coat,
teacher or technician before performing an nose mask, fire extinguisher, fume chamber or
experiment. cupboard.
3. Carefully follow instruction in every
experiment you perform.
SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT AND
4. Never taste any substance until you are told to THEIR IMPORTANCE IN CHEMISTRY
do so.
Measurement is the determination of the size
5. Never work with broken glassware or magnitude of a particular quantity, eg. The
number of books, the mass of a block, the length
6. Acid should be added to water and not water
of a box, the volume of water and the
to acid.
temperature of a boiling liquid.
7. Hot substances should always be held with a
Measurements consists of a number and unit.
test tube holder or tongs but not with your bear
Measurements in the scientific world are usually
hand.
expressed S.I Units.
8. When heating substances in a test tube, always
The abbreviation (SI. Units) stands for French
point the mouth of the test tube away from
Phrase systeme internationale d’Units. But in
anybody and yourself.
English it is known as the international system
9. When smelling a substance, do not hold it of units.
close to your nose. The substance should be
The S.I system adopted by the National Bureau
about 20cm from the nose and use your hand to
of standards in 1964, is based on the seven
waft the gas toward your nose.
(basic) fundamental units. All other units of
10. Flammable substances should never be measurement are derived from them.
brought near a flame. In the process of any fire
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be
outbreak quickly put off the gas, electricity or
measured.
water if necessary.
11. Wash off with a lot of water any chemical that
comes in contact with the skin and report to your Importance of measurement
instructor for appropriate treatment if necessary.
Measurement makes identification of
12. Do not run or play in the laboratory. substances more precise and allow more
scientific generalizations to be made.
13. All breakages and accidents should be
quickly reported to your instructor. Types of standard units of measurement
14. Clean your apparatus, work surface and your There are two different units of measurement.
hands very well before you leaving the These are basic (fundamental) unit and derived
laboratory. unit.

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1. Base or fundamental units are units which are not obtained from any other unit or
by the combination of other units. There are seven base units in the S.I system.

Table 1.1 Basic physical quantity with their SI unit.

Basic Physical Symbol of Quantity SI Unit Symbol of SI Unit
Quantity
Length l Metre M
Mass m Kilogram Kg
Time t Second S
Electric current I Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K
Amount of substance n Mole Mol-1
Luminous intensity Iv candela Cd

Derived units
Derived units are obtained from the combination of two or more basic or fundamental
units.
For example, area is length × length, unit is m2; Volume is length × length × length, unit is m3.

Table 1.2 Derived units and their corresponding units

Derived quantity Derived unit Symbol
Force Newton N or Kg ms-2
Work/ energy Joule J (1J = Nm)
Power Watts W (1W = JS-1)
Quantity of electricity Coulomb C (1C = 1As)
Pressure Pascal Pa or Nm-2
Velocity Meter per second ms-1
Acceleration Meter per second square Ms-2

Common abbreviations used by chemist.

 dil represents Dilute solution: a solution which contains a small amount of solute in a
fixed volume of water.
 Conc represents Concentrated solution: a solution which contains a large amount of
solute in a fixed volume of water
 Aq represents Aqueous solution: indicates a solution in water.
 Ө represents Standard state
 Stp stands for Standard temperature and pressure
 rt stands for Room temperature

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 2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Matter is anything that has mass and A chemical substance is matter that can be
occupies space. Some examples of matter are prepared and shown its distinct chemical
stone, cars, table, chair, etc. properties.
Matter is made up of tiny particles which are Entities is the basic unit particles or the basic
arranged in a discontinuous manner. These building blocks of matter (ie. Atoms,
particles are not visible to the naked eye. molecules or ions) that can be identified as a
whole unit. Examples are Ca, NaCl, Na+, etc.
Matter is made up of either atoms, molecules
or ions. These particles come together to form Entities or particles which have a common
matter. property are called chemical species.
This idea that matter is made of tiny particle is Examples are Mg2+, S2-, Li+, etc are termed as
called particulate nature of matter. Atoms, ionic species.
molecules and ions form the basic building
blocks/units/particles or entities of matter.
Matter can be classified as elements,
compounds and mixtures. An element is a
An atom is the smallest particle of an element substance that cannot be decomposed into
that retains its properties and can retain its simpler substance by any chemical means. An
chemical properties and can take part in element is made up of a collection of a single
chemical reaction. type of atom. Examples are Zn, Mg, H, O, etc.
The word atom originated from the Greek word
“atomos” meaning invisible. Examples are H, O,
A compound is any substance which consist
Na, Ca, etc.
of two or more elements of different atoms
chemically combined in a fixed ratio.
Examples are CO2, H2O, NaCl.
Molecule is any substance which consist of
two or more elements of the same or different
elements.
A mixture is a physical combination of two or
It is the smallest, stable particle of an element or more substance. Examples are ink, dye, air, etc.
compound that exist by itself. Examples are H2,
H2O, NH3.
Question 1
a) Define each of the following terms
An ion is an atom or group of atoms that are
electrically charged formed by loss or gain of i). An ion ii) Atomicity
one or more electrons. Examples are Ca2+, H+,
Cl-, SO42-, CO32-, Al3+. A radical is a group of b) Mention one element which is
atoms with a charge on it. Examples are SO42-, i) Monoatomic ii) Diatomic iii) tetratomic
CO32-, NH4+.
Answer
Each class also exists in the three states, namely
solid, liquid and gas. Different type of matter are a) i). an ion is an electrically charged atom or
made of different types of particles. While some group of atoms.
forms of matter are made up of atoms, other are
built up from molecules or ions.
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ii) Atomicity is the number of atoms present in
a given molecule or compound.
b) i). Monoatomic element is an element Observation
which helium, neon, argon
After some minutes, the crystals are seen
ii). Diatomic: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, separating and spreading to the other parts of the
chlorine, fluorine water. After an hour or more, the crystals move
or spread to give a uniform distribution of
iii). Tetratomic: Phosphorous coloured KMnO4 in the water.

EVIDENCE OF THE PARTICULATE Conclusion

NATURE OF MATTER
The uniform distribution of the colour indicates
The evidence that matter consist of small tiny that KMnO4 is made up of particles.
particles is supported by the process of diffusion, Crystallization
Brownian motion, crystallization, osmosis, etc.
This is the process by which particles of a
substance come together from its saturated
Experiment to demonstrate that matter is solution to form crystals.
made up of tiny particles by the process of In the process of crystallization, millions of tiny
diffusion particles which cannot be seen come together
Diffusion is the movement of particles in all from its solution to form crystals.
direction from a region of higher concentration to The crystals become bigger as more particles
a region of lower concentration until the particles leave the solution to form the solid. This affirms
are evenly distributed. that, crystallization supports the idea that matter
Demonstration is made up of tiny particles.

A beaker is filled with distilled water almost to

its mouth. One or two small particles of KMnO4
crystals is pick up with a spatula and dropped
gently in the top centre of the water in the
beaker.

Try question
List four protective clothes in the laboratory
Answer
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………...

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 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
The idea that matter is made up of tiny THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON
particles is called the atomic theory. John BY J.J THOMSON.
Dalton (1766-1844) in 1808 was the first person
In 1897, J.J Thomson investigated the
to propose atomic theory. His theory of atoms
conductivity of electricity by gases at very low
forms the basis of atomic theory used in
pressure using discharged tube.
chemistry today.
Under ordinary conditions of pressure, gases
do not conduct electric current. In a vacuum or
Daltons Atomic Theory at very low pressure, they do conduct electric
current at high voltage (potential difference).
1. All matter is made of smallest indivisible
particles called atoms.
2. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
3. Atoms of the same element are identical in
mass and size. J.J Thomson’s Experiment
4. Atoms of different elements have different
 Air was pumped out from the glass
mass and size.
discharged tube to give a very low pressure in it.
5. When atoms combine to form compounds,
they do so in simple whole number ratios.  A high potential difference (voltage) was
applied across the two electrodes (metal plates
marked positive + and negative -). The –ve
Limitation of Dalton’s theory electrode is the cathode and the +ve electrode
the anode.
1. Atoms are no longer considered as indivisible
since they can now be split to give smaller  When electricity was switched on a beam of
[Link]. Protons, neutrons and electrons. rays was emitted from the cathode. The rays
were called the cathode rays.
Modified theory: Atoms are the smallest
particle of matter that carries characteristic
identity of an element.

2. Atoms are not created or destroyed only in

chemical reactions. During radioactivity,
nuclear reactions brings about destruction and
creation of new atoms.

Modified theory: Atoms can neither be created

nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

3. Atoms of the same element do not always

have the same mass. This is explained chemical
substances called Isotopes. Isotopes are atoms
of an element with the same atomic number but
35 37 Fig 2.1 Cathode ray tube used by Thomson
different mass number .eg. Cl and Cl.
17 17

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Observations
Thomson observed that cathode rays:
1. Moved straight to the anode passing through
the hole in it to the zinc sulphide florescence
screen and were detected as a glow at A.
2. Were deflected by both the magnetic and
electric fields.
3. Were deflected from the negative electric
plate and attracted towards the positive plate of
the secondary electrode when switched on. The
rays finally landed at B. Fig 2.2 Thomson model of the atom
4. Behave the same way when different gases,
material of tube, and the electrodes were
changed.
Conclusion
1. The deflection by the electric and magnetic RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR ATOM
fields means that the cathode rays were
He performed an experiment to discover how
electrically charged
charged particles such as alpha particles behave
2. Repelled by negative electric plate and
when they come into contact with thin metal
attracted to positive electric plate showed that
foils. Geiger and Marsden helped him in this
the rays were negatively charged.
experiment.
3. Produce by all types of matter implies that
cathode rays were present in all matter. Alpha particles are ionized helium atoms (He2+)
which can be emitted by radioactive elements
such as uranium. They are far heavier than
Deduction electrons and ionize other particles easily.
From the above conclusion, Thomson proposed
that,
Rutherford’s experiment
 The atom is a solid sphere of positive charge
with negative charge uniformly stuck in it. The  A thin film of alpha particles were directed
positive charge occupies most volume straight onto the screen by placing a slit on their
compared with the negative charges. paths.
 The negative charges balance the positive  The rotating screen detects any alpha particles
charges making the atom neutral. that falls on it by giving a flash or a glow at any
point of the vessel.
Thomson therefore identified and named the  When a thin gold foil was placed between the
negative particles as electrons.
slit and the screen, three observations were made.
He also measured the charge to mass ratio
(𝑒⁄𝑚 ) of the electrons and found out that it was
always the same for all matter.

8
 OR

Attraction could occur between the electrons

and the alpha particles with the alpha particles
passing through empty spaces and hence did not
meet any attraction or repulsion.
Since most alpha particles went through path A,
it means the most of the volume of an atom is
occupied by electron in empty space.

2. Scattering B: The few alpha particles came

near a positively charged particle with a heavy
mass (nucleus) and so were deflected
(repelled).

Fig 2.3 Apparatus used by Rutherford 3. Scattering C: The very few alpha particles
scattering means that the volume occupied by
Observation the heavy mass (ie. nucleus) was very small so
1. Most of the alpha particles went straight very few alpha particles came into head on
through the thin metal foil without any collision and so were deflected backwards
deflection in its path, i. e A. along the same path.
2. A few alpha particles were deflected through
a small angle on passing through the metal, i.e.
B. Rutherford’s model of the atom
3. Very few alpha particles were deflected 1. The atom has a central nucleus which has
backwards, i.e. C. positively charged particles called protons.
Almost all the mass of the atom is concentrated
in the nucleus. The nucleus occupies a small
volume compared to the whole of the atom.

2. Electrons have a negative charge and move

around the nucleus in orbits. They have a very
small mass compared with protons. They are
spread in a volume which is almost empty space.

.
Fig. 2.4 scattering of alpha particles

Deductions
1. Scattering A: suggest that the negative
particles in atom (as proposed by Thomson) are
light and could be easily be pushed out of the
way of the heavy alpha particles

9
Table 2.1 Differences between Thomson’s and 1. Atoms have massive, positively charged
Rutherford’s models centres called nucleus. The greater portion of
the mass of the atom is located in its positive
Thomson model Rutherford model centre.
There is no nucleus There is nucleus
Mass of the atom is Mass of the atom is 2. The large empty space of the atom is occupied
due to only the due to the nucleus by electrons which orbit around the nucleus.
electron
Positive and Positive and
Question 3
negative charges negative charges
are uniformly are not uniformly i). What are cathode rays?
spread in an atom. spread.
ii). What is the effect of electric field on cathode
rays?
Discovery of neutrons
iii). What sub-atomic particles constitute the
Chadwick found out that uncharged particles are cathode rays?
emitted when beryllium are bombarded with
iv). Indicate two conditions under which
high velocity helium atoms with all the electrons
cathode rays are produced?
removed. He named the particles neutrons.
Answer
Question 2
i). Cathode rays are beam of negatively charged
i) Describe briefly Rutherford’s alpha particle
particles or rays formed or emitted at the
scattering experiment and state the observations
cathode.
made
ii) How were the results of the experiment ii). They are deflected from the negative plate
used to establish the structure of atom? and attracted towards the positive plate.
Answer iii). Electrons
i) Refer to notes iv). High voltage and Low pressure.
ii) Since most of the alpha particles passed Question 4
through the foil, it implies that the nucleus of the
i). State two postulate of Daltons atomic theory
atom occupies a small volume of the atom. Most
which had later been disproved.
of the volume of the atom is empty space
occupied by electrons which are too light to cause ii) What is the structure of the atom as proposed
deflection of alpha particles. by Rutherford?
 Deflection of few alpha particles through Answer
small angle was due to repulsion between the
i). 1. All matter is made of smallest indivisible
alpha particles and the massive positively charge
particles called atoms.
centre called nucleus.
 Deflection of very few alpha particles 2. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
backward showed that the nucleus occupied a
3. Atoms of the same element are identical
small volume of the atom. in mass and size. (You can state any two of
these).
From the deductions, conclusion can be made
that.

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 PRESENT DAY MODEL OF THE ATOM
 An atom is made up of three subatomic particles: electrons, protons and neutrons.
 The protons are positively charged, electrons negatively charge and neutrons no charge.
 In an atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Atoms are said therefore
said to be electrically neutral.
Particle Symbol Relative mass Relative charge Location in
atom
Proton P 1 +1 In the nucleus
Electron E 1 -1 On the shell or
1840 orbits
Neutron N 1 0 In the nucleus

Question 5 Question 6
i). Name the three subatomic particles, Give the names and the relative masses and
giving their relative masses and charges. charges of the fundamental particles that
makes up the atom.
ii). Which of the particles can be found in
the nucleus? Answer
Answer The fundamental particles that make up an
atom are proton, neutron and electron.
i).Refer to notes.
Refer to notes for their relative masses and
ii). Protons and neutrons. charge.

3. ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN ORBITS/ SHELLS

 The shells or orbits of atoms are spheres set around the nucleus.
 The shells are represented by the capital letters K, L, M, N, O, etc in ascending order from
the nucleus.
 Electrons in shells closer to the nucleus have lower energies and those further away have
higher energies.
 The maximum number of electrons each shell can hold is given by the formula 2n2, where
n is the shell number or properly the principal quantum number.
 K – Shell has n = 1, L- shell has n = 2, M- shell has n = 3 and so on.

The arrangement of electrons on the shell of an atom is called electronic configuration.

Electronic configuration can be represented in two simple ways:
1. By drawing shells or concentric circles and representing the number of electrons in
them with bullets (o) or crosses (x).

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 2. By writing the number of electrons against the shells and separating them by comas.
Examples are as shown in fig 3.1

Fig 3.1 Electronic configuration of some elements

 Electrons in the outermost shells is known as valance electrons and their shell valance
shells.
 Valance electrons are the least attracted to the protons in the nucleus and hence easily
lost, gained or shared in bond formation.
 The electrons between the nucleus and the valance electrons are called the core or
inner electrons.
Table 3.1 Electronic configuration of the first twenty elements
Element Symbol with Electronic
atomic number configuration
Hydrogen 1H 1
Helium 2He 2
Lithium 3Li 2,1
Beryllium 4Be 2,2
Boron 5B 2,3
Carbon 6C 2,4
Nitrogen 7N 2,5
Oxygen 8O 2,6
Fluorine 9F 2,7
Neon 10Ne 2,8
Sodium 11Na 2,8,1
Magnesium 12Mg 2,8,2
Aluminium 13Al 2,8,3
Silicon 14Si 2,8,4
Phosphorous 15P 2,8,5
Sulphur 16S 2,8,6
Chlorine 17Cl 2,8,7
Argon 18Ar 2,8,8
Potassium 19K 2,8,8,1
Calcium 20Ca 2,8,8,2

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 ELECTRONIC ENERGY LEVEL second, n = 2 which is represented by L, third,
n = 3 which is represented by M, etc.
 The energy levels (main shells/ orbits) K, L,
 The maximum number of electrons in each
M, N, etc., have subshells or sublevel called
shell is given by the expression, 2n2, where n is
orbitals.
the principal quantum number.
 It is these orbitals that actually accommodate
the electrons.
 The number of subshells or orbitals in any Table 3.2 Electron shell, its shell number and
main shell is equal to its principal quantum maximum number of electrons it carries.
number; thus, K-shell has one orbital, L-shell Electronic Shell Maximum number
has two orbital, etc. shell
 Electrons is described in the various energy number of electrons
levels using quantum numbers.
K 1 2 × (1)2 = 2

An orbital is a volume of space within an L 2 2 × (2)2 = 8

atom inside which there is a higher
M 3 2 × (3)2 = 18
probability of finding a specific electron
N 4 2 × (4)2 = 32

QUANTUM NUMBERS O 5 2 × (5)2 = 50

Quantum numbers are values and symbols

that can be used to describe the energy of an
electron in the various energy levels.
To completely describe an electron in the Angular momentum or Azimuthal quantum
various energy levels, four quantum numbers number (l)
are used which describe its energy due to It describes the shape of the orbitals. It
position, shape, magnetic moment and spins. determines the subshell within a principal
energy level and the type of orbital occupied
by an electron.
The quantum numbers are
 The value depends on the principal quantum
1. Principal quantum number (n) number.
[Link] quantum number or azimuthal  L assumes all integral values from 0, 1, 2 … (n-
quantum number (l) or subsidiary. 1) inclusive, where n is the principal quantum
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml) number.
4. Spin quantum number (ms)  Each value represents a specific orbital.
 l value must not be negative.
For instance
Principal quantum number (n)  When n =1
It is the number which indicates the main There is only one possible value of l. i.e. l = 0.
shells in which electrons are found.
Putting 1 into (n -1) = (1-1) = 0.
 It takes positive integer values of 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
 The first energy level or shell closet to the
nucleus is n = 1 which is represented by K,

13
Since the value is 0, there is only one possibility.  When n =3There are three possible value of l.
i.e. l = 0, 1, 2.
 When n =2
There are two possible value of l. i.e. l = 0, 1.
Table 3.3 orbitals and their corresponding l
Putting 2 into (n -1) = (2-1) = 1.
values
l 0 1 2 3 4 5
Since the value is 1, we can have 0 and 1 and Name of s p d f g h
therefore two possible values. orbital

Table 3.4 the main shell with their corresponding orbitals

Shell K L M N O
l 0 0, 1 0, 1, 2 0, 1, 2, 3 0, 1, 2, 3,4
Orbital s s, p s, p, d s, p, d, f s, p, d, f, g
1s 2s, 2p 3s, 3p, 3d 4s, 4p,4d,4f 5s,5p, 5d, 5f, 5g

Note: The number of subshells or orbitals in any main shell is equal to its principal quantum
number
 The letter s, p, d and f are of historical origin and are associated with the nature of their
spectral lines.
 Spectroscopist noted that the lines were sharp, principal, diffuse or fundamental.
 The line spectra lines showed that for every main or principal energy level there are several
sublevel so electrons in any main energy level do not have the same energy.
 Some have slightly higher energy than others.

Magnetic quantum number

It describes the orientation of the electrons in orbitals in space. It also gives the maximum
number of sub orbitals for different values of l.
For a given value of l, ml takes the value –l ≤ ml ≤ +l including zero. Thus ml assumes all
integral values between –l and +l.
For example,
 When l = 0, ml =0.
Since l = 0 is the s orbital, it has only one orbital.

 When l = 1, ml = -1, 0, +1.

Since l = 1 is the p orbital, it has three suborbital or degenerated orbitals.

 When l = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2.

Since l = 2 is the d orbital, it has five suborbital or degenerated orbitals

14
Note: Degenerated orbitals are orbitals with the same energy level.
Table 3.5 Orbitals with their corresponding sub-levels
L 0 1 2 3
Orbital s p d f
Ml 0 -1, 0, +1 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3

Spin quantum number (ms)

It describe or specifies the direction of spin of an electron on its own axis.
1
 The spin can either be clockwise or anticlockwise. ms therefore has the value + which
2
1
represents clockwise and - 2, anticlockwise.
 There are two components to the magnetic field associated with electrons in an atom:
the movement of the electron around the nucleus of and the spinning of the electron on
its own axis.
 This means that electrons do not only revolve around the nucleus but also spin on their
own axis.
 Electrons with the same spin are said to have parallel spin.
 Every electron assumes only one of the two possible spins of clockwise or
anticlockwise.
 Each orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons and have identical n, l, ml values
but different ms values.

Table 3.6 Orbitals with their maximum number of electrons

Orbital s p d f
Sub one x, y, z d1, d2, d3,d4,d5 f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, f6, f7
orbitals
Maximum 2 2, 2, 2 = 6 2, 2, 2, 2, 2= 10 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 = 14
number of
electrons

Question 1
How many sub-orbitals are present in each of s, p and d orbitals?
Answer
S = 1, p = 3 and d = 5.

15
 Table 3.7 hells with their corresponding orbitals and maximum number of electrons
Shell Shell l values subshell Number of Maximum
number orbitals number of
electrons
K 1 0 1s 1 2
L 2 0 2s 1 8
1 2p 3 =4
M 3 0 3s 1
1 3p 3 18
2 3d 5 =9
N 4 0 4s 1
1 4p 3 32
2 4d 5
3 4f 7 = 16
Note: from table, the maximum number of electrons for a shell is calculated by the number of
orbitals of that shell multiplied by 2.

Example 3
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number n = 4.
Answer
N l Subshell ml No of orbitals
4 0 4s 0 1
1 4p -1, 0, +1 3
2 4d -2, -1, 0, +1, -1 5
3 4f -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 7
= 16 orbitals

SHAPE OF ORBITALS
S-orbital
 The S-orbital is spherical in shape.
 S-orbital is non-directional and therefore
there is equal chance of finding electrons in any
direction from the nucleus.
 The successive S-orbital only differ in the
radii. Thus the 2s orbital is larger than the 1s
Fig. 3.2 shape of s-orbital
orbital and so on.

16
P-orbital  For example, the energy level of 4s is lower
than 3d and 5d lower than 4d.
 P orbital has a dumbbell shape or has a shape
 This is because the 4s orbital is closer to the
like the figure of eight.
nucleus or penetrates deeper into the nucleus
 A p orbital consist of three degenerated
than 3d and 5s more closely to the nucleus than
orbitals perpendicular to one another.
4d.
 They are represented as Px, Py and Pz orbitals
 Within a given principal energy levels, s is
indicating they are directed towards the x, y and
lower than p and p lower than d and d lower than
z axes.
f.

Fig. 3.3 shape of p-orbital

Fig 4.4 Order of energy level

Note: A nodal plane is an area within an
orbital where there the probability of finding
an electron is zero. FILLING OF THE ATOMIC ORBITALS
Electronic configuration can also be define
Table 4.8 Differences between S and p orbitals as the arrangement or distribution of
electrons in the various orbitals or sub levels
S-orbital P-orbital
of an atom. The electronic configuration of an
Has a spherical in Has a dumbbell shape
atom can be written in the form
It is non-directional It has directional
Electrons are closer to Electrons
the are far from the Principal quantum number Number of
nucleus nucleus
electrons
2px1
Question 2
Explain with the aid of diagrams, the shapes and
direction of the s and p orbitals Type of orbital orientation
Answer of orbital
Refer to notes.
The expression 2p3 means 2 is the principal or
main energy level. The letter p is the p orbital
ENERGY LEVEL ORDER
and superscript 3 refers to the number of
 There is a regular increase in energy level electrons in the p orbital.
from 1s to 4f. At the higher energy levels, there
are anomalies.

17
4. GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND RULES  This is illustrated by drawing arrows in the
FOR FILLING ATOMIC ORBITAL boxes.
1. Aufbau’s principles: electrons enter into  The arrow pointing up to means an electron
and fill fully orbitals of lower energy first is spinning in one way and down to mean an
before orbitals of higher energy. electron with opposite spin.
5B =
 The increasing order of energy of the orbitals
in the ground state is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d

 Thus using Aufbau’s rule, the orbitals are

3. Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity:
filled from left to right starting from 1s orbital
degenerated orbitals are first filled singly and
as seen from the fig below.
with parallel spins before pairing up with
opposite spins.
This is illustrated in the configuration of 7N and
8O.
By Aufbau’s principles the electronic
configuration of 5B and 8O are 7N = 8O =
5B = 1s2 2s2 2p1 8O = 1s2 2s2 2p4

Note: The order in writing the electronic Question 1.

configuration using boxes is 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
3d. Arrange the following orbitals in order of
increasing energy.
But the order in writing electron
configuration is 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s. 3d, 4s, 2s, 3p, 2p.

This is because the boxes are arranged in order Answer

of increasing energy but in writing the symbols, 2s, 2p, 3p, 4s, 3d.
it is convention that all the energy level of a
group are put together; all the 2’s, all the 3’s, all
the 4’s. Question 2
i). Name three rules that govern the filling of
2. Pauli’s exclusion principle: No two orbitals in atom.
electrons in an atom can have exactly the ii). State each of the rule in (i).
same energy. OR
iii). The sketch below represents the filling of
No two electrons in an atom must have the orbitals in an atom. State which rules are obey
same set of four quantum numbers. or violated by the model

18
Table 4.8 Electronic configuration of some elements
Element Symbol Electronic configuration
with atomic
number
Hydrogen 1H 1s1
Helium 2He 1s2
Lithium 3Li 1s2 2s1
Beryllium 4Be 1s2 2s2
Boron 5B 1s2 2s2 2p1
Carbon 6C 1s2 2s2 2p2
Nitrogen 7N 1s2 2s2 2p3
Oxygen 8O 1s2 2s2 2p4
fluorine 9F 1s2 2s2 2p5
Neon 10Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6
Sodium 11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Magnesium 12Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Aluminium 13Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Silicon 14Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
Phosphorous 15P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
Sulphur 16S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Chlorine 17Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Argon 18Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Potassium 19K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Calcium 20Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
Scandium 21Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
Titanium 22Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Vanadium 23V 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
Chromium 24Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s
Manganese 25Mn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2
Iron 26Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
Cobalt 27Co 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
Nickel 28Ni 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2
Copper 29Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Zinc 30Zn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
Gallium 31Ga 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p1
Germanium 32Ge 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p2
Arsenic 33As 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p3
Selenium 34Se 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p4
Bromine 35Br 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5
krypton 36Kr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6

Shows that in neon, which is a noble gas, all the orbitals which contains electrons are
completely filled. This is true for all the noble gases.

19
 Stability of orbitals
Elements that have partially filled orbitals are less stable than those with half-filled or fully
filled orbitals Elements with fully filled orbitals have greater stability than half filled orbitals

Electronic configuration of element between

neon to argon
 This is due to the lower energy of the 4s
 It is observed that 10Ne fill the L-shell (with than 3d but in writing, the 3d is comes before
the principal quantum number, n =2) the 4s.
completely and 11Na begins to fill the M-shell
(n = 3).  Their inner electronic configuration can
 We can therefore conveniently represents therefore be represented by the argon core
the filling of the L-shell by the neon core. i.e. 18[Ar]. For example,
1 1 2
11Na = 10[Ne] 3s , 21Sc = 18[Ar] 3d 4s
2 2 2
12Mg = 10[Ne] 3s , 22Ti = 18[Ar] 3d 4s
2 1 3 2
13Al =10[Ne] 3s 3p , 23 V = 18[Ar] 3d 4s and so on.
2 2
14Si = 10[Ne] 3s 3p and so on.

Electronic configuration of chromium and

Electronic configuration of elements after
copper
argon
24Cr =18[Ar] 3d 44s2---------- (1) incorrect
 Again, 19K begin the filling of the 4th (N) 5 1
24Cr =18[Ar] 3d 4s ------------- (2) correct
shell.
 The inner electronic configuration can 29Cu =18[Ar] 3d9 4s2 ------------- (1) incorrect
10 1
therefore be represented by the argon core 29Cu =18[Ar] 3d 4s ------------- (2) correct
2 2 6 2 6
18[Ar] = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p .
 19K can be conveniently represented as
19K = 18[Ar] 4s
1  The correct configurations of Cr and Cu are
2 denoted as 2. This is because, there is extra
20Ca =18[Ar] 4s .
stability associated with atoms with fully
 After Calcium are the elements Scandium filled orbitals as well as half-filled orbitals.
to Zinc. They have their electrons entering into  In the configuration 2 for Cr, both the 3d
the 3d-orbital. and 4s orbitals are half filled but in that of
 These elements are known as the first 1, the 3d orbital is partially filled.
transition series or simply transition metals.  In configuration 2 for Cu, the 3d orbital is
 They are metallic in nature. fully filled and the 4s is half filled but in 1,
 When filling the electronic configuration of the 3d orbital is partially filled.
the transition metals, the 4s orbital is filled first
before the 3d-orbital.

20
Question 3 b). Consider the following pair of elements 4Be
and 12Mg:
a). Write the electronic configuration of each
of the following elements i). Give the electronic configuration of each
element.
i). 13Al ii). 12Mg iii) 7N
ii). Explain briefly why the elements have
b). State the number of unpaired electrons in
similar chemical properties.
each of the atoms above.
Answer
c). Write the ions likely to be formed from
13Al and 12Mg a). Refer to notes
Answer b). i). 4Be = 1s2 2s2 and 12Mg = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
a). i). 13Al = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 ii). Both have the same number of valance
electrons. The valance electrons are responsible
ii). 12Mg = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
for chemical properties of an element, they have
iii). 7N = 1s2 2s2 2p5 similar chemical properties.

b). 13Al = 1, 12Mg = 0, 7N = 3

c). Al3+ and Mg2+ Electronic configuration of cations and
anions
 A cation is formed when an atom loses one
Question 4
or more electrons from its valance shell.
The electronic configuration of the element Q  A cation has a smaller number of electrons
is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2. State than its corresponding atom. For example
Mg has 12 electrons but Mg2+ has 10
i). The orbital with the lowest energy.
electrons. The electronic configuration of
ii). The atomic number of Q. Mg2+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6 whiles that of Mg = 1s2
2s2 2p6 3s2
iii). The number of unpaired electrons in the
 Anion is formed when an atom gains one or
ground state.
more electrons into its valance shell. For
iv), Whether Q is an s-block or d-block element example Cl has 17 electrons but Cl- has 18
and give reasons for your answer electrons. The electron configuration of Cl-
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 and that of Cl = 1s2 2s2
v). Three characteristics properties Q is
2p6 3s2 3p5
expected to exhibit.
Answer Question 7

i). 1s ii). 27 iii). 3 Write the electronic configuration for each of

the following ions and element:
iv). d-block because it has it valance electrons
enter into the d-orbital i). 13Al3+ ii). 16S2- iii). 24Cr

v). Refer to notes. Answer

i). 13Al3+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6
Question 5
a). State the Aufbau principles ii). 16S2- = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
iii). 24Cr3+ =1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3

21
BLOCKS OF THE PERODIC TABLE
 The chemical reactivity of an element is The p-block
decided mainly by the outermost electrons  The elements in this block have their
which are also known as valance shell valence electrons are in a p-orbital.
electrons.  There are six elements in each row of the
 It is their number and arrangement that p-block. This is because, there are three p-
determines the activity and chemistry of the orbitals in a p subshell and each can hold two
element. electrons.
 Elements on the periodic table are arranged  Some form ionic bond and others form
according to electronic configuration and covalent bond.
increasing atomic (proton) number.
 The periodic table can be classified into four
main block. They are the s, p, d and f block. The d-block
 d-block elements have their valance electrons
entering in d orbitals.
 They lie between the s and p block elements.
 Elements in this groups are all metals and are
called transition metals.
 There ten elements in each row of the
block because there are five d-orbitals and each
can hold two electrons.
 Many compound of these elements are
coloured.
 Elements have wide range of oxidation
numbers.
Fig 4. 5 Blocks of the periodic table
 The chemistry of the elements are similar
because the outer energy levels are close
together.

The s-block The f-block

 The f orbital only appears until level four
 This block consists of elements whose
valance electrons are placed in the s-orbital.  Elements in the block start with atomic
number of 57. i.e. lanthanum
 These elements all have either one or two valance
electrons.  The series starting with lanthanum is called
the lanthanide series and the next series
 Elements of this block have low ionization
starting with actinium is called the actinide
energy because their outer shell electrons are not
series.
strongly held by the nucleus and are easily
removed.  Elements within the lanthanide are very
much alike.
 Elements in this block form ions of type M+ or
M2+. They are all metals.  There are 14 lanthanides and 14 actinides.
This is because there are seven orbitals in an
 They have low electronegativities and form ionic
f sub-level and each can take 2 electrons.
compounds rather than covalent.

22
 5. REPRESENTING OF THE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

Elements are made up of atoms. Atoms are in Relationship between mass number,
turn made up of sub atomic particles: protons, number of neutrons and atomic number.
electrons and neutrons.
A= Z + N or A = P + N

Atomic number (Z)

Question 1
 Atomic number is the number of protons in
The atomic number of magnesium is 12 and its
the nucleus of an atom.
mass number 24. Find the number of protons,
 In a neutral atom it is equal to the number of electrons and neutrons in one of its atoms.
electrons around the nucleus.
 It is called the proton number. Answer
 All atoms of the same element have the same i). Atomic number = no. of proton
atomic number. It has the symbol Z.
No. of protons = 12

Number of neutrons (N) ii). No. of protons in an atom = No. of electrons

 It is also referred to as neutron number with No. of electrons = 12

the symbol N iii). Mass number = Atomic number + No. of
 The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. neutrons
 The number of neutrons in each atom differs
A=Z+N
 The protons and the neutrons are called
nucleons. 24 = 12 + N
Note: The mass and radioactive properties No. of neutrons = 24 -12
are determined by the nucleus.
= 12
The chemical and spectral properties are
usually determine by the electrons around the
nucleus. Question 2
Mass number (A) i). Define the term mass number.
 The mass number is the sum of the number of ii). How protons and neutrons are present in
protons and neutrons in an atom. each of the following species.
 It can also be called nucleon number. Mass 40 27 3+
number has the symbol A. a). Ar b). Al
18 13
 Atoms of the same element can have different
number mass numbers. This is due to different Answer
of neutrons. i). Refer to notes.
Nuclide is an atom (or nuclear species) with ii).
specific or known atomic number and mass
number.

23
 Species Protons Neutrons Answer
40 18 22
Ar Particle Number Number Number
18
27 3+ 13 14 of of of
Al
13 protons electrons neutrons
7 3 3 4
Li
3
39 + 19 18 20
K
19
Question 3 14 -
N 7 10 7
Copy and complete the following table: 7

Particle Mass No. of No. of No. of

no. proton electron neutro Note: In every atom, the number of protons
n is equal to the number of electrons. But this
is not so for ions.
Na 11 12
Al 27 13 For ions, the number of protons can be
O2- 16 8 greater or lesser than that of electron.
Mg2+ 24 12

How to represent the atom

 The mass number and atomic number of an
atom of symbol X are indicated as
Answer
𝐴
Particle Mass No. of No. Number X
proton electron of 𝑍
neutron
A is the mass number. It is placed as a left
s
superscript.
Na 23 11 11 12
Al 27 13 13 14 Z is the atomic number. It is place as a left
O2- 16 8 10 8 subscript.
Mg2+ 24 12 10 12 27
For example, Al. 27 is the mass number and
13
13 is the atomic number.
3𝑝
Question 4  It can also be shown as where p and n
4𝑛
Copy and complete the following table: are symbols for protons and neutrons.

Particle Number Number Number of

of of neutrons
protons electrons Question 5
7 3 One of the isotopes of uranium used in nuclear
Li
3 233
39 + 19 fission is U.
K 92
19
14 - 7 i). How many
N
7
a). Protons are contained in this atom?

24
b). Neutrons are contained in this atom? Table 5.1 some elements with their isotopes
c). Electrons contained in this atom? Isotopes Number of Number Mass
protons or of number
electrons neutrons
iii) How many 12 6 6 12
C
6
233 3+ 13 6 7 13
a). Protons are contained in a U ion? C
92 6
14 6 8 14
233 3+ C
b). Neutrons are contained in a U ion? 6
92
16 8 8 16
233 3+ O
c). Electrons contained in a U ion? 8
92 17 8 9 17
O
Answer 8
18 8 10 18
i). a). 92 b). 141 c). 92 O
8
ii). a). 92 b). 141 c). 89

Properties of isotopes.
Isotopes
 Isotopes of the same element have the same
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element
chemical properties.
which have the same atomic number but
This is because isotopes of an element have the
different mass numbers. It is the difference in
same number of electrons. Electrons are
the number of neutrons which brings about
responsible for chemical properties and
different mass number.
therefore isotopes of an element have the same
chemical properties.
 It can also be defined as atoms of the same
element with the same number of protons but
 Isotopes of an element have different
different number of neutrons.
physical properties because they have different
mass numbers.
 Example, there are three naturally occurring
isotopes of carbon. There are presented as
Mass number, Atomic masses and
12 13 14
C - carbon 12, C- carbon 13, C – carbon percentage abundance
6 6 6
14.  Isotopes have different neutron numbers and
Other elements that have isotopes are chlorine, hence have masses called atomic mass or
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, potassium, sodium, isotopic mass. Atomic mass is the mass of an
etc. isotope of an element.
 Atomic mass is measured on the carbon -12
 Element which exhibit isotopes are said to
scale. It has the unit of u.
show ISOTOPY
 The atomic mass is numerically equal to the
relative atomic mass, Ar. But relative atomic
mass has no unit. Isotope therefore have
different relative atomic masses.

25
 The mass number is a number and is
different from atomic mass, which is a
measure of mass.
 However, the nearest whole number to the Question 3
atomic mass or relative atomic mass is equal i).Define isotopes
to the mass number. The relative masses of
proton (1.0074 units) and neutrons (1.0089
units) are both close to one. Hence both have
ii). Name two elements that exhibit isotopy?
a mass of 1.
Answer
Table 5.2 Chlorine isotopes with its mass,
atomic and relative numbers i). Refer to notes
Isotope Relative Atomic Mass ii). Chlorine, hydrogen, oxygen, potassium, etc.
atomic mass, Ma number
Question 4
mass, (Ar) ,A
35 34.97 34.97u 35 Distinguish between atomic mass and the
Cl
17 atomic number of an element.
37 36.95 36.95u 37
Cl
17 Atomic mass Atomic number
It is the weighted It is the number of
Table 5.3 Differences between atomic and average of the protons in the
mass isotopic masses of nucleus of an
an element element.
Mass number Atomic mass
It is a number It is a measure of
mass
It is always an It is an average
integer or whole and never an
number integer
It refers to an It refers to
individual isotopes naturally occurring
isotopes

Try questions

Q1. A metallic ion Y2+ has an inert gas structure containing 18 electrons. How many
protons are contained in this ion? Ans.: …………….

9
Q2. How many electrons are present in 4Be2+? Ans.: ………………..

Q3. The atomic number of aluminium is 13. What is the number of electrons in an
Aluminium ion? Ans.: …………………….

Q4. The mass spectrum of an isotope shows four peaks. How many isotopes has the
element. Ans.: ……………………..

26
 Relative atomic mass, Ar The abundance of the isotope should add up to
100 (percentage abundance) or 1 (fractional
 Relative atomic mass of an element is abundance).
defined as the average mass of one atom of the
1
element compared to of the mass of one
12
atom of 12C Calculating the relative atomic mass of an
element with more than one isotope
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Ar = 1  The relative atomic mass of a naturally
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
12
occurring element is the weighted average
mass of its isotopes.
 Ar (Na) = 23, means that one sodium
1  If the percentage or fractional abundance of
atom is 23 times as heavy as 12 the mass of the isotopes of an element are known, the
one atom of carbon-12. relative atomic mass, Ar, of the element is
calculated from the formula

Question 5 Ar = Σ (Atomic masses × relative abundance)

The ratio of the mass of an aluminium atom to Total Abundance
carbon -12 atom is 2.248: 1. Calculate the
For example, if sample X has three isotopes of
relative atomic mass of aluminium
masses m1, m2 and m3 and their relative
Answer abundance are h1, h2 and h3 respectively then
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙 the relative mass of X will be given as
Ar (Al) = 1
(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12)
2

2.248 𝑚1ℎ1+ 𝑚2ℎ2 +𝑚3ℎ3

= 1 = 26.976 Ar (X) =
1( ) ℎ1 +ℎ2+ℎ3
12

Relative abundance  Atomic mass = isotopic mass. If the atomic

masses (isotopic masses) of the various isotopic
Isotopes of many elements occur naturally.
are not given, their mass numbers may be used.
They can also be artificially produced in nuclear
reactions. Many naturally occurring elements  However if both are given, their atomic or
have different number of isotopes. isotopic masses should be used and not the mass
numbers.
Tin (Sn) has as many as ten isotopes. Gold (Au)
and fluorine are two of the few naturally Question 1
occurring elements with no isotopes From the table below:
These naturally occurring isotopes of elements i). find the missing fractional abundance x,
occur in different amounts. The different percentage abundance y, and mass number z.
amounts of each isotope in the naturally
occurring element is called its relative ii). Calculate the relative atomic mass of Cl
abundance or isotopic abundance.
If the abundance of an isotope is expressed as a
percentage, it is called percentage abundance
and if fraction, fractional abundance.

27
 Isotope Atomi percentage Mas fractional (68.93 ×60) +(70.92 ×40)
c abundance s abundance Ar(Ga) =
100
mass No.
35
4135.8+2836.8
Cl 34.97 75.77 35 x = = 69.73
17 100
37 36.96 y z 0.2423
Cl
17
Question 3
Answer Chlorine ha two naturally occurring isotopes
37 35
i). fractional abundance sums up to1. 𝐶𝑙 and 𝐶𝑙. The accurate mass and relative
17 17
Therefore, x + 0.243 =1 37
abundance of the first isotope 𝐶𝑙 are 36.97
17
X = 1- 0.243 = 0.7577 and 24.47% respectively. Calculate the
accurate mass and relative abundance of the
ii).Percentage abundance sums up to 100% second isotope. (Relative atomic mass of
Therefore, 100% = y + 75.77% chlorine is 35.45)

Y = 100% - 75.77% = 24.23% Answer

iii). Mass number z, = 37 The relative abundance of the second

35
isotope 𝐶𝑙 = 100 – 24.47 = 75.33
17
ii). From the information given above, you can 35
Let Y represent the relative mass of 𝐶𝑙
use either percentage or fractional abundance 17
(36.97 × 24.47) +(𝑌 ×75.53)
Ar (Cl) =
100
Using fractional abundance
[34.97(0.7577)+36.96 (0.2423)]
Ar(Cl) = (36.97 × 24.47) +(𝑌 ×75.53)
0.7577+0.2423 35.45 = 100
26.497+8.955
= = 35.45≈ 35.5 35.45 =
904.66 +75.53𝑌
1 100
OR
35.45 × 100 = 904.66 +75.53y
Using percentage abundance
3545 – 904.66 = 75.53y
[34.97(75.77)+36.96 (24.23)]
Ar(Cl) = Y = 34.96
75.77+24.23
2649.7+895.5
= = 35.45 ≈ 35.5
1
Question 4
Question 2
Copper has two isotopes 63Cu and 65Cu with
Naturally occurring gallium consist of two relative isotopic masses 62.9 and 64.9
39 71
isotopes 𝐺𝑎 and 𝐺𝑎 with the relative respectively. The relative atomic mass of the
31 31
abundance of 60% and 40% respectively. If their naturally occurring copper is 63.55. Calculate
masses are 68.93 amu (atomic mass unit) and the percentage abundance of each isotope.
70.92 amu. What is the average mass of the
gallium atom?

28
Answer Answer
Let the percentage abundance of 63Cu be X%. Relative abundance can be calculated in
Then the percentage abundance of 65Cu = (100 – terms of fractional or percentage
X) %. abundance.
(62.9 (𝑋)+64.9(100−𝑋) Solving for the percentage abundance
Thus: Ar(Cu) = 63.55 = 100
Let the percentage abundance of be y% and that
= 63.55 × 100 = 62.9x + 6490 – 64.9x
of 210X be (100 – y)
64.9x -62.9x = 6490 - 6355 210 (100−𝑦)+212 (𝑌)
Ar (X) = 210.2 = 100
2x = 135
210.2 × 100 = 21000 – 210y + 212y
X = 67.5%
21020 – 21000 = 2y
Y = 10
Question 5
212
Therefore the abundance of X = 10% and
Two of the three stable isotopes of magnesium 210
X = (100-10) = 90%
have atomic masses of 24 and 25 and percentage
abundance 78.6% and 10.1% respectively. If the
relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24.3.
Solving for the fractional abundance
Calculate the relative percentage abundance of
the third isotope and hence its atomic mass Let the percentage abundance of be y% and that
of 210X be (1 – y)
Answer
210 (1−𝑦)+212 (𝑌)
Percentage abundance of the third isotope of Mg Ar (X) = 210.2 = 1
= 100 – (78.6 + 10.1) = 11.3
210.2 × 1 = 210 – 210y + 212y
Let x represent the atomic mass of the third
isotope. 210.2 – 210 = 2y

(24 ×78.6)+(25 ×10.1)+(𝑋 ×11.3) Y = 0.1

24.3 =
100 Therefore the abundance of 212X = 0.1 and 210X
= (1- 0.1) = 0.9
24.3 × 100 = 1886.4 + 252.5 + 11.3x
2430 = 2138.9 + 11.3x
11.3x = 2430 – 2138.9 Question 7
Chlorine has two isotopes with mass numbers
11.3x =291.1
35 and 37 respectively. If the relative atomic
X = 25.76 mass of chlorine 35.5. Calculate the relative
abundance of each of the isotopes.
Answer
Question 6
Since the atomic masses were not given, the
An element X with relative atomic mass 210.2
mass number can be used. The relative
has two isotopes 212X and 210X. What is the
abundance can be calculated as either
relative abundance of each of the isotopes?
fractional or percentage.

29
For fractional abundance Question 9
35
Let x be the fractional abundance for Cl and There are two isotopes of bromine with mass
that of 37Cl = (1- x) number 79 and 81 respectively. If the isotopes
35 (𝑥)+37 (1−𝑥)
exist in the ratio of 2;1, the lighter isotope being
Ar (Cl) = 35.3 = abundant, what is the relative atomic mass of
1
bromine?. Account for why the value is not a
35.5 = 35x + 37- 37x whole number.
37x -35x = 37 – 35.5 Answer
2x = 1.5 (79 ×2) +( 81 ×1)
Ar(Br) =
X = 0.75 3
The fractional abundance for 35
Cl is 0.75 and 239
= = 79.7
that of 37Cl = (1- 0.75) = 0.25 3
The percentage abundance for 35Cl is 75% and The value is not a whole number because
that of 37Cl = (100- 75) = 25% bromine exhibit isotopy and the weighted
average of its atomic or isotopic masses gives a
fractional value.
Question 8
Consider the following table: Try question.
Atom Relative abundance (%) A naturally occurring element X has two
20
Ne 90.48 isotopes with mass numbers 79 and 81. The
21
Ne 0.27 lighter one had proton number 35 and 50.69%
22
Ne 9.25 abundance. What is the atomic mass of this
element?
i). What phenomenon is exhibited by Ne?
ii). Name one other element that exhibit such
phenomenon.
MASS SPECTROMETRY
iii). Use the information in the table to calculate
the relative atomic mass of Ne. In mass spectrometry, charged particles of
different masses are separated and their masses
Answer measured. This technique also measures relative
amount (abundance) of each different mass.
i). Isotopy
The instrument used is called mass
ii). Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine,
spectrometer. It has electric and magnetic
phosphorous, etc.
fields which causes charged particles to deflect.
(20 ×90.48) +(21 ×0.27) +(22 ×9.25) The extent of deflection depends on
iii). Ar (Ne) = 100
 Strength of the electric and magnetic fields
= 20.2
 Mass and charge of the particle.

30
Deflection of charge particles How the spectrometer works
 The heavier the mass of a charged particle,  Under a low pressure, the substance whose
the less the extent of deflection and the lighter atomic mass or molecular mass is to be
the mass, the greater the deflection determined is first vaporized to produce
 Again, the greater the charge carried by the gaseous atomic or molecular particle.
particle the bigger the deflection and the smaller  The gaseous particles are then bombarded
the charge, the less the deflection. with high energy electrons emitted by the
 Particles of the same mass to charge ratio are heated filament and hence ionize.
deflected to follow the same path. Those with  The positive ions are passed through slits and
different masses deflect to follow different path. are accelerated by the high electric voltage
unto a magnetic field.
 The magnetic field deflects the ions into
The five main process which take place in
semi-circular paths unto the detector. The
mass spectrometer are:
radius of deflection or extent of deflection
1. A sample of the substances is vaporized. depends on the mass to charge ratio (m/e) of
2. The vapour is ionized into positive ions the ion.
3. The positive ion are attracted and  At the detector, ions give up their charge in
accelerated by an electric field. the form of electric current, which is
4. The accelerated positive ion are deflected in proportional to the relative abundance of
a magnetic field and focus onto a detector each species of different mass. The
according to their mass to charge ratio. instrument record the information as a mass
5. The detector draws a mass spectrum of the spectrum, shown as lines on graphs.
different ions.

Fig 5. 1 Diagram of the mass spectrometer

31
Functions of the main parts of mass ii).Explain briefly the functions of a magnet in
spectrometer a mass spectrometer.
It consist of Answer
i). Ionization chamber i). The statement is true and valid because the
angle of deflection in a constant magnetic and
ii). Accelerating electric field
electric field depends on the mass to charge
iii). Magnetic field at right angles to electric ratio of the ions. The larger the charge the
field greater the deflection.

iv). Detector ii). It deflects the positive ions into semi-

circular paths according to their charge to mass
i). Ionization chamber ratio and then made to fall onto the detector.
High energy electron from cathode are attracted
to opposite anode and in the process collide with
atoms of the vaporised sample and knock off Mass spectrum
electron(s) from them to become positive ions.
A mass spectrum is a plot of relative
ii). Electric field abundance (intensity or peaks heights)
versus the masses of the charge particles.
The positive ions are attracted and accelerated The mass spectrum is calibrated based on the
by the negative electric plate into the magnetic carbon-12 scale and therefore the relative
field. atomic mass or molecular mass of all species
iii). Magnetic field can be read directly.

It deflects ions according to their mass to charge

ratio.
iv). Detector
The detector collects the ions of different masses
separately and the collected charges which
constitute an electric current are shown as peaks
in a recorder.
The amount of electric current produced by ions
of the same mass to charge ratio is proportional
to the ions relative abundance of height of peak
measured.

Question 1 Fig 5.2 Diagram of the mass spectrum

i). If the strength of the electric and magnetic In a mass spectrum of an atom each peak
fields are kept constant in a mass spectrometer indicates one isotope with its percentage
and assuming the incoming positive ions are of abundance and relative atomic. The highest
the same mass, +3 ions are deflected more than peak is the most abundant isotope.
+2 ions? Comment on the validity of the
statement above.

32
Information obtained from the mass  They are then deflected in a magnetic field
spectrum according to their mass to charge ratio and
afterwards focused onto a detector.
1. Isotopes present are shown as peaks.
2. The number of peaks is equal the number of  The detector draws a mass spectrum of the
isotopes. different ions
3. The heights of the peaks shows the relative  The relative intensities nor peak heights, h
abundance (percentage or fractional) of the are measured.
various isotopes present. Relative atomic mass =
4. If there is only one peak, there is no isotope 𝑚1ℎ1+ 𝑚2ℎ2 +𝑚3ℎ3−−−−−
of that atom. ℎ1 +ℎ2+ℎ3−−−−−−
5. The positions of the peaks depends on the
mass to charge ratio.
Question 2

Uses or importance of Mass spectrometer List four essential features of the mass
spectrometer
1. It is used to determine relative atomic mass.
2. It is used to determine relative molecular Answer
mass. Vacuum pump, Vaporisation chamber,
3. It is used to determine the number of magnetic field, electric field, detector system/
isotopes detector/ amplifier/multiplier, recorder/ read
4. It is used to determine actual formula of a out system.
compound
5. It is used to determine the relative
abundance of isotopes in an element. Question 3
i). In the mass spectrum of air the two most
Question 1 intense peaks appear at m/e values of 28 and
32. Give an explanation for this observation
i). Give a brief description of the mass
spectrometer. ii). What other lines would you expect to find?

ii). Show how the mass spectrometer is used to Answer

determine the relative atomic mass of an i). Air contains nitrogen with molar mass 28
element. gmol-1 and oxygen with molar mass 32 gmol-1.
Answer These are the two most abundant gases in air
and their lines are therefore the most intense.
i). Draw a labelled diagram of mass
spectrometer or list the salient parts: ionization ii). Other lines expected will be at 44 for carbon
chamber, electric field, magnetic field at right (IV) oxide, 18 for water vapour and some other
angles to electric field, detector. lines for the inert gases.

 The sample is first vaporized.

 The vapour are converted into positive ions Question 4
by bombardment with high velocity
electrons. i). Give a brief outline of the operation of the
mass spectrometer
 The positive ion are attracted and
accelerated by an electric field.

33
ii). The mass spectrum of a monoatomic element Question 1
𝑎
X has three peaks with relative heights h1, h2, In the mass spectrum of CH2Cl2
𝑏
h3 at M1, M2 and M3 respectively. (dichloromethane), the intensities of the peaks
are 84, 86, 88 and are in the ratio 9: 6: 1
a). How many isotopes has the element x?
respectively.
b). Write the formula for the calculation of the
i). Deduce the species giving rise to the peaks
relative atomic mass of x.
ii). Using the data calculate the relative
c). What does a and b represent.
molecular mass of CH2Cl2 [H =1, C = 12, Cl
Answer has two isotopes of masses 35 and 37]
i). Refer to notes Answer
ii). a). 3 isotopes i). Possible combination of C, H and Cl to form
CH2Cl2
𝑚1ℎ1+ 𝑚2ℎ2 +𝑚3ℎ3
b). Ar (X) =
ℎ1 +ℎ2+ℎ3 Mass of CH2 35Cl2 = (12× 1) + (2 ×1) + (35× 2) =
85
c). a is mass number and b is atomic number
CH2 35Cl 37Cl = (12× 1) + (2 ×1) + (35× 1) + (37
×1) = 86
CH2 37Cl2 = (12× 1) + (2 ×1) + (37× 2) = 88
Determination of the relative molecular mass (84 ×9)+(86 ×6) +(88 ×1)
ii). Mr (CH2Cl2) =
(Mr) 9+6+1
756+516+88
The relative molecular mass of a compound can = = 85.0
16
also be determined using the mass spectrometer.
The compound is placed in the spectrometer and
ionised. A compound whose element exist as Question 2
isotopes does not have one molecular mass. For
instance, a mass spectrum of HCl molecule in Given that the isotopes of chlorine are 35Cl and
37
1 Cl and those of hydrogen are 1H and 2H.
which there two isotopes of hydrogen H and
1
2 35 i). What are possible masses of HCl?
H and only will show peaks of masses 36
1 17
and 37 i.e. 1H 35Cl = 36 and 2H 35Cl = 37. The ii). How many peaks would show on the mass
more abundant molecule will be 1H 35Cl with the spectrum?
relative molecular mass of 36 and will have the Answer
tallest peak.
i).
The molecule with the smaller relative molecular
mass will have the highest relative abundance Formula Molecular mass
1 35
H Cl 36
Relative molecular mass = 1 37
H Cl 38
2 35
Σ(isotopic masses × relative abundance) H Cl 37
2 37
Total Abundance H Cl 39
ii). Four

34
Question 3 by Ya 35Cl 35Cl, where Ya is the lowest isotopes
of Y.
The mass spectrum of a sample of rubidium is
shown by the graph below: Ya 35Cl 35Cl = 102
Ya + 70 = 102
Ya = 32
Again the highest m/e which is 108 is shown by
Yb 37Cl 37Cl, where Yb is the highest isotope of
Y.
Yb 37Cl 37Cl = 108
Yb + 74 = 108
i). Why do two peaks occur on the mass
Yb = 34
spectrum?
Therefore isotopes of Y are 32 and 34.
ii). Why does one peak has a greater area than
the other? ii). Relative molecular mass
iii). Calculate the relative atomic mass of the 102ℎ1 + 104ℎ2 +106ℎ3 +108ℎ4
=
sample of rubidium? ℎ1+ℎ2+ℎ3+ℎ4

Answer Where h1 +h2 + h3 + h4 are the respective peak

heights
i). Two peaks occur because rubidium has two
isotopes.
ii). This is so because the one with the greater TRY QUESTION
area has greater relative abundance in nature Question 1
than the one with smaller area
A certain dibromide ZBr2 shows peaks for the
iii). Relative atomic mass = following values of m/e in the molecular
(85 × 72) + (86 × 28) region: 182, 184, 186 and 188. Deduce the
= 85.28 atomic masses of the isotopes of Z and account
(72 + 28)
for the region of each of the peak [isotopes of
Question 4 bromide 79Br and 81Br]
A certain chloride YCl2 shows peaks at m/e = Question 2
102, 104, 106 and 108 in the molecular peak
A certain chloride ACl2 shows four isotopes in
region of its spectrum.
its mass spectrum of 140, 142, 144 and 146.
i). Deduce all you can about the element Y. Assuming it has two isotopes of xA and yA,
deduce
ii). How would you use the mass spectrum to
determine the relative molecular mass of YCl2? i). The mass numbers of X and Y
[Isotope of Cl are 35Cl and 37Cl]
ii). all the possible isotopic compounds of the
Answer chloride. [Isotopes of chloride 35Cl and 37Cl]
i). Given that isotopes of chlorine are 35Cl and
37
Cl then the lowest m/e which is 102 is shown

35
 TRY QUESTIONS
9. What particles make up cathode rays?
1. Which of the following statements is true A. Alpha particle B. Electrons
about isotopes? They have C. Neutrons D. Protons
A. Different atomic numbers
B. Different electronic configurations 10. The sum total of protons and neutrons
C. The same number of neutrons in an atom is referred to as the
D. Similar chemical properties A. atomic number B. atomic mass
C. mass number D. molar mass
2. The mass number of an element is 27. If its
atomic number is 13, what is the 11. An element Q has mass number Y and
composition of the nucleus of its atom? atomic number Z. How many neutrons
A. 13 electrons and 14 protons are there in an atom Q?
B. 13 protons and 14 electrons A. Y B. Z C. Y – Z D.Z – Y
C. 13 protons and 14 neutrons
D. 13 electrons and 14 neutrons 12. An atom is electrically neutral if the
number of
1
3. The hydrogen atom H differs from other A. electrons is equal to the number of
1 neutrons
atoms in that it
A. Has no protons B. neutrons is equal to the atomic
B. Has no electrons number
C. Has no neutrons C. protons is equal to the number of
D. Cannot form charged ions neutrons
D. protons is equal to the number of
4. When an oxygen atom is transformed into an electrons
ion
A. It loses two electrons 13. Two atoms of an element X are
𝑚 𝑟
B. It shares two electrons with another represented as X and X. This
𝑛 𝑛
atom phenomenon is called
C. It gains two protons A. allotropy B. isotopy
D. It gains two electrons C. isomerism D. polymorphism

5. The atomic theory was put forward by 14. The following ions are diatomic except
A. Avogadro B. Dalton A. Mg2+ [Link]- C. CN- D. NH+4
C. Gay Lussac D. Rutherford
15. How many electrons are there in
6. Which of the following substances is not an 27 3+
isotope of hydrogen? Al ?
13
A. Deuterium B. Hydronium A. 10 B.13 C.14 D.16
C. Protium D. Tritium
16. Which of the following species
7. How many neutrons are contained in the determines the chemical properties of
40 an atom?
nuclide T?
18 A. Electron B. Neutron
A. 18 B. 22 C. 40 D. 58 C. Nucleus D. Proton

8. The metallic ion Y2+ has an insert gas

structure constraining 18 electrons. How
many protons are contained in this ion?
A. 2 B. 16 C. 18 D. 20

36
6. INTRODUCTION INTO PERODIC  The closer the shell is to the nucleus, the
CHEMISTRY lower the energy its electrons have
compared with electrons further away.
Periodic chemistry is the study of the
variation of properties of elements with
atomic number. Periodic chemistry is used
in explaining and predicting chemical Electrons on the shells of an atom.
properties of the elements and their  The electrons in the outermost shell have
compounds. the highest energy. They are called valance
electrons and the shells in which they are
found is called valance shell.
Structure of the atom  Valance electrons are the least attracted to
 An atom has a tiny nucleus made of the protons in the nucleus and hence easily
protons and neutrons. Electrons and lost, gained or shared in bond formation.
empty space surrounds the nucleus and  Valance electrons are therefore
accounts for almost all the volume responsible for the chemical properties
occupied by the atom. of an element.
 In an atom, the number of protons is  The electrons between the nucleus and the
equal to the number electrons, which valance electrons are called the core or
in turn equals to the atomic number inner electrons.
of the atom  Core electrons do not take part in chemical
 Electrons may be thought of as arranged reactions, but play an important role in
in shells. shaping the behaviour of the valance
 An electronic shell is a volume around electrons.
the nucleus where electrons can be
found.
 A shell is also called energy level
because electrons in different shells
have different energies.

Arrangement of electrons in shells

 The shells in atoms can be thought of as
a sphere set around the nucleus. The Fig 6.1 core and valance electrons
electrons can be picture as moving at a
great speed in these shells.
 The number of electrons in each shell The periodic table
depends on the atomic number of the
element. This is a table showing all known elements
 Moving away from the nucleus, the arranged systematically in order of increasing
shells are represented by the capital letter atomic number such that the outer electron
configuration and properties recur at intervals.
K, L, M, etc.
 Each shell can hold a maximum number A set of elements which have the same number
of electrons giving by the formula 2n2. of electrons in their outermost shell are said to
be in the same group. Each group has a
number.

37
The number given to each group is equal to Some main groups of elements
the number of electrons in the outer shell of
Group 1: the Akali metals
the atom. Some of the groups of elements have
common or family names. The group one elements are sodium, Na.
Lithium, Li, potassium, K, rubidium, Rb,
Table 6.1 groups on periodic table
caesium, Cs and Francium, Fr.
Group Common or family Valance
 They have the outermost shell
number name electrons
configuration, ns1. Eg. 3Li = 1s2 2s1
1 Akali metals 1
2 Alkaline earth metals 2  They form compounds by losing their singly
3 - 3 valance electron. Their compound are therefore
4 - 4 ionic.
5 - 5  They exhibit a constant oxidation number of
6 - 6 +1 in all their compounds.
7 Halogens 7  All the elements are very reactive and always
0 Inert gases 8 found combined with other elements.
 They tarnish easily in air by reacting with
water and its other reactive components, eg.
A set of elements which have the same number Oxygen. For this reason, they are stored in
of electron shells and whose atomic numbers paraffin oil which prevent contact with air.
increase by one unit from one atom to the next  They are malleable and good conductor of
is are said to be in the same period heat and electricity.
The number of electrons in the outer shell and  They are soft with lower melting points and
the properties of elements in the same period densities than other metals in the same
occur again (recur) at intervals of increasing period.
atomic number.  They attack colds water with the liberation
of hydrogen gas.
A period can also be represented by a number.
2Na + H2O → 2NaOH + H2
This number is equal to the highest shell number
containing an electron in the electronic  As electron donors, they are powerful
configuration. Sodium is in period 3 because the reducing agents.
highest shell number containing an electron is 3.
ie. Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1.
Group 2: The alkaline earth metals
Element in a group arranged in a vertical column
of the period table. In describing a periodic Group two elements are beryllium, Be,
property within a group, the term” down the magnesium, Mg, calcium, Ca, strontium, Sr,
group” is often used. barium, Ba and radium, Ra.

Elements in a group are arranged in a horizontal  They are less reactive than alkali metals
row with increasing atomic number. In because they have a greater ionization
describing a periodic property with a period, energy.
the term “across the period” is often used.  They have the outermost shell
configuration, ns2. Eg., Be = 1s2 2s2
Periodic law state that the properties of the
element are a periodic function of their  They form ionic compounds by losing the
atomic number. two valance electrons and so has a constant
oxidation state of +2.

38
 They have stronger metallic bonding and so Transition metals
harder than alkali metals.
Transition metals are found between 2 and 3 in
 They have higher melting point and densities the period 4. This transition series exist in other
than alkali metals. periods also. One meaning of the word transition
 Generally, they are good conductors of heat is “crossing”. These elements are placed in the
and electricity middle of the period table across two groups.
 The first transitional series starts from
Group 7: the halogens scandium to zinc with atomic numbers 21 to 30.
Group seven elements are fluorine, F, chlorine, The element are scandium, Sc, titanium, Ti,
Cl, bromine, Br, iodine, I, astatine, At. vanadium, V, chromium, Cr, manganese, Mn,
iron, Fe, cobalt, Co, nikel, Ni, copper, Cu and
 They have outer electronic configuration of zinc, Zn.
ns2np5. Eg. F =1s2 2s2 2p5  They are all metals with metallic properties.
 They all exist as diatomic molecules except  They form coloured compounds.
astatine. Eg. F2, Cl2, Br2, I2.  They form complex ions or compound.
 They are reactive elements which gain one  They are paramagnetic
electron easily to have the oxidation state of -1.  They act as catalyst for many reactions.
They are therefore strongly electronegative.
 As electron acceptors, they behave as
strongly oxidizing agents. The place of hydrogen in the periodic
 Except for fluorine, they all have variable table
oxidation state. Only fluorine exhibit a constant  Hydrogen has one electron in its outermost
oxidation of -1. shell. It can lose this electron as other group
 They are non-metals and insulators 1 elements to form H+ ion with oxidation
number of +1.
Group O: The inert or noble gases It therefore considered as a group 1 metal.
For instance, under high pressure, hydrogen
The noble gases are helium, He, neon, Ne, behaves as a metal conductor.
argon, Ar, krypton, Kr, xenon, Xe and radon,  Moreover, hydrogen can also be considered
Rn. a group 7 element. This is because:
 They are all monoatomic gases. 1. Hydrogen can gain an electron to form the
 Generally, they are chemically unreactive hydride, H- ion with the oxidation number of
or inert because their outermost shell or -1.
orbital is completely filled making them 2. It can also share electrons with other
stable. For this reason, they do not generally elements just as chlorine and bromine will
form compounds with other substances. do in their reactions.
 Helium is used for filling balloons for 3. Hydrogen exist as a diatomic molecule just
weather experiments and airships. There is no as group 7 elements.
risk of explosion when it comes into contact  Hydrogen is usually place in group 1 or on
with oxygen unlike hydrogen. its own in the first period.
 Argon is used to provide an inert atmosphere
for welding and production of some metals.

39
Metals, metalloid (semi-metals) and non- They gain or share electrons to achieve a stable
metals electronic configuration except for group O
elements.
Elements in the period table can be classified as
metals, metalloid (semi-metals) or non-metals Properties of non-metal
Metals  They are insulators and do not conduct
electricity and heat except for carbon in the form
 Metals in their reactions can lose their
of graphite).
outermost shell electrons to form cations and
 They are brittle in the solid state.
achieve an inert gas configuration.
 Metal on the period table include, the alkali
metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, Metalloid
post-transition metals, lanthanides and actinides.
Metalloids or semi-metals have a mixture of
metallic and non-metallic properties. In a
period, they lie between metals and non-metals
Properties of metals lies elements.
 They are good conductor of heat and
electricity.
 They can be stretched into wire (ductile). Physical properties of metalloids.
 They can be beaten into sheets and other  They are usually brittle with shiny surfaces
shapes (malleable). (lustrous).
 They are lustrous.  They are not good conductors but when they
are heated or made slightly impure, they can
Non-metals become excellent conductors of electricity.
 They are good insulators.
Non-metals are usually found at the top right of
the periodic table. They are elements with four Generally metallic properties decrease
or more electrons in their outermost shell. across the periodic table as atomic
number increases.

Try question
Chlorine has two isotopes. The isotopic mass and percentage abundance of the
heavier isotope are 36.98 and 24.95% respectively. Calculate the isotopic mass of the
lighter isotope. [Rel. At. Mass of Cl = 35.5]

40
 Question 1
Consider the following sketch of the periodic table in which the numerals are the atomic
numbers and the letters represent their corresponding elements. [note: the letters are not the
usual symbols of the elements]
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A B C

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
D E
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
F G

i). Which of the lettered element (s) Question 2

a). is an inert gas? State why helium atom does not react with
other elements to form compound.
b). are in the same group?
Answer
c). would be expected to react most violently
with chlorine? This is because helium has a completely filled
valance shells or it has a stable electron
ii). for each of the elements G, C and E, give the
configuration or it obeys the duplet rule.
name of one element which has similar chemical
properties. Question 3
iii). How would you store F? Consider the following pairs of element
iv). Give three characteristics properties of 3Li and 11Na
transition metals
9F and 17Cl
Answer
i). Give the electronic configuration of each
i). a). E b). A and F C). F element
ii) G: Any named transition metal ii). Explain why the elements in each pair have
similar chemical properties.
C: Any named halogen
Answer
E: any inert gas
i). 3Li = 1s2 2s2 2p6
iii). Under liquid paraffin/ oil/ kerosene
11Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
iv).
9F = 1s2 2s2 2p5
 .They form coloured compounds,
 They form complex ions or compound, 17Cl = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
 They are paramagnetic ii).chemical reactions depends on the number of
 They act as catalyst for many reactions valance electrons. With each pair, the number of
 They have variable oxidation state electrons in the outermost shell is the same.

41
Question 4 b). Consider three physical properties of
metals.
a).Consider the following substances: oxygen,
fluorine, neon, sodium, magnesium, aluminium, Answer
sulphur and iodine.
a). i). Magnesium
Which of the substances is/are
ii). Sodium, aluminium, magnesium
i). Alkaline earth metals;
iii). Oxygen, fluorine, neon
ii). Metals;
iv). Sulphur, iodine
iii). Gases at room temperature
b). they are good conductor of heat, good
iv).Non-metals that are solids at room conductor of electricity, have high tensile
temperature. strength, malleable, ductile, lustrous, sonorous,
have high boiling and melting point.

Try questions
Q1. State two reasons why particles must be ionized before being analysed in the mass
spectrometer.
Answer
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q2. The element with the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 belongs to …….block,
……. Period and ……. Group.

Q3. Consider the following electronic configurations:

[He] 2s1 ; [Ar] 5s1 4d3 ; [Ar] 4s1 3d10 4d4

i). In each case, indicate, whether the given configuration describes an atom in the ground
or excited state.
Answer
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

ii).State your reasons in each case.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

42
 7. PERIODIC PROPERTIES
A periodic property is any physical or Shielding or screening effect
chemical property which changes
This refers to the reduced attraction by the
periodically with increasing atomic number.
protons for the outermost electrons caused by
Some of the important periodic properties are:
the core electrons
 Atomic size or radius
 Ionic size
 Ionization energy (I.E) Effective nuclear charge
 Electron affinity (E.A) This is the net positive charge which the
 Electronegativity (EN) outermost electrons feels through attraction by
the positive protons.
Atomic size or radius The main factor in determining the size of
Atomic size is half the internuclear distance atoms or ions is the number of shells. When the
between two identical atoms in covalent bond species have the same number of shells, the
or effect of nuclear attraction is applied.

It is half the internuclear distance between

two atoms in a metallic bond. It is usually Periodic variation
measured in metres but since its value is very
small the unit nanometeter is usually used. 1. Atomic size decreases across the period
from left to right .e. g period II
Li ˃ Be ˃ B ˃ C ˃ N ˃ O ˃ F
Decreasing atomic size
Reason: Across the same period, electrons are
filled into the same shell with corresponding
increase in the number of protons. The screening
effect is caused by the same core electrons and
therefore practically constant.
The increasing number of protons increase the
Fig 7.1 diagram of atomic radius nuclear charge and hence effective nuclear
charge. Outermost shells are therefore pulled
closer to the nucleus reducing atomic size.
The size of an atom depend on how strongly
the protons in the nucleus attracts their
outermost shell electrons. 2. Atomic size increases down a group. e.g.
for the group 1 elements, the order is
Li ˂ Na˂ K˂ Rb˂ Cs
This is attraction is influenced by Increasing atomic size
1. The number of protons (nuclear charge) Reason: Down the group, more shell are added
2. The number of core electrons or shell onto the atom as atomic number increases from
an element to the next.

43
This increases screening effect and reduces the This increases the effective nuclear charge and
effective nuclear charge. Outermost electrons hence outermost electrons are strongly
are therefore less strongly attracted leading to attracted to the nucleus leading to a smaller
increasing size down the group. atomic size across the period.
Question 3
Why inert gases have a higher atomic radius Arrange the following atoms in order of
than elements in the same period increasing size, giving reasons for your order:
The atomic radius of an inert gas is higher than 11Na, 6C, 16S and 4Be.
the elements across the period. For instance, the
Answer
atomic radius of argon is higher than that of
chlorine. 6C, 4Be, 16S, 11Na,

Reason: This is a result of increased repulsion Increasing size

among electrons in the complete outermost shell
of the noble gas which leads to expansion of the C and Be are in the same period (II) with the
atom giving it a bigger size. same number of shell. Na and S are also in the
same period (III) with the same number of
Question 1 shells.
Arrange the following in order of increasing The greater the number of shells, the greater the
size, K, Li and Na. Give reasons for your order. size and so C and Be are smaller in size than Na
and S.
Answer
For atoms in the same period, the greater the
Li < Na < K
number of protons (nuclear charge), the greater
Increasing size the effective nuclear charge and the smaller the
size. S has a greater nuclear charge than Na and
K, Li and Na are in the same group. Down the
C than Be. Hence the order above.
group, screening effects increases as more shells
are added to atoms. This decreases the effective
nuclear charge. Hence outermost electrons are
Ionic radius
not strongly attracted to the nucleus leading to
increasing in size down the group. An ion is formed when a neutral atom gain or
lose electrons. Loss of electrons gives cations
and gain of electrons anions.
Question 2
Arrange the following elements in order of
1. A neutral atom is larger than its
increasing atomic size. Explain your answer.
corresponding cation. E.g. Na ˃ Na+.
Na, Mg, Al, Si
Reason: Cations have fewer electrons to be
Answer attracted by the same number of protons. The
outermost electrons are therefore attracted more
Si ˂ Al ˂ Mg ˂ Na
strongly to nucleus leading to smaller size of
Increasing atomic size cations than its neutral atom.
The elements are in the same period. Across the
period atomic number increases from one
element to the next.

44
Across the same period, ionic radius for  Down the group, anion radius increases due
cations decreases because effective nuclear to increasing shielding or screening effect
charge increases. with decreases effective nuclear charge.
E.g. Na+, Mg2+, Al3+
Decreasing atomic size Note: An anion is bigger than a cation in the
same period

Question 1
Isoelectronic series
Arrange the following ions in increasing order
of size. Give reasons for your answer. It refers to atoms and ions which have the
same electronic configuration. They have the
Li+, K+, Na+ same number of electrons and shells but different
number of protons (nuclear charge) and hence
Answer
different sizes.
Li+, Na+, K+
Usually the ions are isoelectronic to the nearest
Increasing size noble or inert gas configuration.
Size increases down the group as more shells are The atoms form the isoelectronic ions by
being added. This is because, shielding effect gaining or losing electrons to obtain the stable
increases with corresponding decrease in electronic configuration of that of an inert gas.
effective nuclear charge.

Table 7.1 Isoelectronic series

2. An anion has a greater radii than its
corresponding neutral atoms. e.g. Cl- ˃ Cl He Ne Ar
2 2, 8 2, 8, 8
He Ne Ar
Reason: In anions, there are a larger number of
H- F- Cl-
electrons to be attracted by the same number of
protons in the nucleus. This reduces the Li+ O2- S2-
effective nuclear charge and therefore increases Be2+ Na+ P3-
the size.
B3+ Mg2+ K+
Secondly, the added electrons increase repulsion Al3+ Ca2+
among the electrons leading to larger radius for
the anion.

In an isoelectronic series of ions, the ionic

 Across the period, anion radius decreases radius decreases as the atomic number
because of increasing effective nuclear increases.
charge. Eg. Na+, Mg2+, Al3+
e.g. N3- ˃ O2- ˃ F-
Decreasing size
Decreasing size

45
Reason: This is as a result of increasing Answer
effective nuclear charge along the series which 2+ + 2-
20Ca , 19K , 16S
leads to a stronger attraction of the outer shell
electrons towards the nucleus. Increasing size.
Note: cations and anions in the same period are They ions have the same number of electrons
not isoelectronic. Cations alone or anions alone and therefore isoelectronic. The greater the
in a period are isoelectronic. nuclear charge (number of protons) for the same
number of electrons the smaller the size of the
atom.
Question 1
Again, in Cl- and S2-, the excess electron added
Explain briefly why Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+ ions are cause inter-electronic repulsion which leads to
isoelectronic species. the expansion of outer shells. Inter-electronic
repulsion is greater in S2- than in in Cl- and
Answer
hence larger size for S2-.
Na+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6
Mg2+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6
Question 4
3+ 2 2 6
Al = 1s 2s 2p
Arrange the following species in order of
They are isoelectronic species because of the increasing size and explain your order: Na+,
same number of electrons they have. Mg2+, Ne. [atomic number = Ne = 10, Na = 11,
Mg = 12].
Answer
Question 2
Mg2+, Na+, Ne.
The radii of O2-, F-, Na+ and Mg2+ are 0.140 nm,
0,136 nm, 0.095 nm and 0.065 nm respectively. Increasing size.
Explain the trend in the ionic radii of these
They are isoelectronic. Hence the greater the
species.
nuclear charge, the smaller the size.
Answer
Each member of the series has 10 electrons and
Question 5
therefore isoelectronic. The nuclear charge
increase from O2- to Mg2+. The greater the Arrange the following species in order of
nuclear charge for the same number of electron increasing size, and explain your order:
the smaller the size of the ion. 2-
18Ar, 16S , 11Na+, 17Cl- and 3Li+
2- - + 2
O , F , Na and Mg
Answer
Decreasing size
3Li
+
˂ 11Na+ ˂ 18Ar ˂ 17Cl- ˂ 16S2-.
Increasing size
Question 3
Li+ has only one shell, Na+ has two, Ar, Cl- and
Arrange the species below in order of increasing S2- are isoelectronic with three shells each. The
size. Give reasons for your answer. higher the number of shells, the larger size.
2+ 2- +
20Ca , 16S , 19K

46
For the isoelectronic species, the anions S2- and b). State with reasons which of these ions you
Cl- have excess electrons over their protons and would expect to have smaller ionic radius.
so have decreased nuclear attraction relative to
Ar. Lower nuclear attraction means larger size.
Answer
i). Y2+ has lost two electron. Its number of
Question 6
electrons in the neutral state, Y = 18 + 2 = 20.
i).Indicate which sets of the following species
Therefore, the number of protons = 20.
are isoelectronic, and the write the electronic
configurations of the isoelectronic sets: 18Ar, X2- has gained two electrons. Its number of
2- - +
8O , 10Ne, 17Cl and 3Li, 4Be electrons in the neutral state, X = 18 -2 = 16.
ii). Choose one of the isoelectronic set in (i) Therefore, the number of protons = 16
above and deduce whether the species in the set
have the same size or not. Note: in a neutral atom, the number of protons =
no of electrons. Proton number does not change
Answer when an element gains or lose electrons.
(i). The isoelectronic sets are:
(a). 8O2- and 10Ne; (b). 17Cl- and 18Ar; (c). 4Be+ Try question
and 3Li
Question1
(a). 8O2- and 10Ne = 1s2 2s2 2p6
i). Arrange the following species in order of
(b). 17Cl- and 18Ar = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 increasing size and give your reasons: Na+, Al3+
Mg2+, F-
(c). 4Be+ and 3Li = 1s2 2s1
ii). Arrange the following species in order of
(ii). (a). 8O2- and 10Ne, O2- is bigger than Ne. this
increasing size and give your reasons: 20Ca2+,
is because O2- has two excess electrons over its - 2- +
17Cl , 16S , 19K
proton. This makes the nuclear attraction lower
4+
than that of Ne. The lower the nuclear attraction, iii). State which of the ions 14Si , Al3+, 15P
3-
,
the larger the size. Mg2+ has the
(b). 17Cl- and 18Ar, Cl- is bigger than Ar for the a). smallest radius b). Largest radius
same reason as in (a) above.
(c). 4Be+ and 3Li: Li is bigger than Be+. Be+ has
one excess proton over its electrons and so its Ionization energy (I.E)
effective nuclear charge is higher than that of Li. It is the minimum energy required to remove
The greater the effective nuclear charge the one mole of an electron from the outermost shell
smaller the size. of a free or isolated gaseous species (atom or
ion). It has the symbol Ei and is measured in
KJmol-1.
Question 6
When an electrons is strongly attracted to the
The ions Y2+ is isoelectronic with the ion X2-, nucleus, a lot of energy is required to remove it
each having a total of 18 electrons. completely from its shell to an infinite distance.
a). Deduce the number of protons in the nucleus
of each of these ions.

47
 Factors that affect ionization energy Reasons: Down a group, atomic radius
increases as nuclear charge reduces. Therefore,
1. Atomic radius
less energy is required to remove outer shell
2. Stability of electronic configuration electrons.
3. Shielding effect
4. Penetration effect
Why noble gases have very high ionization
Penetration effect energy

An S-orbital is closer to the nucleus than other Noble gases have extremely very high
orbitals (p, d, f, etc.). The attraction on an s- ionization energies due to their stable electronic
orbital electron from the nucleus is stronger than configuration. Higher energies are therefore
electrons in other orbitals. required to remove electrons from their fully
filled outer shells.
Therefore electron in an s-orbital penetrated deep
into the nucleus and requires a lot of energy to
remove them. Generally, atoms with their
Discontinuity in the trend of first I.E across a
valance electrons in the s-orbital have relatively
period
high ionization energy than atoms with valance
electrons in other orbitals. Generally there is an increase in the first I.E of
elements from left to right across a period, there
are some discontinuities in the first I.E. This is
First ionization energy as shown below

The first ionization energy of an element is the Period II: Li ˂ Be ˃B ˂ C ˂ N ˃ O ˂ F ˂ Ne ---

energy required to remove one mole of electrons ----- Discontinuity
from the outermost shells of one mole of free
Li ˂ Be ˂ B ˂ C ˂ N ˂O ˂ F ˂ Ne -------------
gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous --------Expected
singly charged cations. e.g. Na(g) – e- → Na+(g) or
Na(g) → Na+(g) + e- 1st I.E
Period III: Na ˂ Mg ˃ Al ˂ Si ˂ P ˃ S ˂ Cl ˂ Ar
-------- Discontinuity
Periodic variation
Na ˂ Mg ˂ Al ˂ Si ˂ P ˂ S ˂ Cl ˂ Ar -----------
1. Ionisation energy increases generally ---------Expected
across a period from left to right,
e.g. B ˂ C ˂ N. Reasons why Be ˃ B in the first I.E
Reasons: Across the same period, nuclear charge The electronic configuration of 4Be = 1s2 2s2
increases and hence atomic radius decrease. and 5Be = 1s2 2s2 2p1
More energy is required to remove electrons
The greater the nuclear attraction on the
across period and therefore increasing first
valence electrons, the higher the I.E. Electrons
ionization energy generally across the period
to be removed from Be is from a 2s orbital and
2. Ionisation energy decreases down a group. that of B is from 2p orbital. The 2s orbital is
E g. Li ˃ Na ˃ K ˃ Rb ˃ Cs closer to the nucleus and hence experience a
greater attraction than the 2p orbital.

48
Moreover, the 2s orbital is shielded only by the This same reason applies to why P ˃ S in the
1s orbital while the 2p orbital is shielded by the first I.E but in P and S, the electronic
1s and 2s orbital. These factors make the nuclear configurations are: 15P =1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px1 3py1
attraction on an electron in the 2s orbital of Be 3pz1 and S = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py1 3pz1
greater than that of the 2p of B.
Again electrons to be remove from Be is from a
Successive ionization energy
stable electronic configuration and therefore
requires higher amount of energy to be removed The second ionization energy of an element is
as compared that in B which is from an unstable the energy required to remove one mole of
configuration. electrons from one mole of gaseous singly
charged cation.
E. g. Mg(g)+ → Mg2+ + e- 2nd I.E
Reasons why Mg ˃ Al in the first I.E
The electronic configuration of 12Mg = 1s2 2s2
2p6 3s2 and 13Al = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 The third ionization energy is the energy
required to remove one mole of electrons from
Electrons to be removed from Mg is from a 3s
one mole of gaseous doubly charged cation.
orbital and that of Al is from 3p orbital. The 3s
orbital is closer to the nucleus than the 3p e.g. Mg(g)2+ → Mg(g)3+ + e- 3rd I.E
orbital.
Also, the 3p orbital is Al is shield by an extra 3s
orbital. These factors make the nuclear Generally successive ionisation energies
attraction on an electron in the 3s orbital of Mg increase as more electrons are removed
greater than that of the 3p of Al. The greater the from it
nuclear attraction on the valence electrons, the Reasons
higher the I.E.
 When electrons are lost, fewer outer
Moreover, electrons to be remove from Mg is electrons are attracted by the same number of
from a more stable electronic configuration than number of proton in the nucleus.
that of Al. Higher amount of energy is therefore This increased attraction lead to an increased
needed to be removed an electron in B as effective nuclear charge and hence valence
compared to Al.
electrons are strongly held. More energy is
therefore required to remove them from their
ions.
Reasons why N ˃ O in the first I.E
The electronic configuration of 7N = 1s2 2s2 2px1
I.E and Reactivity of metals
2py1 2pz1 and 5O = 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1
Reactivity of metals (group 1, 2, 3 and
Electron to be remove from N is from a stable transition metals) with non – metals increases
half-filled orbital configuration. Hence, a higher with decreasing I.E of the metals. Hence,
amount of energy is required to remove it. Also, reactivity increases down the group and
in O, the last electron added encounters decreases across the period. E.g. of reactivity in
repulsion from the already stable half-filled Group 1: Li ˂ Na ˂ K ˂ Rb ˂ Cs
configuration and this reduces the binding
energy. Hence a small amount of energy is Period 3: Na ˃ Mg ˃ Al
required to remove it.

49
Question 1 Answer
Predict the trend in the first ionisation energies Helium and hydrogen are in the same period.
of the group 1 elements Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs. Helium has a greater nuclear attraction than
Explain the basis of your answer hydrogen. Electron to be removed in helium is
more attracted to the nucleus than in hydrogen.
Answer
Therefore, greater amount of energy is required
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs to remove an electron from helium as compared
to hydrogen.
Decreasing I.E
Reason
Question 4
Atomic sizes increases from Li to Cs and
therefore outermost electrons are not strongly i). Define the term ionization energy?
held by the nucleus. Less energy is therefore
ii).consider the following data
required to remove outer electron down a group.
Atom Li Be B N O
Atomic 3 4 5 6 7
Question 2 number
1st ionization 520 900 800 1,400 1,300
Explain why the first ionization energy of
energy/kjmol-
sodium is lower than that of magnesium but the 1
second ionization energy of magnesium is much
lower than that of sodium.
iii). Write the electronic configuration of
Answer
a). Nitrogen
The first ionisation energy is the energy required
to remove an electron from a free gaseous atom. b). Oxygen
Na and Mg belongs to the same period. Nuclear iv). Explain why the first ionization energy
charge increases across the period. Therefore of
Mg with a higher nuclear charge has a higher
a). Boron is greater than that of lithium
first ionisation energy.
b). Nitrogen is greater than that of oxygen.
The second ionisation energy is the energy
required to remove an electron from a single Answer
positively charge ion.
i), Refer to notes
Na+ has an octet or stable electronic
configuration while Mg+ does not. Therefore ii). a). N = 1s2 2s2 2p5 O = 1s2 2s2 2p6
less energy is required to remove electrons from iii). a).Boron has a higher nuclear charge and
Mg+ as compared to Na+. hence attracts its outermost electrons more
strongly than lithium. Therefore more energy is
required to remove an electron from boron than
Question 3 in lithium.
Explain the following observation: Helium has b). Fully filled and half-filled orbitals are more
higher first ionization energy than hydrogen. stable. 2p of nitrogen are half-filled and hence
higher energy is required to remove electrons.

50
Question 5 Question 7
The element X, Y and Z have the atomic Arrange giving reasons, the following elements
numbers 11, 17 and 19 respectively. in order of increasing first ionisation energy.
i). Write the electronic configuration of each of Element Na Si Ar Rb
the atom of X, Y and Z. Atomic number 11 14 18 37
Answer
ii). Which of the atoms of the elements is likely
to have the highest ionization energy? Explain. Rb, Na, Si, Ar
iii). List the elements which are likely to be in Increasing ionisation energy.
the same group
Ionisation energy increases with increasing
iv). which of the atoms likely ti form an ion with nuclear charge and decreasing atomic size. Na
a single negative charge? and Rb are in the same group and Rb is below
Na. Down a group, atomic size increases and
Answer
nuclear charge decreases. Rb therefore has a
i). X = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 lower I. E than Na.
Y = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 Na, Si and Ar are in the same period. Across a
period, atomic size decreases and nuclear charge
Z =1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
increases. More energy is required to remove
ii). Y electrons from Si than in Na. Atomic size of Ar
is the largest but due to the stable electronic
X and Z are in the same group. Ionization configuration, Ar has the highest I.E.
energy decrease down a group due to
decreasing nuclear charge and increasing size.
Hence X has a higher ionization than Z.
Question 8
However, X and Y are in the same period.
Ionization energy increases across a period as The electronic configuration of a certain
nuclear charge increases and size decreases. Y element is
has a higher nuclear charge than X and hence
1s2 2s2 2px1
has the highest ionization energy.
i). What is the atomic number of the element?
iii). X and Z
ii). Give an appropriate value of the atomic mass
iv). Y. This is because it has a valance electrons
of the element.
of 7. When one electron is added it achieves
octet/ stable configuration and become Y- iii). Explain whether the first I.E will be greater
or less than that of the element of the next higher
atomic number.
Question 6
What is the general relationship between atomic
Answer
size and I.E?
i). Atomic number is 5 because in an atom, the
Answer
number of protons is equal to number of
When atomic size decreases, ionization energy electrons.
decreases and vice versa.

51
ii). In atoms of lower atomic numbers, the Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e- 1st I.E
proton number is half the mass number and
therefore mass number is 10. Atomic mass is
+
approximately equal to mass number = 10. 12Mg : 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 3s1
iii). The next higher atomic number of the other Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e- 2nd I.E
element will be 6. Element with atomic number
5 will have a lower I.E than that of element with
atomic number 6. This is because the added 2+
12Mg : 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2
electrons entered into the same outer shell (i.e
2p) while the number of protons increases. Mg2+(g) → Mg3+(g) + e- 3rd I.E ( after the third
Element with atomic number 6 will have smaller I.E/ third electron has been removed, the
size and greater effective nuclear charge than the electron configuration becomes 1s2 2s2 2px2
other element. Hence, more energy will be 2py2 2pz1).
needed to remove electrons from element with i). In the positively charge ion, Mg+, greater
atomic number 6. amount of energy is required to remove an
electron from it than from the neutral atom Mg.

Question 8 This is because fewer number of electrons are

left in Mg+ ion and hence there is a greater
H atom is isoelectronic with Li2+. Deduce attraction for the outer shell electrons by the
whether the ionization energy for Li2+ would be same number of protons as in Mg atom. This is
smaller or greater than of H? why the second ionization energy is larger than
Answer the first.

Li2+ has 3 protons and H has only 1 proton. The

greater the number of proton, the greater the ii). The third I.E is very much greater than the
nuclear charge and hence the greater the second because the third electron is being
attraction on the outer shell electrons. removed from an inner shell of stable electronic
More energy will be needed to remove an configuration (i.e. 2p orbitals). The remaining
electron from Li2+ than in H. Ionization energy outer shell electrons are also closer to the
of Li2+ is therefore greater than that of H. nucleus and hence higher energy is required to
remove electrons from Mg2+ than in Mg+.
The first IE and second IE are energies used to
Question 9 remove electrons from the same orbital (3s).
Hence removal of the first and second electrons
The first, second and third ionization energies of
does not bring about a drastic changes in
magnesium are 736, 1450 and 7740 kjmol-1
energy.
respectively. Explain why
i). the second ionization energy is larger than the
first Electron Affinity, Eea
ii). the difference between the second and third The first electron affinity is the energy lost or
ionization energies is so much higher than the gained when 1 mole of the gaseous atoms add
difference between the first and second. on 1 mole of electrons to form 1 mole of singly
charged anions.
Answer
12Mg: 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 3s2

52
Electron affinity is the enthalpy change when an Unexpected lower E.A of fluorine.
electron is added to the outermost shell of a free
Fluorine has an unexpected lower E.A in group
gaseous atom to form gaseous singly charged
7. This is as a result of its extremely very small
anion. E.g. Cl(g) + e- → Cl-(g).
size which tends to create a strong repulsive
The symbol for electron affinity is Eea. It is field (electron-electron repulsion) between its
measured in units of KJmol-1. existing electrons and incoming electron. The
electron has to be forced into the outer shell of
Generally, non-metals have a high negative
the atom and this reduces the overall energy
electron affinity whilst metals have positive or
released.
low negative electron affinity.
This indicates that metals can add electrons to their
outer shell only with difficulty. Normally anions of Successive electronegativity
metals are not formed.
Generally electronegative sets have their first
Factors influencing electronic affinity electron affinity as negative. Their second
electronegativity has a positive energy value.
i). Atomic radius or effective nuclear charge.
For example the first and second electron
ii). Stability of electron configuration affinity for oxygen are given as follows:

iii). charge carried by the anion Table 7.3 successive E.A of oxygen
The electron affinity of this process is the sum
of the first and second E.A.
Periodic variation
1. Electron affinity (E.A) decrease down a first E.A O(g) + e- → O-(g), ∆H = -
group. 141kJmol-1
E.g. Li ˃ Na ˃ K ˃ Rb Second E.A O-(g) + e- → O2-(g), ∆H =
Reason: down a group, atomic radius increases +798kJmol-1
with a decrease in effective nuclear charge. Overall O(g) + e- → O2-(g), ∆H =
Hence, incoming electrons are not strongly +657kJmol-1
attracted by the positive nuclear charge and
therefore less energy is released down a group. Reason why the second electron affinity of
oxygen is positive and large.

2. Electron affinity (E.A) increases across a This is because of the negative charge carried
period from left to right. by O-. This creates a very strong repulsive field
E.g. Li ˂ Be ˂ B ˂C ˂ N which repels the second electron being added.
The electron is therefore forced into O- and
Reason: Across the period, atomic size hence, large amount has to be absorbed to do
decreases with corresponding increase in that. Formation of O2- requires large amount of
effective nuclear charge. Hence, incoming energy but the oxide, O2- is stable with an inert
electrons are strongly attracted by the positive gas configuration.
nuclear charge and therefore more energy is
released across the period.

53
Electron affinity of ions ii).a). Increases across the period
1. Cations have a greater E.A than their b). Decreases down the group
neutral atoms. e.g. Na+ ˃ Na
iii). Atomic radius or effective nuclear charge,
Reasons: Cation has greater number of protons Stability of electron configuration, charge
than electrons. This increases its nuclear carried by the anion
attraction and hence it ability to attracts an
electron to neutralise it becomes high compared
to it neutral atom. Moreover, the size of the Question 2
cation is smaller than that of the neutral atom.
Electron affinity increases with decreasing size Arrange the following elements in decreasing
and increasing nuclear attraction. order of electron affinity and explain your
answer. Boron, carbon and neon.
C, Be, Ne
2. Anions have a lower E.A than their neutral
Decreasing E.A
atom. Cl ˃ Cl-
These elements are in the same period. Electron
Reason: In anions, the excess electrons over the
affinity increases across the period due to
protons increases their size and decrease the
increasing nuclear charge and decreasing size.
nuclear attraction than in the neutral atom. E.A
Hence E.A of carbon is greater than B but neon
decreases with increasing size and decreasing
because it is inert or has stable electronic
nuclear attraction.
structure tends to have very low attraction for
Also, the extra electron to be added onto the electrons. Therefore lower E.A for Ne.
anion encounters repulsion from the outer shell
Electronegativity
electrons and hence decreasing the E.A
Electronegativity of an atom is the ability of
an atom to attract or pull electrons to itself
Question 1 when it is in a molecule. An atom of a molecule
which tends to attract more electrons to itself is
i). Define electron affinity?
describe as a more electronegative atom. E.A
ii). How does electron affinity vary has no unit.

a). across the period The main factor that influences

electronegativity is the atomic radius of the
b). down the period atom. Usually the smaller the atomic radius, the
iii) Mention three factors that affect electron higher the electronegativity. When atoms are
affinity bonded to other atoms, their nuclei are nearer
the electrons to attract them. Therefore, the
Answer smaller atomic radius of an atom, the greater the
i).Electron affinity is the energy lost or gained attraction for the bonded electrons.
when 1 mole of the gaseous atoms add on 1 mole
of electrons to form 1 mole of singly charged
anions. OR Periodic variation

Electron affinity is the enthalpy change when an 1. Electronegativity increases across the period
electron is added to the outermost shell of a free
gaseous atom to form gaseous singly charged
anion.

54
 Reason: across the period, effective nuclear ii) Electronegative increases across a period
charge increases and the atomic radius increases. and decreases down the group.
Electronegativity increases with increasing
nuclear attraction and decreasing size.
Question 2
2. Electronegativity decreases down the group.
What is the difference between
Reason: Down the group, atomic radius
electronegativity and electron affinity?
decreases and the ability to attract bonded
electrons is reduced. Answer
Electronegativity Electron affinity
It involves the It involves
Note:
attraction of pair of addition of
 In a bonded molecule, the more electrons in a bond electron to a
electronegative atoms attains a negative gaseous/
oxidation state whiles the less electronegative isolated atom
atoms acquires a positive oxidation state. The It has no unit It has units
most electro negative element is expected to No energy change is Energy change
have the highest ionization energy and highest involved is involved
electron affinity. The opposite is true for the
least electronegative element.
Question 3

 Fluorine is the most electronegative atom a). State the periodic law
and caesium the least. No other atom can attract b). What is meant by the term periodic property
electrons in a bond more than fluorine because of elements?
of it smallest size.
 In the same period, metal have a lower c). List three properties of an element which
electronegative than non-metals due to their shows periodicity.
bigger size. d). Explain briefly how each of the properties
 Noble gases have zero electro negativities due listed in (c) varies across the period.
to their stable electronic configuration.
Moreover, they not have the tendency to form Answer
bond and therefore do not attract the electrons in a). and b). Refer to notes.
them.
c). Atomic size or radius, Ionic size, Ionization
energy (I.E), Electron affinity (E.A),
Question 1 Electronegativity (EN).
i). Define electronegativity. Metallic character and ionization energy
ii). State the trend of electronegativities on the Cations are formed when metals lose electrons.
periodic table When a metal readily lose electrons, the more
metallic it is. Usually, ionization energy
Answer
decreases down the group and the ability of an
i). Electronegativity of an atom is the ability of element to lose electrons to form cation
that atom to attract or pull shared pair or bonded increases.
electrons to itself when it is in a molecule.

55
A good example is seen in group 4, where carbon start at the top of the group as non-metal
followed by silicon and germanium which are semi-metals and then tin and lead which are
metals. Generally, metallic character increases with decrease in ionization energy.
Non-metals tend to gain electron more easily than metals. They are described as
electronegative elements. Usually across the period, ionization energy increases and electron
affinity increases, electronegativity increases and metallic character decreases. The change
from metallic to non-metallic character through silicon, a semi-metal can be seen in period 3.

Try question
Q1. Explain why the first ionization energy of nitrogen is greater than that of oxygen.
Answer
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q2. Arrange the following atoms in order of increasing size. State reasons for your answer.
Be, Ca and Mg.
Answer
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Q3. Explain briefly why the ration of ionic radii Na+ is greater than 1.
Mg2+
Answer
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................

Q4. Arrange Cl, F, I and Br in increasing order of (i) electronegativity (ii) electron affinity
(ii) atomic size.
Answer
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q5. Group (VIII) elements are chemically unreactive because…………………………….

56
 Try questions
1. The major factors that account for the A. 2, 8, 8, 10 B. 2, 18, 8
size of an atom are C. 2, 8, 8, 8, 2 D. 2, 8, 18
A. ionization energy and electron affinity
B. electronegativity and effective nuclear 8. The first ionization energy of magnesium
charge atom is greater than that of sodium atom
C. screening effect and ionization energy because
D. screening effect and nuclear charge A. the atomic size of sodium is smaller
than that of magnesium
14 B. magnesium is much more reactive than
2. How many electrons does the element X
7 sodium
have in its p sub-shell? C. the effective nuclear charge in
A.3 B. 4 C. 7 D. 14 magnesium is greater than that in sodium
D. magnesium has more valence electrons
3. Electron affinity generally decreases down than sodium
a group in the periodic table because the
A. effective nuclear charge decreases 9. Which of the following statements about
down a group orbitals is true?
B. atomic number increases down a group A. They are located in the nucleus
C. shielding effect of the inner shell B. They have the same size
becomes poorer C. They have the same energy
D. elements change from the gaseous state D. They have different shapes
to the solid state
10. How many unpaired electrons are in an
4. How many orbitals contain electrons in an atom of phosphorous? [Atomic number of
atom of an element with atomic number 13? P = 15]
A. 3 B. 5 C. 6 D. 7 A.1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
5. In the periodic table, the size of atoms 11. The number of electrons in the outermost
decreases from left to right because shell of a Group II elements is
A. new shells are encountered A.1 B. 2 C. 3 D.4
B. there is repulsion between the electrons
C. electrons jump from lower energy states 12. Which of the following electronic
to higher energy states configurations is correct for an element
D. the effective nuclear charge increases with atomic number 26?
A. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s1
6. A single frequency in an electromagnetic B. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
spectrum of the excited atom of an element C. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
is split into a cluster of frequencies by an D. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s0
electric field. What do these cluster of
frequencies represent? 13. In which of the following reactions in the
A. Electrons B. Subshells energy change referred to as electron
C. Principals energy levels D. Orbitals affinity?
A. Na(g) – e- Na+(g)
7. The electronic arrangement in the main B. Cl(g) + e-
Cl-(g)
energy levels of an atom with atomic C. NaCl(s) + H2O(l) NaCl(aq)
number 28 is D. H+(aq) + OH-(g) H2O(l)

57
 8. CHEMICAL BONDING
A chemical bond is any force of attraction Ionic bonds are formed from loss and gain of
between two particles (i.e. atoms, molecules electrons. Covalent bond are as a result of
and ions). sharing of electrons and metallic bond are
formed from delocalization of electrons.

Reason for bonds formation

Ionic or Electrovalent bond
 Chemical bonds are formed so that each
of the bonding species achieves a stable An ionic bond is the electrostatic force of
electronic configuration similar to the noble attraction between a positively charged ion
gas structure. (cation) and a negatively charged ion
 This is done by losing and gaining, sharing (anion).
or freeing (delocalize) electrons from the In ionic bond, there is a complete transfer of
electronic configuration. electrons from an electropositive elements to
 A chemical species is more stable when it an electronegative element to achieve a stable
has a duplet (a stable electronic configuration of electronic configuration of the bonded species.
2) or octet structure (a stable electronic
configuration 8) in its outermost shell. Usually metals with low ionization energy tend
to lose electrons to form cations and non-
 Octet rule is the process of achieving a
metals with high electron affinity gains
stale electronic configuration of 2 or 8
electrons to form anions, all to form a stable
electrons in the outer shell.
inert gas electronic configuration.
In ionic bond, cations and anions are attracted
Types of chemical bond
to each other by interionic forces to form a
 Interatomic bonding crystalline ionic compound. The electrovalent
 Intermolecular bonding or ionic forces of attraction exist throughout the
whole compound.

Hϭ+ Hϭ- ----------- Hϭ+ Hϭ-

Condition favouring ionic bond formation
Interatomic bonding i). species losing electrons must have low
Intermolecular bonding ionization energy.
ii). species gaining electrons must high electron
Interatomic bonds (intramolecular bonds) affinity
They are forces that hold atoms together in a iii). High electronegativity difference between
molecule. They are also known as primary the bonded atoms.
bonds. Generally, they are stronger than
intermolecular bonds. There are three main
types of interatomic bonding.
 Ionic or Electrovalent bond
 Covalent bond
 Metallic bond

58
Formation of ionic bond in Sodium chloride
In NaCl, 11Na (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1) transfer its 3s electron to 17Cl (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5) so as to
become Na+ (1s2 2s2 2p6) and Cl- (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6), both achieve the octet state. Na+ and Cl-
are the attracted towards each other by electrostatic force of attraction to become Na+ Cl- (ionic
form) or simply NaCl.

Fig. 8.1 Formation of NaCl

Formation of ionic bond in magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

Magnesium chloride and chlorine react to form magnesium chloride. The electronic
configuration of Mg and Cl are:
12Mg = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 and Cl = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
The magnesium atom loses its two valance electrons to form Mg2+ ions (i.e. 1s2 2s2 2p6) and
two chlorine atoms accepts an electron each to form 2Cl- ion (i.e. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6). Mg2+
and Cl- ions are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force to become MgCl2

Fig 8.2 Formation of MgCl2

59
 Formation of ionic bond in magnesium oxide (MgO)
12Mg = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 and O = 1s2 2s2 2pX2 2py1 2pZ1
Mg loses the two electrons in the valance orbital to form Mg2+(i.e. 1s2 2s2 2p6) and O gains
the two electrons to form O2-(1s2 2s2 2pX2 2py1 2pZ1). The Mg2+and O2- ions are attracted to
each other by a strong electrostatic force to form MgO.

Fig 8.3 Formation of MgO

Examples of ionic compounds: They are The cations and anions are arranged at regular
usually formed between the group I or II metals distances besides each other continuously
(except Be) which have low I.E and the group through the whole solid structure with strong
VII or VI non-metals which have high E.A or forces of attraction between them. For instance,
EN (and high I.E): LiCl, NaBr, KBr, Li2O, there is no single unit of the Na+Cl- ion pair, but
Na2O, MgCl2, CaO, a large number of them. The resultant structure
is a giant network of ions in three dimensions.
Sometimes appositively charged complex ions
(or radicals) can also form ionic bond; e.g.
Na+ CO32-→ Na2 CO3,
Mg2+ SO42- → Mg SO4,
Al23+ (SO42-) → Al2(SO4)3
Note: that in any ionic compound the total
positive and negative charge balance each other.
Fig 8.4 Structure of ionic crystal
Ionic bond model
In the ionic bond model, the ions are considered
to be small, spherical and charge particles The many oppositely charged ions arrange
attracting each other. Electrons are completely themselves in a regular pattern to form a giant
transferred from the outer shell of one atom to network of ions in three dimensions called
the other. lattice.
Structure of ionic compound Crystal lattice is the regular arrangement of ions
in a crystalline substance to give it a geometrical
The simplest building block in ionic compounds structure. The lattice points are the ions.
are ions. They form crystals. Crystals are
solids with plane surfaces arranged at
regular angles to each other.

60
Question 1
Explain briefly the term Importance of lattice enthalpy
i). Lattice  Lattice enthalpy also shows how strongly
the cation and anion are held together in a
ii). Unit cells as applied to solid crystals.
crystal structure.
iii). Draw a diagram of a unit cell of solid NaCl  High L.E values lead to high melting points
and name the arrangement of the ions in the unit for ionic compounds provided the crystal
cell. What is the coordination number of Na+. does not have a large covalent character

Enthalpy changes that favour stable ionic Factors influencing lattice energy
formation 1. Interionic distance (size)
 A low atomization enthalpy of metal and 2. Ionic charge
non-metal, The smaller the interionic distance and the
 A low ionisation enthalpy of the metal bigger the ionic charge (both cation and anion),
 A high electron affinity and lattice energy the stronger the force of attraction and the
favours the formation of an ionic crystals. lattice enthalpy increases.

Reasons why cations of non-metals are not

Down the group
formed
For ions in same group, the lattice enthalpy
A high enthalpy of ionization is high does not
decreases down the group due to increasing
favour ionic bond formation. Large ionization
ionic radius for the same charge.
enthalpies are required to ionize non-metals to
positive ions or break into inert gas structures. i.e. Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+
Hence compounds containing C4+, Na2+ and O2+
Increasing size
cations are not formed, since the enthalpies
needed would be so large and positive that they LiCl, NaCl, KCl, RbCl
could not be balanced by any large lattice
enthalpy and electron affinity. Enthalpy of Decreasing L.E due to increasing size of the
formation becomes positive and the ionic crystal cations.
is not formed. Across the period.
Across the period, ionic radius decreases and
charge increases. This increases the lattice
enthalpy
Lattice enthalpy, ∆Hlatt
NaCl, MgCl2
Lattice enthalpy is the enthalpy change when 1
mole of a crystal structure is formed from its Increasing L.E due to increasing charge and
gaseous ion. Eg. Na+(g) + Cl-(g) → NaCl(s); ∆Hlatt decreasing size of cations.
= -785 KJmol-1  Generally, a high charge density gives a high
It always has a negative value because it lattice enthalpy with respect to cations.
involves attraction of oppositely charged  The charge density is proportional to the
particles form a fixed crystal lattice. charge to radius ratio (q/r).

61
Factors influencing ionic character in a Increase in their lattice energy decreases ionic
compound. character hence decreasing solubility in water
OR lattice energy increases in the order NaCl,
1. Electronegativity difference between the
MgCl2 and AlCl3 as charge density increases in
cation and anion. The higher the the order Na+, Mg2+, Al3+. Hence solubility
electronegativity difference, the greater the ionic decreases in that order.
character.
2. Charges and sizes of the anion. For greater iv). AlCl3. Al3+ with the largest charge density
ionic character, makes AlCl3 to show the greatest covalent
 cation should have bigger size and smaller character. The greater the covalent character
charge the more soluble the compound in non-polar
 Anion smaller size and smaller charge. solvent such ether.

E. g. NaCl is more ionic than MgCl2. This is Properties of ionic compound.

because Na+ has smaller charge and bigger size
than Mg2+ 1. They are crystalline solid at room
temperature with high boiling and meting
NaCl is more ionic than NaI. This is because Cl- point.
has smaller size than I-. Both have the same
charge. Reasons: This is due to the strong electrostatic
force of attraction between the oppositely
charge ions and as such higher amount of
Question 5 energy are needed to breaks the ions apart

i). Define lattice energy

ii). state the two factors that affect the lattice 2. They conduct electricity in the molten or
energy of an ionic compound. aqueous state. They are referred to as
electrolyte when fused or in solution.
iii). Arrange the following compounds in order
of increasing solubility in water: NaCl, MgCl2 Reason: In the solid state, the ions are not free
and AlCl3. Explain your answer. to conduct electricity. In a solution or molten
state the forces of attraction are broken and the
iii). Which of the compounds in (iii) is likely to ions become free to move about.
dissolve in ether?

Answer 3. They are soluble in polar solvents such as

water but insoluble in non-polar substances
i). Lattice energy is the energy require to such as benzene.
separate the ions in one mole of ionic crystal
into its gaseous state OR it is the energy given Reason: water is a polar solvent and tends to
out when one mole of ionic crystals is formed pull the ions in the crystal apart. Again, the
from its gaseous state. hydration energy is equal or greater than the
lattice enthalpy.
ii). ionic radius/size or interionic distance and
ionic charge
iii). AlCl3, MgCl2, NaCl 4. They are brittle and easily gets broken when
small force is applied.
Increasing solubility in water

62
How ionic compounds dissolve in water. Answer
When a polar solvent, water, is added to an ionic i). water and sodium chloride are polar and
compound (e.g. NaCl), ionic respectively. The sodium chloride
particles or ions associate with the polar water
 The partial negative oxygen end is attracted molecules through electrostatic forces. The
and attached to the positive Na+ of opposite process releases energy which overcomes the
charge in the crystal structure. lattice energy of sodium chloride crystals. This
 Partial positive hydrogen ends are also break the crystal down and dissolve it.
attracted and attached to the negative Cl- of
opposite charge in the crystal structure.
 These attractions and attachments eventually ii). wax and paraffin oil are both non-polar.
pull apart the Na+ and Cl- ions to form hydrated Weak van der waal forces exist between their
ions. These are shown as Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions. molecules. The wax molecules are surrounded
 Breaking of the crystal structure needs by the paraffin molecules or interacts through
energy and the hydration of ions releases energy. van der waals forces. The wax molecules are
 If the energy needed to break the crystal therefore dispersed in paraffin oil.
structure is less than the energy released when
the ions are hydrated, the ionic substance
dissolves. Covalent bonding
 On the other hand a far higher energy needed
A covalent bond is the sharing of electron
to break a crystal structure than energy of pair (between two atoms) donated by the
hydration does not favour dissolution of the two atoms to give rise to a stable, inert gas
ionic crystal. configuration of the bonded species.

Why ion compounds does not dissolve in non-

polar solvents Factors favouring covalent bond formation
are:
 Non-polar solvents do not have polar sites on
them to get attracted strongly to ions in their 1. High E.A of the atoms bonding
crystal structure as with water. 2. High I.E of the atoms bonding
 If they get attracted at all the hydration 3. Low difference in electronegativity between
enthalpy would be so small compared with the the two bonded atoms.
lattice enthalpy that the dissolution process
would not be favoured. How covalent molecules are formed
 Ethanol dissolves some ionic substances  A covalent bond can be formed between
because of its polar nature. atoms of the same non-metal, O2, H2, N2 or
 Some other ionic substance may dissolve in atoms of different non-metals, HCl, H2O,
organic non-polar solvents because of having NH3, CH4, C2H6. Some covalent structures
some covalent character in them. form extended network, e.g. SiO2.

 Covalently bonded substances usually exist

Question 2 as molecules and are sometimes called
Explain briefly what will happen when molecular substance.

i). Sodium chloride dissolve in water

ii). Wax dissolve in paraffin oil.

63
 Representation of covalent bonds
A pair of electron shared between two atoms is represented by an electron dot (i.e. the Lewis
electron dot method).
It can also be represented by electron cross diagram or by a dash (-). One, two or three dashes
indicate single, double or triple bonds respectively.

Fig 8.5 Lewis structure shows only the valance electrons of an atom or ion
Valence electrons which are usually donated and Coordinative or Dative Covalent bonding
shared to form a covalent bond are called
A dative covalent bond is formed between two
bonding electron.
atoms in which one atom alone donates the pair
Those which are not shared but help in giving of electrons to be shared between the two
the atoms their octet of configuration are called atoms. Species with co-ordinate bonds show
non-bonding electrons. covalent bond properties. Examples are
A pair of electrons on an atom which is not H
shared is called a lone pair. Lone pair of
H N: + H+ → NH4+
electrons can be used for bonding. They also
play an important part in influencing the shape H
of covalent molecules. E.g. water and ammonia
molecules have lone pairs of non-bonding
electrons. :
O: + H+ → H3O+
H H
64
 H H Polar covalent Bonds
H N: + B H → H3N:BF3 A polar covalent bond is formed when there
is in unequal sharing of electron pair
H H
between two atoms. It occurs as a result of
electronegativity differences between the two
atoms sharing the electron pair. The more
Conditions favouring formation of dative electronegative atoms pull the shared pair of
covalent bond. electrons more to itself and brings about
a. One species must have a lone pair unequal distribution of charge. The more
b. The other species must have an empty atomic electronegative atom attains a slightly negative
orbital charge whiles the less electronegative has a
slightly positive charge.
These covalent bond are said to show some
Table 8. 2 Differences between covalent and ionic character. Example in H –Cl, the bond is
Dative covalent bond the more electronegative atom. Other examples
are HF, CO, NH3, etc.
Covalent bond Dative covalent bond
Each contributes Only one species or Hϭ+ Clϭ- ----------- Hϭ+ Clϭ-
an electron for atom contributes the
sharing pair of electrons for Dipole - dipole interaction
sharing Table 8.3 differences between covalent
Each of the One atom or species bond and polar covalent bond
bonding atoms must have a lone Covalent bond Polar covalent bond
must have an pair of electrons
unpaired electron whiles the other
bonding atoms must It involves the Involves unequal
have empty atomic sharing of sharing of an
orbitals. electron pair electron pair
equally between between two
the two bonding bonding atoms.
Pure Covalent Bonds atoms
A covalent bond between two atoms of the Bonding atoms Bonding atoms have
same element may be described as pure have the same or differences in
covalent bond. The two atoms have the same similar electronegativity.
electronegativity and attract the shared electrons electronegativity
equally. Hence, there is no separation of
charges. The intermolecular force in these
molecules is induce dipole- induce dipole
Question 1
interaction (weak Van der waal forces). [Link].
are Cl2, F2, N2, H2. i). With the aid of a diagram, show how
ammonia molecules are formed.
Hϭ+ Hϭ- ----------- Hϭ+ Hϭ-
ii). illustrate with a diagram the formation of
Induce dipole- induce dipole interaction
ammonium ion.
iii). What type of bond(s) exists in
a). Ammonia b). Ammonium [Na = 7, H = 1].

65
 Answer C – O and C - N
C – F and C – O
ii). Which bond in each pair is more polar?
iii). Arrange the bond in increasing order of
polarity
Answer
C – N is more polar than C – H. Reason: N is
more electronegative than H.
C – O is more polar than C – N. Reason: O is
iii). a). Ammonia – covalent bond
more electronegative than N
b). Ammonium – co-ordinate, dative bond.
C – F is more polar than C – O. Reason: F is
more electronegative than O
Polarity of a bond NB: N, O, F
Increasing strength of electronegativity due to decreasing size and
Polarization in covalent bond is the pulling or
increasing effective nuclear charge.
shifting of bonding electrons or shared pair
of electrons towards the more electronegative
iii). C – H, C – N, C – O, C – F
atom.
Increasing order of polarity
 The polarity of a bond depends on the
electronegativity difference of the two atoms.
 For example, hydrogen fluoride is more
Electronegativity and bond types
polar and has more ionic character than
hydrogen chloride. The electronegativity The principle involved are
difference between H and F is greater than H and
1. If the difference in EN between the bonding
Cl.
atoms is very small (almost negligible, say 0 to
 The bigger the electronegativity difference
0.9) then a pure non-polar covalent compound
between two atoms, the more ionic the bond
is formed
between them.
2. If the EN difference is quite large (say, 0.9
 Electronegativity difference can be used as a to 1.6) then a polar covalent compound is
means to estimate ionic or covalent character in formed
a bond. 3. If the EN difference is very large (say, above
 In molecules with more than two atoms, 1.7) then an ionic compound will be formed.
both the shape of the molecule and the
electronegativity difference of the polarity of the
individual bonds affect the polarity of the Question 3
molecule as a unit.
The following table shows the
electronegativity of element Q, R and S.
Question 2 Element Electronegativity
Q 3.4
Consider the following pairs of bond:
R 3.0
C - N and C - H S 1.6

66
i).Stat which pair of elements would most likely The greater the electronegativity difference
form the greater the ionic character. Therefore
the order is CsF, GeCl4, PH3
a). ionic bond b). Polar covalent bond c). Non-
Decreasing ionic character
polar covalent bond
ii). Give reasons for your answer in each case. General properties of covalent substances
Answer 1. They are volatile with low melting and
boiling point.
i). a). SQ- ionic b). SR – polar covalent
Reason: This because of the weak
c). QR or R2 or Q2 –Non-polar covalent
intermolecular Van der Waals forces which
ii). a). Large electronegativity difference operate between the covalent molecules.
between Q and S Though covalent bonds in molecules are strong
b). the electronegativity difference between S but the force between the simple molecules
and R is not marked or large enough to make it which are weak and can be easily broken.
ionic, hence polar NB: Volatile substance easily change into the
c). The electronegativity difference is zero or vapour state
negligible.

Only the covalent compounds with giant

Question 4 network structures have very strong
interatomic covalent bonds and need high
Under the table of electro negativities given temperature to melt and boil, e.g. graphite,
below, arrange the following compounds in diamond and silicon.
decreasing order of ionic character and give
reasons for the order
PH3, GeCl4, CsF Some exist as simple molecules, e.g. H2, O2,
H2O, CO2, CCl4, and CH4. These simple
Atom Electronegativity molecular forms exist mainly as gases or liquid
P 2.1 because of the weak intermolecular force of
H 2.1 attraction between them
Cl 3.0
F 4.0 The simple covalent molecules which exist as
Cs 0.7 solids, e.g. naphthalene and camphor, are
usually soft because of the weak intermolecular
Ge 1.8
forces.

compound Electronegativity
differences 2. They do not conduct electricity
PH3 P–H
2.1 – 2.1 = 0 Reasons: covalent molecules are made up of
molecules as unit. The molecules are not
GeCl4 Ge – Cl
charged as ions in ionic substance. They,
3.0 – 1.8 = 1.2
therefore do not conduct electricity. Graphite is
CsF Cs – F
an exception.
4.0 – 0.7 = 3.3

67
3. They dissolve in non-polar solvents but do not Across the period
dissolve in polar solvent such as water.
Polarization increases across the period
Reasons: Their solubility in organic solvents is because of increasing charge and decreasing
due to the same weak forces between the size of the cation. Hence covalent character
covalent molecules and those of the organic increases across the period leading to low
solvents. The similar strength of the melting point, low solubility in water and high
intermolecular force allows the solute molecules solubility in organic solvents.
to replace the solvent particles. In the process
NaCl, Mg Cl2, AlCl3
mixing occurs and the solute dissolves. Energy
used to separate the solute covalent molecules
bound by weak force is smaller than energy of
solvation. Down the period
Polarizability decreases down the group due to
Energy of solvation is the energy released
increasing size. Example, Sodium chloride is
when solute particles are attached to the
more ionic than lithium chloride because of the
solvent molecules.
smaller ionic radius of Li+ which polarizes the
Cl- ion more introduce greater covalent
character.
Covalent character in ionic
The distortion or deformation of electron
arrangement in an ion of opposite charge is Metallic Bonding
known as ion polarization
The metallic bond is formed by electrostatic
Polarization introduces covalent bond attraction between the delocalized electrons
properties into ionic bonds. Some of the and fixed positive metal ions.
covalent properties polarization can induce are
low melting and solubility in organic solvents Metal contain atoms which are held together by
metallic bonding. In the metallic bonding, the
valance electrons are delocalised. The electrons
spread throughout the whole structure and hold
The ability of cation to polarize an anion is
the positive metal ions together.
called its polarizing power and the ability of an
anion to get polarized is called its Delocalised electrons can also be called
polarizability. mobile electrons or sea of electrons.

Polarization in ionic bonds increases by the

following factors
1. Small cation radius with high ionic charge
2. Large anion radius with high ionic charge
The cation usually polarizes the anion. Cations
are of smaller size and hold their electrons more
strongly than anions. Anions have large size by
gain of electrons and their electrons are less Fig 8.6 metallic bonding
strongly held by the nucleus.

68
The strength of the metallic bond depends on  They have high tensile strength and
therefore used for bridges.
 The atomic radius
 They are lustrous.
 The number of valence electrons
delocalized. Metals are good conductors of heat and
electricity. This is a result of free or
For instance, Iron has eight valance electrons
delocalised electrons).
and with a small atomic radius. It is far harder
than potassium which is in the same period but
has one valence electron and bigger atomic
Question 1
radius.
Suggest reasons to explain why mg has a higher
As metallic bond strength increases, hardness
melting point than Na.
increases and melting point also increases.
Answer
Delocalised valence electrons of Mg is 2 while
Down the group
that of Na is 1. Mg has smaller atomic size than
Metallic bond strength decrease down the group Na. hence smaller size and more valance
and hardness therefore decreases, with electrons in Mg contribute to stronger
decreasing melting point. This is due to attraction of valance electrons by fixed positive
increasing atomic size. This results in reduced nuclei leading to higher binding energy. Mg
attraction for the valence electrons by the fixed therefore has stronger metallic bond and hence
positive nuclei. more heat is required to melt than Na

Across the period Question 2

Metallic bond increases across the period due Element M and N with electronic configuration
increasing number of valance electrons and of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 and 1s2 2s2 2p1
decreasing size increase. Thus magnesium is respectively, combine to form a compound
harder than sodium and aluminium is harder
i). state the type of bond formed between M and
than magnesium. Their melting points also
N.
increases accordingly.
ii). Write the formula of the compound.
iii). Identify the compound
Properties of metals
iv). Give three physical properties of the
 Metals are good conductors of heat and
compound.
therefore used for cooking utensils
 Metals are good conductors of electricity Answer
therefore they can be used for electric cables.
i). covalent bond
 They have a high melting point and hence
used for furnaces or cooking utensil or hot ii). MN2
plates. iii). SO2 OR Sulphur (IV) oxide
 They are malleable and therefore can be
worked into different shapes iv). Gas, colourless, soluble in water, has
 They are ductile and hence can be drawn into irritating smell, heavier than air
wire

69
Question 3 Question 5
Arrange the following in increasing covalency. Consider the following pairs of elements:
Give reasons for the order. BCl3, NCl3, BeCl2.
(Na, O) and (Al, Cl) (Al , F), (O, F), (P, H)
Answer
i). Which of the above pairs of elements form
BeCl2, BCl3, NCl3, ionic bonds?
Increasing order of covalency ii). Which of the remaining pairs form the least
polar covalent bonds.
The smaller the electronegativity difference
between the bonded atoms the more covalent the Answer
compound. The closer together the atoms of the
i).Ionic bonds: (Na, O), (Al, F). NB: (Al, Cl)
elements on the periodic table which are
forms covalent bond.
bonding the lower the electronegativity
difference. The central atoms Be, B and N are in ii). Least polar covalent bonds: (P, H), (O, F).
the same period and are closer to Cl in the same This is due low differences in electronegativity
order given. Therefore electronegativity
difference decreases in the order
Be – Cl, B – Cl, N – Cl Question 6
Decreasing electronegativity difference and hence increasing Sodium combines with chlorine to form
covalency in the order shown above. sodium chloride crystals.
i). Draw the electronic structure of sodium ion
and chlorine ion.
Question 4
ii). explain briefly why the sodium chloride
i). Describe briefly how each of the following formed
bond types are formed
a). does not conduct electricity
a). Dative bond
b). has a very high melting point
b). Metallic bond
ii). State the type of bond in each of the
following substances Answer

a). H2(g) b). Na(s) c). NaH(s) i).

Answer
i). a). Dative bond is formed between two atoms
where by one atom donates the shared pair of
electrons.
b). Metallic bond consist of fixed positively
charged metallic core or ions surrounded by
large number of delocalized mobile electrons
ii) a). H2(g) – Covalent bond
b). Na(s) – Metallic bond
c). NaH(s) – ionic bond or electrovalent bond.

70
ii). a). NaCl(s) does not conduct electricity Question 8
because the sodium and chlorine ions are held
a). Describe the nature and formation of the
strongly together in fixed positions by
bonding in NaCl.
electrostatic or electrovalent forces such that
there are no free or mobile ions to conduct b). Explain briefly how the bonds in HCl and
electricity Cl2 are formed.
b). NaCl(s) has a high melting point due to the c). Give two differences in the properties of
very strong electrostatic force (or ionic bond) NaCl(s) and Cl(g). [atomic number: H = 1, Cl =
between sodium and chloride ions, such that a 17].
very high energy is required to break the ionic
bonds.
Answer

Question 7 a). NaCl shows ionic bonding. Na of low I.E

loses an electron from the outermost shell (3s1)
i). Use the electron dots diagram to show the to become a cation and thereby attains an octet
bonding in structure. The Cl atom of high electron affinity
gains the electron on to its 3p5 orbital to form a
a). carbon (iv) oxide
singly charged anion. The two oppositely
b). Water charged ions are attracted to each other by ionic
forces to form the ionic bond.
ii). State the shape of each of the above species.
iii). Explain the difference between a covalent
bond and a dative/ coordinative covalent bond. b). i). Cl2: the bonding is covalent. Atomic
orbital of the two chlorine atoms each
Answer
containing an unpaired electron overlap and
them share the pair of electrons.

HCl: has polar covalent bond: atomic orbitals

of H overlap with those of Cl. The pair of
bonding electrons are shared between the two
atoms but is attracted more to the Cl. This sis
i). because Cl is more electronegative than H. this
ii). CO2 – Linear is therefore results in partial positive and
negative charges on the atom H : Cl
H2O – bent/ V- shaped (or non-linear/ angular)
iii).
Question 9
Covalent bond Dative bond
The two atom Only one of the i). Explain the term polarization as used in
contributes one bonding atoms covalent bonding.
electron each for provides the two ii). State one characteristic of an atom that can
the shared pair electrons in the induce polarization in covalent bonds.
shared pair.
iii). What is the effect of polarization on the
covalent bond formed between atoms?

71
Answer
i). Polarization is the shifting of bonding ii). The higher the electronegativity value of the
electrons towards the more electronegative halogen the greater the polar character of the
atom. hydrogen halide. Fluorine has the highest
electronegative value and iodine has the least
ii). Higher electronegativity
value.
iii). It introduces ionic character in the bond.
Question 12
Question 10
Identify the type of chemical bonding that exist
Consider each of the following substance in their in CuSO4.5H2O.
solid states:
Answer
Zinc, Diamond, Neon, Water, Sodiun chloride
i). ionic/electrovalent bond between Cu2+ and
Select from the list above: SO42-

i). A solid in which the atoms are covalently ii). Co-ordinate covalent / Dative bond between
bonded in a network. CuSO4 and H2O

ii). A solid which is a good conductor of iii). covalent bond between oxygen and sulphur
electricity on SO4

iii). A solid which is a poor electrical conductor

but conducts on melting
Question 13
Answer
For each of the substances Na(s), H2(s), NaH(s)
i). Diamond ii). Zinc iii). Sodium chloride and NH4Cl(s) State:

Question 10 i). the type of solid it is (i.e. molecular, ionic or

metallic)
Consider the following compounds: HF, HCl,
HBr, HI ii) The species which occupy the lattice points.
iii). The name of the intermolecular forces
holding the units together.
Question 11
Answer
i). Arrange the compounds in increasing order of
polar character i). Na, Metallic, Na+ surrounded by mobile
electrons, Metallic bond
ii). Explain your answer.
ii). H2(s), Molecular, H2 molecules, Weak van
Answer der Waals forces
i). HI ˂ HBr ˂ HCl ˂ HI iii). NaH(s), Ionic, Na+ and H- ions, Ionic forces
iv). NH4Cl(s), Ionic, NH4+ and Cl- ions, Ionic
forces.

72
9. INTERMOLECULAR BONDS
These are bonds that holds two or more How hydrogen bond is formed
molecules together. They are said to be
In the formation of hydrogen bond, the
secondary bonds. They include
electronegative atom pulls the shared pair of
 Electrostatic or electrovalent forces or electrons more onto itself than the hydrogen
bonds, and acquires a partial negative charge and the
 Covalent bonds hydrogen, a partial positive charge. The lone
 Hydrogen bonds pair of electrons from the electronegative
 Van der Waal’s forces (i.e. dipole-dipole atoms forms a weak bond with the partial
forces and induce dipole-induce dipole forces). positively charged hydrogen atom of the next
molecule.
Hϭ+ Hϭ+

Hydrogen bond Hϭ+ Nϭ-: ------ Hϭ+ Nϭ- Hϭ+

Hydrogen bond is a weak electrostatic force Hϭ+ Hϭ+

of attraction between a hydrogen atom Hydrogen bonding
attached to a very small but highly
electronegative atom in one molecule of a
compound and a lone-pair of electrons of a Hϭ+ Fϭ- ----------- Hϭ+ Fϭ-
highly electronegative atom of a small size in
another molecule. Hydrogen bonding

The highly electronegative elements should Hϭ+ Fϭ- ----------- Hϭ+ Oϭ-
have very small size and should have one or Hydrogen bonding H ϭ+
more lone pairs of electrons. [Link]. Fluorine F,
oxygen O, and nitrogen, N.
N, O, F Hϭ+ Oϭ- ----------- Hϭ+ Oϭ-

Increasing electronegativity due to decreasing Hϭ Hϭ+

size and increasing effective nuclear charge Hydrogen bonding

S and Cl though are highly electronegative, do Question 1

not form hydrogen bonding due to their larger
size. Thus H2S and HCl strictly have dipole- Explain why H2O boils at 100◦c whiles H2S
dipole interactions and not hydrogen bonding. boils at -58◦c.

Common compounds with H-bonds are: glucose Answer

(C6H12O6), NH3, HF, H2O, protein, etc. H2O is more polar than H2S due to higher
electronegativity of oxygen than sulphur. H-
bonding is in H2O and dipole-dipole interaction
are in H2S.

73
H-bond is greater than dipole-dipole forces Reason why hydrogen bond is stronger
hence higher boiling point in H2O than in H2S. than Van der Waal’s forces
Question 2 When two polarized molecules are attracted
towards each other, the negatively charged part
b). State, giving reasons whether the following
of one will attract the positively charged part of
statement is true or false. Of the two hydrogen
the other. Because hydrogen atom is small
bonds represented by broken lines, the former
compared to other atoms, it can approach other
is stronger the latter.
molecules more closely and produce a stronger
N – H------- F , O-H-------F force of attraction between it and the molecule.

Answer
The statement is false. Reason why hydrogen bond requires a
highly electronegative atom
H-bond in the O-H-------F is greater since O is
more electronegative and has smaller size than Hydrogen atom is not easy polarized. Its one
nitrogen. There is greater polarization in the O- electron is close to the nucleus and there is no
H bond than in the N-H bond. The greater the shielding electrons to reduce the effects of the
polarization the stronger the H-bond. proton. Hence effective polarization can only
be induced by the most electronegative
elements. Hydrogen will form these bonds with
fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen and less strongly
with chlorine and sulphur.
Factors which influence the strength of
hydrogen bond.
 The extent of polarization of the hydrogen Effect of hydrogen bond.
within the covalent bond. Powerful Effects of hydrogen bond include
electronegative element leads to stronger
polarization. E.g. oxygen is more  High boiling points
electronegative and has a smaller size than  Heat of vaporization and fusion
nitrogen, there is greater polarization in O-H  High solubility in water for polar
bond in H2O than N-H bond in NH3. Therefore substances.
H=bond in H2O > H-bond in NH3.
This is the reason why NH3, H2O and HF
 Lone pairs of electrons on the other atom
exhibit these properties to a higher degree than
which can point towards the nearby molecule
the other elements in the same group which
then a stronger bond results.
form binary compounds
 The angle between the three atoms
involved. The bond is strongest when the angle
is 180◦. When the angle is less than 140◦, true
Group 5 Group 6 Group 7
hydrogen bonding is not possible.
NH3 H2O HF
PH3 H2S HCl
AsH3 H2Se HBr
SbH3 H2Te HI
Decreasing strength of intermolecular
forces down the group.

74
Question 3 Van der Waal’s forces are in two forms
Arrange the following hydrogen halides in order a). Dipole-dipole
of increasing boiling points. Explain your order:
b). Induce dipole-dipole force.
HCl, HBr, and HF.
Answer
HBr, HCl, HF Dipole-dipole interaction

Increasing boiling points. Dipole forces are weak electrostatic forces of

attraction between the partially charged
HF is a hydrogen bond. HCl and HBr have negative end of one permanent dipole and the
dipole-dipole forces but dipole-dipole force in positive end of another nearby dipole.
HCl > HBr due to smaller size and greater
electronegativity in Cl and Br. H-bond > dipole-
dipole. The greater the intermolecular force the How dipole-dipole forces are formed
higher the boiling point
When a polar molecule is brought near
another polar molecule, the two attract each
Reason why the boiling point of H2O is other by weak electrostatic forces called
greater than that of HF. dipole-dipole interaction.

Both HF and H2O have H-bonds. Though H- Hϭ+ Clϭ- ----- Hϭ+ Fϭ- ----Hϭ+ Clϭ-
bond in HF is expected to be greater than that of
H2O (due to smaller size and greater
electronegativity of F than O); oxygen in H2O Dipole-dipole interaction
with lone pairs of electrons, forms two H-bond
per molecule while F in HF though has three
lone pairs of electrons but due to only one They are the main intermolecular force that
hydrogen atom in HF forms only one H-bond. exist between polar covalent molecules that
do not associate through hydrogen bonding.
Water molecules are therefore joined together in For example HCl, HBr, HI, CO, H2S, NO2,
an extensive three-dimensional network of CH3COCH3, CHCl3.
bonds in which each oxygen atom is
approximately tetrahedrally bonded to 4 H atom These interaction between polar molecules
in which 2 bonds are covalent and the other 2 are may result in raised melting and boiling
H-bonds. point in compounds.

This makes the forces holding the H2O

molecules together stronger than in liquid HF. Why polar molecules dissolve in water
The stronger the intermolecular forces in water
give higher boiling points to water. Many polar molecules dissolve in water due
to dipole-dipole attraction to the hydrogen
Van der Waal’s forces bonds in H2O, enthalpy of hydration greater
Van der Waal’s forces are weak electrostatic than dipole-dipole forces and hence the
forces binding all polar and non-polar dissolution of the polar substance.
molecules together in covalent molecules.

75
Induce dipole- induce dipole forces Other non-polar molecules
Induced – dipole is a weak electrostatic force of Methane, CH4, Tetrachloromethane, CCl4,
attraction between temporary created partially Carbon (IV) oxide, CO2, Carbon (IV) sulphide,
positive charge in one instantaneous dipole and CS2, Naphthalene or camphor, all
the temporary created negative end of another hydrocarbons e.g. petrol, benzene, plastics e.g.
induced dipole. This occurs between non-polar polyethene, Teflon
covalent molecules.

Factors influencing the strength of Van

Van der Waals forces between non-polar der Waals forces.
molecules or atoms are as the result of the force
 The size of the molecule.
of attraction between oppositely charged
induced dipoles. The bigger the size of the molecule, the greater the
number of electrons and hence the easier it is to
They are also called dispersion forces. Induce-
polarize or induce a strong dipole. Also the bigger
dipole- Induce-dipole forces are weaker than
dipole-dipole forces. masses are more difficult to separate from each
other and therefore the stronger the van der Waals
forces.
How induce dipole forces are formed NB: the size of the molecule is sometimes given in
terms of relative molecular mass, molar mass,
It is caused by temporary fluctuation in electron
number of electrons per molecule or atomic size of
density in a molecule. Electron in single atom or
the elements in the molecules.
molecules are always in continuous motion even
when shared in covalent molecules. The electron Cl2, Br2, I2
arrangement or distribution at any one instance
Increasing strength of Van der Waals force due to
will not be uniform.
increasing size of molecules.

This creates a temporary dipole. This temporary

dipole can induce a dipole in a nearby atom or  The polarity of the molecule.
molecule. Thus the atoms on their own are non-
polar but any one instant they can induce dipoles The greater the electronegativity difference
on each other. This results in their attraction to between the two atoms in a molecule the more
each other. polar the molecule and the greater the strength of
the van der Waals forces.
Clϭ+ Clϭ- ----- Clϭ+ Clϭ----- Clϭ+ Clϭ-
Induce dipole- induce dipole interaction
Question 4
a).Arrange the halogens Cl2, Br2 and I2 in order of
Monoatomic elements increasing strength of Van der Waals force.
Noble gases e.g. Ne, Ar, Kr Explain your order.

Diatomic molecules Answer

O2, N2, H2, I2, F2, Cl2, Br2 Cl2, Br2 and I2
Increasing strength of van der Waals forces

76
Strength of van der Waal’s forces depends on iii. Heat of vaporization
the molecular mass or the size of the atoms iv. Solubility in H2O
bonding. The greater the molecular mass or the v. Physical state of substances
larger the size of the atoms bonding the greater
the strength of van der Waal’s forces.
Question 1
Describe in each case, the nature of the
Summary force holding together molecules of
methane, ammonia and water at room
Giant interlocking covalent network ˃ionic or
temperature and on the basis of the
electrostatic forces ˃ H-bond > dipole- dipole
intermolecular forces, arrange the
forces > Induce dipole- induce dipole forces
compounds in order of decreasing enthalpy
1. Hydrogen bond of vaporization.

i. strength depends on the electronegativity of Answer

the atom attached to H.
Methane, CH4: The molecules are linked to
ii. The greater the electronegativity of the each other by weak van der Waal’s forces. It
element attached to H the greater the occurs as a result of instantaneous dipole-
polarisation of the bond and hence the stronger induce dipole interaction which occurs
the H-bond. between the non-polar methane molecules. The
force is the weakest of the intermolecular
iii. H-bond in H2O > NH3 forces.

2. Dipole-dipole Ammonia and water: molecules are linked by

i. strength depends on the electronegativity H-bond. This bond occurs when there is an
difference between the bonding atoms. electrostatic force of attraction between a
hydrogen atom attached to a highly
ii. dipole-dipole forces in HCl > that of HI electronegative atom in one molecule of a
compound and a lone pair of an electronegative
atom in another nearby molecule. The greater
3. Weak Van der Waals forces the electronegativity of the atom attached to H
i. strength depends on size, molecular mass or the stronger the H-bond. Oxygen with smaller
number of electrons size is more electronegative than N. Hence H-
bond in H2O > NH3.
ii. The bigger the size or the larger the molecular
mass the stronger the van der Waals forces
iii. Van der Waals forces in I2 > than that of Cl2. H-bond > weak Van der Waal’s force. The
greater the strength of the intermolecular force,
the greater the enthalpy of vaporisation of the
Application of the forces given compound.

The forces are used to explain the following CH4 > NH3 > H2O
trend Increasing strength of the intermolecular
i. Boiling and meting point forces.
ii. Freezing point

77
 Hence, H2O, NH3, CH4 , The greater the intermolecular force the higher
the boiling point
Decrease enthalpy of vaporization
CO2, CS2, NaH,
Question 2
Increasing intermolecular forces of
Explain briefly why CH3COOH has a higher
attraction
boiling point than its isomer HCOCH3.
Answer
Question 4
The force holding CH3COOH molecules are
dipole-dipole interaction or van der Waals Compound Relative Boiling
forces and hydrogen bonding whiles the force molecular point /K
holding HCOCH3 molecule together are dipole- mass
dipole interaction or van der Waals forces only. H2O 18 373
Hydrogen bonding is stronger than dipole- H2S 34 213
dipole interactions. Hence stronger H2Se 81 232
intermolecular forces in CH3COOH leads to H2Te 130 271
higher boiling point.

Question 3 Explain the trend in boiling point of the

compounds in the table above.
Arrange each of the following sets of
compounds in order of increasing boiling points Answer
and account for the order:
Generally boiling point increases with
i). CH4, H2O and H2S increasing molecular mass. Oxygen is more
electronegative than S, Se and Te. H-bond in
ii). NaH, CS2 and CO2
water is stronger, hence the higher boiling
Answer point.

i). CH4, H2S, H2O

Increasing boiling points Question 5

CH4 is weak van der Waals forces. H2S is Name the kind of bond or attractive forces
dipole-dipole forces. H2O is H-bond .H-bond > which has to be overcome to melt the solid
dipole-dipole > weak Vander Waals force. The form of each of the compounds.
greater the intermolecular forces the higher the
i). CO2 ii) SiO2 iii) KCl
boiling point.
Indicate in each how the forces arises or how
they are formed.
ii). CO2, CS2, NaH,
Answer
Increasing boiling point
CO2: weak van der Waals forces. It occurs as a
CO2 has weak van der Waals force .CS2 has result of instantaneous or induced dipole-
stronger van der Waals forces due to larger size induced dipole interaction.
.NaH has ionic forces.

78
SiO2: giant network of covalent bonds in three Glucose molecules are solvated by water
dimensions. In this network of covalent bonds, molecules through H-bond association
orbitals of Si and O overlap and a pair of between the – OH of the glucose and water.
electrons are shared between them. Each Si is The enthalpy of hydration released
bonded to four O atoms to form the three overcomes the hydrogen bonds of the
dimensional network structure. glucose hence the dissolution of the glucose
in water.
KCl: ionic forces. It occurs as a result of
electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions of K+ and Cl- respectively
For silica, its bond energy is greater than
hydration energy. This is due to the giant
network of covalent bonds both within and
Question 6
between the silica molecules which are very
a) Draw structures to illustrate the various strong and requires greater amount of
types of hydrogen bonds that can be formed energy to break. (SiO2) therefore does not
between molecules of (CH3)2NH and CH3OH dissolve in water.
b) Give two examples of the effects of
hydrogen bond on the properties of organic
compounds. Question 7
c) Both glucose and silica (SiO2) are covalent
State whether each of the following statement
compounds but one dissolves in water whereas
is true or false. If it is false, give your reasons
the other does not. Explain
and cite an example which does not agree with
the statement.
Answer
a. All substance with high melting points are
ϭ+ ϭ-
a). (CH3)2N – H ------ O − CH3 ionic.
b. Boiling points always increase with
H
molecular mass
(CH3)2 − Nϭ- ---- Hϭ+ − OCH3 c. Van der Waals forces exist between all
molecules.
H
d. Hydrogen bonding exists in all compounds
containing hydrogen.
b).
 Organic compounds with H-bonds have Answer
higher melting and boiling points. i). False
 They also have higher solubility in water
than those which do not show H-bond but Reason: Aside from ionic compounds,
have similar molecular mass. substances with high intermolecular H-bond
 Higher enthalpy of vaporisation and giant network of covalent bonds also have
high melting points.
c). Glucose dissolves in water but SiO2 does not.
Glucose and water are both polar. H-bond exist ii). False
in both water and glucose molecules. Reason: Boiling points of molecules depends
mainly on the strength of the intermolecular
forces and not directly on molecular mass

79
iii) True iv) NH4+ Cl- ions are held together by ionic
forces.
iv). False
Reason: H-bond exist only in covalent
compound and it occur when H is directly b) i). NaH and NH4Cl are ionic and water is
attached to a very high electronegative atom also polar. There is an electrostatic force of
with small size such as F, O and N. e.g CH4 has attraction between the polar NaH/ NH4Cl
no H-bond because the electronegativity particles and water molecules.
difference between C and H is insignificant.
The hydration energy released is greater than
the lattice energy of NaH or the NH4Cl and
hence they dissolve.
Question 8.
NaH(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
For each of the following: NaH, H2, H2S, NH4Cl
NH4Cl + H2O → NH4+(aq) Cl-(aq)
a). describe the nature of the intermolecular
forces holding the units or molecules together in The NH4+ also hydrolyses in water to produces
condensed (liquid or solid) state. NH3 which is a weak base
b). explain what happens when a sample of the NH4++ H2O → NH3 + H2O
substance is added to water. Give equations of
the reactions occurring or any equilibra
established. ii). H2 is non-polar and water is polar and
hence not soluble in H2O
Answer
i). NaH: ionic or electrostatic forces hold NaH
unit together iii). H2S: it dissolves or dissociate partially in
water due to dipole-dipole interaction with
Na+ − H- ---- Na+ − H-
H2O
Ionic or electrostatic forces
Sϭ- Hϭ+
Hϭ+ Hϭ+ ------------ Oϭ-
ii). H2: molecules are held together by weak van
Hϭ+
der Waals forces. it arises as a result of
interaction between instantaneous dipole created H2S + H2O → HS- + H3O
in one H2 molecules and a similar dipole induced
in another nearby H2 molecules
Hϭ+ Hϭ- ----- Hϭ+ Hϭ- Question 9

Induce dipole – induce dipole interaction i). What type of bond broken on melting each
of the following substances.
a). MF2 b). CO2 c). SiO2 d). Fe(s)
iii). H2S: molecules are held together by dipole-
dipole interaction. S is more electronegative ii). CO2 and SiO2 are oxide of group (VI)
than H and therefore H-S bond is a dipole. Since element. CO2 is a gas whereas SiO2 is a solid.
H2S is non-linear, the 2 H-S dipole do not cancel Explain
out and hence H2S is polar.

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 HYBRIDIZATION AND BONDING
HYBRIDIZATION 2s and 2px orbitals mix after excitation to form
two hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy and
Hybridization is the mixing of different atomic
orbitals of the same atom of different energies shape. The hybrid orbitals are separated by an
and shape to form new orbitals of equivalent angle of 180o.
energy and shape. An atom mixes its different
orbitals to form similar orbitals or hybrid orbitals
before forming covalent bonds with other atoms.

Hybridization occurs only in covalent bonds but

not in all covalent molecules. Mostly, it is the
central atom that mixes some or all of its
2. Sp2 hybrid orbitals are formed by mixing
outermost orbitals to form new orbitals (hybrid
orbitals) which are used for overlap during one s-orbital and two p-orbitals of the same
covalent bond formation. The new orbitals created atom to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals of
tend to be of lower energy than the original equivalent energy and shape. Molecules with
orbitals. Hybridization therefore increases the sp2 hybridization of the central atom has
stability of the covalent molecule formed. trigonal planar or triangular shape. The bond
angle between any two sp2 orbitals is 120o.

The hybrid orbitals cannot be distinguish from Example is seen in B in its BX2 compounds
each other in shape, location and energy. They (where X= hydrogen or halogen).
have lower energy than the highest energy of the
Ground state configuration of 5B = 1s2 2s2 px1
original orbitals. The name of the hybrid orbital
Excited state configuration of 5B =1s2 2s1 2px1
comes from the names of the orbitals that
combine together to form it. The number of py1
atomic orbitals mixed is equal to the number of
hybridized orbitals.
Types of hybrid orbitals
[Link] hybrid orbitals are formed from mixing one
s-orbital and one p-orbital to form two hybrid
orbitals of equivalent energy and shape. The
bond angle between sp orbitals is 180o. The
shape is linear.

Example is seen in Be in its BeX2 compounds 2s, 2px and 2py orbitals mix after excitation to
(where X= hydrogen or halogen). form three hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy
Ground state configuration of 4Be = 1s2 2s2 and shape. The hybrid orbitals are separated by
Excited state configuration of 4Be = 1s2 2s1 2px1 an angle of 120o.

81
3. Sp3 hybrid orbitals are formed by mixing Excited state configuration of 16S 1s2 2s2 2p6
one s-orbital and three p-orbitals of the same 3s1 3px1 3py1 3pz13d11 3d21
atom to form four hybrid orbitals of Electrons are excited from the 3s and 3px orbitals
equivalent energy and shape. The bond angle into the 3d1 and 3d2 orbitals respectively
is 109.5o. Under normal circumstances they
have a tetrahedral shape. Orbitals with n = 3 are mix after excitation to
form six hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy and
Example is seen in C in its CX4 compounds shape.
(where X= hydrogen or halogen). Since d orbitals are used in addition to s and p
Ground state configuration of 6C 1s2 2s2 2px1 orbitals to form an expanded octet, it illustrates
2py1 an example of valence-shell expansion. This
Excited state configuration; 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 type of hybridization enable S atom to have 12
2pz1 electrons or six bonds around itself which
violates the normal octet rule.
2s, 2px 2py and 2pz orbitals mix after Other types of hybrid orbitals are: Sp2d which is
excitation to form four hybrid orbitals of square planer in shape and Sp3d which is
equivalent energy and shape. The hybrid trigonal bipyrimidal.
orbitals are separated by an angle of 109.5o.

Question 1
a). Explain the term hybridization.

b). what effect does hybridization have on

bonds?

Answer
a). Hybridization is the mixing up of different
atomic orbitals of different energies and
shape of a particular atom to form new
orbitals of equivalent energy and shape.
4. Sp3d2 hybrid orbitals are formed by mixing b). Taking 6C as an example,
one s-orbital, three p-orbitals and two d-
orbitals to form six hybrid orbitals of Ground state: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
equivalent energy and shape. Molecules with Excited state: 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Sp3d2 hybridization of the central atom has
In carbon, 3 different hybrid orbitals can be
octahedral shape.
formed.

Example is seen in S in its SX6 compounds 1. Sp hybrid orbitals can be formed from mixing
(where X= halogen). up 2s1 and 2px1. This enable carbon to form triple
Ground state configuration of 16S 1s2 2s2 2p6 bond as seen in ethyene
3s2 3px2 3py1 3pz1
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2. sp2 hybrid orbitals can be formed from mixing 1s1 of H + 1s1 of H
up 2s1 2px1 and 2py1. This enable carbon to
● ●
form double bond as seen in ethene
3. sp3 hybrid orbitals from mixing up 2s1 2pz1 2py1
1s + 1s
and 2pz1. This enable carbon to form single bond
as seen in alkane Atomic orbitals molecular orbital
of 2H atoms of H2 molecule

Question
The shape of the molecular orbital depends on the
a). Distinguish between sigma and pi bonds type of electron orbitals that overlap. The two
b). i). Write the electronic configuration for 6C common ones are the σ molecular orbitals (sigma
(σ) bond) and π molecular orbitals (pi (π) bond)
ii). How many types of hybrid orbitals exist in 6C
iii). What is the shape and a bond angle of a sp
hybrid orbital? Sigma (σ) bond
It is formed by the head-on, linear (or collinear)
Answer
or axial overlap of atomic orbitals. The orbitals
a). refer to notes overlap along their internuclear line which is
usually an imaginary one. A sigma bond can be
b).i). 1s2 2s2 2p2 formed through the following ways

ii). three types of hybrid orbital (sp, sp2, sp3)

i). Two s-orbitals
iii). shape: linear bond angle: 180°.
+ → ● ●

S S s – s σ-bond
COVALENT BONDING
ii). an s-orbital and a p-orbital
A covalent bond is formed as a result of two atoms + →
sharing an electron pair. In the process of sharing
electrons, two atomic orbitals carrying each S p s-p σ-bond
unpaired electron, overlap to form a single iii). Two –p orbitals
covalent bond.
+ →
An orbital overlap is used to describe parts of
atomic orbitals of two atoms that occupy the P p p-p σ-bond
same space. This overlap results in the formation
of a molecular orbital.
Pi bond
Molecular orbital is formed as a result of the
overlap of two atomic orbitals each containing an This is formed from lateral or sideways
unpaired electron. It results in the formation of overlap of p-orbitals. They have nodal
covalent bond. planes. A pi bond holds the two atoms

83
 together by forming charge electron cloud Usually, it consists of one σ bond and one pi bond.
alongside the two nuclei. During chemical reaction, the weak π bond is the
first bond to be broken before the strong σ bond.

+ →
Triple bond is made up of three bonds between
two atoms arising from the sharing of three
NB: σ-bond is stronger than π bond because the electron pair. One is σ bond and two are π bonds.
degree of overlap in forming the sigma bond is
higher than that of the pi bond.
Examples are

Table 9.1 differences between σ and pi-bond Ethene (H2C ═ CH2 or C2H4)

Sigma bond Pi bond The two carbon atom are all sp2 hybridized.

Formed by linear/ head- Formed by lateral/ Ground state: 6C: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0
on or linear overlap of sideways overlap Excited state 6C: 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
atomic orbitals of p-orbitals. (Hybrid orbitals)
Electronic configuration of 1H = 1s
Bonds are stronger Bonds are weaker

Less reactive More reactive

There is free rotation No free rotation

about the bond about the bond
The bond electrons are The bond
After excitation, the 2s, 2px and 2py orbitals mix
localized electrons are
up to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals with bond
delocalized
angles of 120°. The unhybridized 2pz orbital lies
perpendicular to the plane of the hybridized C
atom.
Multiple bonds
In forming ethene:
A single covalent bond is a molecular orbitals
which is formed as a result of sharing of electron
pair between two overlapping atomic orbitals.
Single covalent bond has one σ bond only.
When more than one electron pair are shared
between two atoms to form molecular orbitals,
that bond is termed as multiple bond. i) Two sp2 orbitals from each carbon atom are
used to overlap head-on with 1s-orbitals of
Double bond is made up of two bonds arising two hydrogen atoms to form two sp2–s, C - H
from the sharing of two electron pairs. sigma bonds.

84
ii). The other sp2 hybrid orbital on carbon atom After excitation, the 2s and 2px orbitals mix up to
overlaps axially or head- on with the other sp2 form two sp hybrid orbitals with bond angles of
hybrid orbital of the adjacent carbon atom to 180°. The unhybridized 2py and 2pz orbital lies
form sp2-sp2, C-C sigma bond. perpendicular to the plane of the hybridized C
atom. The shape is linear due to absence of lone
iii). The unhybridized pz orbitals of each of the pairs of electrons
carbon atom also overlap side ways to give
pz- pz, C-C pi bond.

Propene, C3H6

i) Each carbon atom uses one of the two sp

hybrid orbitals to overlap with 1s orbitals of
hydrogen form one sp-s, C-H sigma bond.
H
ii) The other sp hybrid orbitals are used by the
H3C1 – C2 ═ C3 two carbon atoms in a head-on overlap to form
sp-sp, C- C sigma bond.
H H iii) The unhybridized 2py and 2pz orbitals of one
carbon atom overlap laterally with the same
C1 = sp3 hybridized
type of orbitals of the adjacent carbon atom to
C2 and C3 are sp2 hybridized form two 𝜋-bonds (i.e. py – py, C-C and py –
py, C-C pi bonds).

Ethyne (H – C ≡ C –H or C2H2)

The two carbon atoms are sp hybridized. Propyne (H3C − C ≡ C –H or C3 H4)

Ground state: 6C: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0

Excited state 6C: 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1 H
(Hybrid orbitals)
Electronic configuration of 1H = 1s H3 C1 – C2 ═ C3 H

C1 = sp2 hybridized

C2 and C3 are sp hybridized

85
 I ii). the shape of CO2 is linear.

Nitrogen gas (:N ≡ :N or N2)

The N atoms are sp hybridized.

7N = 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1

(Sp Hybrid orbitals)
2s2 and 2px2 orbitals mixes up to form two sp
Carbon (IV) Oxide, CO2 hybrid orbitals. One of them are occupied by lone
pairs. The unhybridized 2py and 2pz orbital lies
Carbon atom is sp hybridized. i.e.
perpendicular to the plane of the hybridized N
Excited state 6C: 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1 atom.
(Hybrid orbitals)
The unhybridized 2pz orbital lies perpendicular to
the plane of the hybridized C atom.

The oxygen atom is sp2 hybridized

8O = 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1

(sp2 Hybrid orbitals)
2s2 2px2 2py1 orbitals mixes up to form three sp2 In forming nitrogen gas, the overlaps are
hybrid orbitals. Two of them are occupied by lone
i). sp-sp head-on overlap to give one N-N
pairs. The unhybridized 2pz orbital lies
sigma bond
perpendicular to the plane of the hybridized O
atom. ii). py-py N-N pi bond and pZ-pZ N-N pi
bond.

iii). the shape is linear.

Hydrogen cyanide (H−C≡N: or HCN)

C and N are both sp hybridized. Hence, the

molecule is linear in shape.
i). Carbon uses the two sp orbitals to form two sp- Question 1
sp2, C-O Sigma bonds with the oxygen atoms.
a) Draw a complete structural formula for the
ii). the other overlaps are py – pz, C –O pi bond compound CH3CCCH2CN.
and pz – pz, C –O pi b) Indicate the type of hybridization in each
carbon atom in the compound.

86
c) For each carbon atom in the compound, state C5⇒ linear with bond angle of 180o.
the geometry of the hybridized orbitals.

Answer COVALENCY AND BONDING

a) H H Covalency refers the number of covalent bonds
H C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 N an atom of an element forms. It is equal to the
number of unpaired electrons in the outermost
H H
shell of the atom.
The electrons in the outermost shells of an atom
which take part in the bonding are called Bonding
a) C1 ⇒sp3 C4 ⇒ sp3
electrons and the remaining outermost electrons
C2 ⇒ sp C5 ⇒ sp
are referred to as non-bonding electrons.
C3 ⇒ sp NB: N is sp
hybridized. Electron pairs in the outermost shell which are
not involved in bonding are lone pairs of
b) C1 ⇒tetrahedral with bond angle of 109.5o electrons. Lone pairs of electrons affect the
C2 ⇒ linear with bond angle of 180o shape of many molecules.
C3 ⇒ Linear with bond angle of 180o
C4⇒ tetrahedral with bond angle of 109.5o

Element Atomic Electronic configuration Number Covalancy

number of
(z) unpaired
electrons
H 1 1s1 1 1

Be 4 1s2 2s2 0 2

B 5 1s2 2s2 2px1 1 3

C 6 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2 4

N 7 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1 3 3

O 8 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1 2 2

Cl 17 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py1 3pz1 1 1

Elements like carbon, beryllium and carbon have their covalancies different from their number of
unpaired electrons. This is because in chemical reactions electrons can be promoted from one
orbital to another. However not just any electron is promoted.

87
Bond Angles Therefore, CX4 compounds are tetraherally
shaped.
It is the internal angle of intersection between two
lines drawn through the nucleus of a central atom Other molecules with tetrahedral shape are CCl4,
from the nuclei of two atoms bonded to it. CH3Cl, NH4+, CHCl3, CH2Cl2, SO42, SiX4
(halogen or hydrogen). They have a bond angle
of 109.5o.
Bond angles depend on
i). The type of hybrid orbitals used in bonding
In NX3 compounds (where X= halogen or
ii). The number of orbitals occupied by electron hydrogen) e.g. NH3, the central N atom has sp3
pairs in the valance shell of the central atom. E.g. hybridization but the molecules are not
orbitals with pair of electrons tend to repel each tetrahedrally shaped and hence the bond angle is
other and the bond angle expected may change. not 109.5o. The ground state electronic
This changes the expected shape of the molecule. configuration of N is:
7N = 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
(Sp3 Hybrid orbitals)
The degree of repulsion increases in this order:
Bond pair–bond pair ˂ lone pair – bond pair ˂
Lone-pair- lone pair.

Example,
In CX4 compounds e.g CH4, the central C atom
form four equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals with no
lone pair electron in any of the hybrid orbitals.
Ground state: 6C: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0
Excited state 6C: 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
(Hybrid orbitals)

Deviation from the tetrahedral shape is a result of

one of the hybrid orbitals of N occupied by a lone
pair of electrons. The lone pair of electrons repel
the bonding pair electrons in order to occupy a
larger space and therefore causes the bonding
pairs to come closer together with a bond angle
of 107o. The shape is therefore trigonal planer.

There is equal or negligible repulsion Other molecules with trigonal planer and bond
between the hybrid orbitals and so the angle of 107o is NF3, NCl3, PH3, PF3, PCl3, and
tetrahedral bond angle 109.5o is maintained. H3O+.

88
Also, in H2O, the central oxygen atom is sp3 Methane molecule tetrahedral in shape with H-C-
hybridized with two of its hybrid orbitals occupied H bond angle being 109.5o.
by lone pair electrons.
The ground state electronic configuration of O is:
8O = 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1 Formation of water H2O
(sp3 Hybrid orbitals)
Ground state of: 8O = 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1

(4 sp3 hybrid)
Electronic configuration of 1H = 1s
Oxygen atom mixes all its outermost orbitals to
form four sp3 hybrid orbitals. The two unpaired
electrons of the sp3 hybrid orbitals overlap head-
on with 1s orbitals of two hydrogen atoms to
form two sp3-s, O-H σ-bonds.

The sp3 hybridized oxygen is expected to have a

The two lone pair electrons repel themselves and tetrahedral shape with bond angle 109.5o but it is
also the bonding pair electrons. Hence, the not so. It has a BENT or V- shape with bond
expected tetrahedral bond angle reduces to 104.5o
angle of 104o 5. This is as a result of repulsion
and water therefore has a bent, angular or V-
between the two lone pairs of electrons in the two
shape.
non-bonding sp3 hybrid orbitals of oxygen and
Other molecules with angular shape are H2S, OF2, also between those lone pair and the bonding
Cl2O, SO2, SCl2 (that is BX2 where B = oxygen or pair.
sulphur, and X is the bonding atom).

Examples of Covalent Bond Formation Formation of ammonia, NH3

Formation of methane, CH4 Ground state of: 7N = 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Ground state of 6C:1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 (4 sp3 hybrid)
Excited state of 6C: 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1 Electronic configuration of 1H = 1s
(4 sp3 hybrid)
Nitrogen atom mixes all its outermost orbitals to
Electronic configuration of 1H = 1s form four sp3 hybrid orbitals. The three unpaired
Carbon atom mixes all its outermost orbitals in electrons of the sp3 hybrid orbitals overlap head-
methane molecule to form four sp3 hybrid orbitals. on with 1s orbitals of three hydrogen atoms to
All the four sp3 hybrid orbitals of C overlap head- form three sp3-s, N -H σ-bonds.
on with the 1 s orbitals of four hydrogen atoms to
N is sp3 hybridized and the shape of NH3 is
form four sp3-s, C-H σ-bonds.
expected to be tetrahedral but it is not.

89
The bond angle between H-N-H is therefore 107o
instead of 109o. This is as a result of repulsion
between the lone pair electrons in one of the sp3
hybridize orbital and the bonding pair electrons.
The shape of ammonia is therefore trigonal
pyramidal

Formation of HCl molecule Beryllium Chloride, BeCl2

HCl has polar covalent bond. The 1s orbital of H Ground state of 4Be = 1s2 2s2
overlaps with 3p, orbital of Cl each containing an
Excited state of 4Be =1s2 2s1 2px1
unpaired electron to form the covalent bond. The
pair of bonding electrons which are shared (2 sp hybrid orbitals)
between H and Cl is attracted mote to the Cl. This
is because the Cl is more electronegative than H.
This results in partial positive charge on the H and Electronic configuration of 17Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
partial negative charge on the Cl 3px2 3py2 3pz1

Hծ- ------ Clծ-

Boron trichloride, BCl3 Beryllium atom mixes all its outermost orbitals
after excitation to form two sp hybrid orbitals
Ground state of 5B = 1s2 2s2 2px1 Be is sp hybridized. The two sp hybrid orbitals
Excited state of 5B = 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 of Be overlap with 3pz orbitals of two chlorine
atoms to form two sp-p, Be -Cl σ-bonds. The
(3 sp2 hybrid orbitals) shape therefore linear with a bond angle of
Electronic configuration of 17Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 180o.
3px2 3py2 3pz1
Boron atom mixes all its outermost orbitals after Note: After excitation Boron has an empty 2pz
excitation to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals. The orbital and beryllium an empty 2py 2pz. An
three hybrid orbitals each containing one electron electron pair (i.e. lone pair) can be donated into
overlap head-on with the 3pz orbitals of three these empty orbitals. This is the reason why
chlorine atoms each containing an unpaired BeX2 and BX3 compounds can form co-
electron to form three sp2 – p, B-Cl σ-bonds. The ordinate or dative covalent compounds or are
shape is trigonal planar or triangular with an bond classified as Lewis acids.
angle of 120o

90
 A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor (to form Si forms 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals. All the orbitals are
co-ordinate covalent bond) has an empty orbital to used to form giant network of covalent tetrahedral
accept the electrons. structure with 4 oxygen atoms.
Chlorine molecule, Cl2
Formation of SiO2 molecules
The 3pz atomic orbital of the two Cl atoms each
Ground state of 14Si = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px1 3py1
containing an unpaired electron overlap head- on
to form pz – pz, Cl - Cl sigma bond.
Excited state = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 3px1 3py1 3pz1
The electronic configuration of 17Cl is: 1s2 2s2
(4 sp3 hybrid orbitals) 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py2 3pz1

Table 9.2
Molecule Central Type of hybridization Shape Bond angle
atom of central atom
CO2 C SP Linear 180o
BeCl2 Be SP Linear 180o
C2H2 C SP Linear 1800
HCN C C⇒SP N⇒SP Linear 1800
N2 N SP Linear 1800
BCl3 B SP2 Trigonal planar 120o
C2H4 C SP2 Trigonal planar 120o
CH4 C SP3 Tetrahedral 109.5o
NH3 N SP3 Trigonal 107o
pyramidal
H2O O SP3 Bent or V-shape 104.5o`
PCl3 P SP3 Trigonal 107o
pyramidal
SiO2 Si SP3 Tetrahedral 109.5o
SF6 S SP3d2 Octahedral -

Question 2 to the repulsion between the lone pairs in the

hybrid orbitals and between the lone pairs
Explain why CO2 is a linear molecule but
and bonding pairs.
H2O is not.
CO2 is linear because the central atom carbon is
Answer
sp hybridized. Two sp hybrid orbitals of carbon
Water is not linear because the central atom overlaps head-on with the two oxygen atoms to
oxygen is sp3 hybridized. Oxygen molecule form two σ bonds. The remaining 2py and 2pz
is expected to be tetrahedrally shaped with a orbitals of carbon each containing an unpaired
bond angle of 109.5o but it has a V or bent electron overlaps laterally to form 2 π bonds with
shape with a bond angle of 104.5o. This is due the two oxygen atoms.

91
Due to absence of lone pairs of electrons on the N is therefore left with one lone pair in the non-
carbon, the shape of CO2 is linear. bonding sp3 hybrid orbitals.

Question 3
iii). Ground state of: 8O = 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1
CH4, NH3 and H2O are all described as having
four electron pair linked to their central atoms. (4 sp3 hybrid)
Yet, the respective bond angles are found to be as O in H2O uses of two of the four sp3 hybrid
follows:
orbitals to form two σ bonds with two H atoms.
Bond Bond angle O is therefore left with two lone pairs of electrons
in two non-bonding sp3 hybrid orbitals.
H-C-H 109O
H-N-H 107o
H-O-H 105o Lone pairs in the non-bonding sp3 orbitals of N
and O in NH3 and H2O respectively repel the
Account for the differences in the bond angles.
bonded pairs in the molecules so as occupy much
Answer space. Degree of repulsion depends upon the
Bond angle is determined by type of hybridization number of lone pairs. Greater repulsion decreases
shown by the central atom in a given compound bond angles.
as well as the number of lone pairs of electrons in Hence, two lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen
hybrid orbitals. will repel the bonding pair in water more strongly
as compared to one lone pair on the nitrogen in
The central atoms C, N and O of CH4, NH3 and
NH3. Stronger repulsion in H2O leads to smaller
H2O are all sp3 hybridized and hence the expected
bond angle than in NH3. CH4 with no lone pair
shape is tetrahedral with a bond angle of 109o. therefore has the largest bond angle of 109o.
i). Ground state of 6C = 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1

Excited state of 6C =1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1 Question 4

C in CH4 uses all the four sp3 hybrid orbitals to a) Give the type of hybridization shown by the
form 4 σ bonds with 4 H atoms. Carbon is central atoms in the following compounds:
therefore left with no lone pair of electrons. It NH3, H2O, BCl3.
shows the expected shape of tetrahedral with bond b) Deduce the shapes of the molecules.
angle of 109o.
Answer
2
ii). Ground state of: 7N = 1s 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz 1
a). NH3; N is sp3 hybridized
(4 sp3 hybrid) H2O; O is sp3 hybridized
N in NH3 uses three of the four sp3 hybrid orbitals BCl3; B is sp2 hybridized
to bond with three H atoms.

92
b). i). NH3: One of the sp3 orbitals has a lone pair The molecule is symmetrical due to equal
not used in bonding. This lone pair repels the attraction of electron pair by the nucleus of each
bonding pair and therefore the shape is trigonal atom. The equal attraction is due to equal
pyramidal. electronegativity of the identical atoms. There is
therefore no distortion of the molecular structure.

A symmetrical molecule formed can be divided

into two identical halves by a line. Symmetrical
molecules are non-polar.

ii). H2O: Two of the sp3 orbitals have two lone Molecular orbitals formed by two atoms of
pairs not used in bonding. The lone pairs repels different electronegativites (e.g. H and Cl) are
themselves and also the bonding pairs and hence unsymmetrical. This is due to the unequal
the shape of H2O is bent or Vshaped. attraction of electron pairs towards the nucleus of
the more electronegative element.

The highly electronegative element therefore

become slightly negative and the other slightly
positive. These charges together make up a
dipole. Molecules with net dipoles are polar. This
iii). BCl3: The molecule is trigonal planar or results in distortion of the molecular orbital.
triangular.
Dipole moment indicates the degree of ionic
character of a compound. The more polar a
compound is the greater its degree of ionic
character.

Determining the Dipole moments of some

Dipole moments
molecules.
It is the product of the charge difference and
the distance separating the charge difference 1).Diatomic molecules containing atoms of the
and the distance separating the charges. Units same element (e.g. N2, O2, H2, Cl2) are non-polar
= Debye, D. and have zero dipole moments. Non-polar
molecules are linked to each other by weak van
Dipole moment in covalent molecule is
der Waals forces or induced dipole-induced
represented by a cross-base arrow. The arrow
dipole force.
points to the more electronegative atom (. ).
2). Compounds with a general molecular
When atomic orbitals of two similar atoms (e.g.
formula, MX such as H-F, H-Cl, N=O, C=O are
Cl-Cl) overlap in covalent bonding, a symmetrical all polar and have a net dipole moment. [M is the
molecular orbital is formed. central atom and X is the bonded atom(s)]

93
Reason: This is due to the electronegativity Reason: they are unsymmetrical and so the
difference between the two bonded atoms. individual bond polarities do not cancel out.
Hծ- ------ Clծ- Cծ- ═ Oծ-

3). Compounds with a general molecular formula,

MX2 which have a linear shape such as CO2, 5). Compounds with a general molecular
BeCl2, BeH2 (i.e BeX2 compounds) are not polar formula MX4 Compounds such as CH4, CBr4,
(thus they have a zero dipole moment) CF4 are non-polar
Reason: This is because the individual bonds, Reason: They are symmetrical tetrahedral
though polar, move in opposite directions and compounds and so their individual bond
cancel each other as they are symmetrical. polarities cancel out
However, if any of the X atom is changed, for
example CH3Cl, CH2Cl2, CHCl3 are slightly
polar molecules.
Again, those with bent/angular shapes such as Reason: the bond cease to be similar and so
H2O, H2S, NO2, SO2, OF2, Cl2O are polar. Thus the individual bond polarities do not cancel
they have a dipole moment. out.
Reason: They are unsymmetrical and so the
individual bond polarities do not cancel out.
Note: For a molecule made up of three or
more atoms, the factors that determine
whether there is a net dipole moment or not
are
 polarity of the bonds
 molecular geometry ( shape)
4). Compounds with a general molecular formula,
MX3 with trigonal planer shape such as BCl3, BH3
(i.e BX3 compounds) are non-polar. Thus, they Question 1
have zero dipole moment
Account for the following: CO2 and H2O are both
Reason: the molecules is symmetrical and so the oxides. However, H2O is a polar molecule but
individual bond polarities cancel out CO2 is not.
Answer
C-O and H-O bonds are polar since oxygen is
more electronegative than carbon and hydrogen.
In CO2, the O-C-O is linear and symmetrical.
Those with trigonal pyramidal shape such as NH3, Hence the individual polarities cancels out. CO2
NCl3, PF3 are polar is therefore a non-polar molecule.

94
H2O is bent or has V-shape because the two H-O d). Give the reason for the following: Graphite is
dipole moments do not cancel out. H2O is soft while dimond its attrotrope is hard
therefore polar molecule.
Answer
a). BeCl2 – Be is sp, BeCl3- B - sp2 , C2H4 - C is
Question 2 sp2 , C2H2 – C is sp
What can you deduce about the shape of each of b) BeCl3 and C2H4 are trigonal planar in shape.
the following molecules from its dipole moment?
BeCl2 and C2H2 are linear in shape
BCl3 0.00D; PCl3 0.78D; NO2 0.40D.
c). Trigonal planar arrangement or triangular
Answer
arrangement.
BCl3: Dipole exists along B-Cl bond due the
d). graphite is soft because the layers slip over
electronegativity difference between B and Cl. If
each other due to the hexagonal layers being
BCl3 has a zero dipole moment, then BCl3 must be
linked together by weak van der waal forces.
a trigonal planar and a symmetrical molecule
Diamond is hard because the tetrahedral
PCl3: A dipole moment of 0.78D suggests that
structures in diamond are linked together by giant
PCl3 is trigonal pyramidal because a trigonal
network of covalent bonds.
planar shape of PCl3 would have had a zero dipole
moment.
NO2: Dipole exists along N-O bond due to Question 4
electronegativity difference between N and O.
Since NO2 has a dipole moment of 0.40D, NO2 State giving reasons, which of the following
has a bent or V shape because a linear molecule molecules possess and which do not possess an
would have had a zero dipole moment. electric dipole and indicate the nature of the
dipole in each case. H2S, CO2, HCl, CH4.
NB: You are required to draw the shape of these
molecule. Refer to notes. Answer
H2S: possesses an electric dipole due to the
electronegativity differences between S and H
Question 3 and the bent shape of H2S.
Consider the compounds BeCl2, BeCl3, C2H4 and HCl: Has a net electrical dipole due to the
C2H2 electronegativity difference between H and Cl.
a). State the type of hybridization shown by the CO2: Although, the individual C-O bonds are
central atom in each of the compounds polar (due to electronegativity difference
between C and O), CO2 has zero electric dipole.
b). State the shapes of the molecules.
This is because CO2 is linear and symmetrical
c). In BeCl3, there are three pairs of bonding and therefore the two C- O dipoles cancel out.
electrons around the central atom. What is the
CH4: In methane, the individual C-H bonds are
arrangement of these pairs will result in minimum
polar but it has zero electric dipole. This is
repulsion?
because, CH4 is symmetrical and tetrahedral in

95
 shape and therefore the individual bond DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE
polarities cancel out.
Diamond
This form of carbon is said to have a giant
Question 5 covalent structure. In diamond, each carbon atom
is sp3 hybridized and hence sits at the centre of a
Explain why NH3 has a much larger dipole
regular tetrahedron. The central atom is bonded
moment, 1.46D than NF3, 0.24D.
to four other carbon atom which repeats itself to
Answer form the giant network of covalent bonds.

The greater the electronegativity difference, the

greater the polarity and the greater the dipole
moment.
In NH3, N is more electronegative than H and
hence the N-H is polarized as Nϭ---Hϭ+. The
unshared pair of electrons on N strengthens the
polarity of N-H.
In NF3, F is more electronegative than N and so
the N-F bond polarized Nϭ+ -Fϭ-. The unshared  Diamond is much harder than a metal due to
pair of electrons on N decreases the polarity of
the very giant interlock covalent bonds.
N-F.
 It has a high boiling and melying point, heat
The electronegativity difference in N-H bond is of fusion and vaporization.
far greater than in N-F bond. This is because the  It also has a high density because the atoms
strength of electronegativities of F and N are are pulled by a stronger forces.
closer than for N and H.  It is industrially used for cutting metals
because it is the hardest substance known.
 It is also used as abrasive to sharpen very
Try question hard tools.
Question 1  It has a high refractive and dispersive indices
give it a sparkling brilliance for use as a
Draw the shapes of the molecules in methane, jewel.
ammonia and water and account for the  It does not conduct electricity because all the
differences in their shapes even though the central valance electrons the carbon atoms are
atom, in each case, is sp3 hybridized.
localized or used up in bonding. Hence there
Question 2 is no free electron to move about.
 It is a crystalline solid
Give an account of the hybridization of the atomic
 It is a colourless, transparent allotrope of
orbitals of boron and phosphorus in the
carbon.
compounds, BCl3 and PCl3 which accounts for
the shapes of the molecules.

96
 Graphite Answer
Graphite is also a giant covalent structure but its In graphite, carbon uses three of its valance
carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized. Each carbon electrons in forming sigma bonds leaving one.
atom in graphite is covalently bonded to three The remaining electron on each carbon atom is
other carbon atoms which gives rise to layers of delocalised to form pi biond and accounts for its
carbon atoms in a hexagonal arrangement. reactivity.
In diamond, carbon uses all the four valance
electrons in forming bond. There is no free
electron for reaction. Hence diamond is
unreactive.

Try questions
Question 1

Since the carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized, the Compare and contrast the structures of diamond
remaining p electron of each carbon atom is and graphite and explain how the structure
delocalised. Graphite is a good conductor of account for the uses to which each is applied.
electricity because it has mobile p electron to Question 2
move about in a pi bond to conduct electricity.
Graphite is therefore used as electrode because of Consider the ground state electronic
2 2 2
its electrical conductivity. configuration of element X, 1s 2s 2p
i). write the electronic configuration of element
X in the excited state.
Because bonding between layers is due to weaker ii). State the number of unpaired electrons in the
van der Waals bonds, the layers can be made to α). Ground state β). Excited state
slip over to another readily. As a result, graphite iii). Identify element X
may be used as a lubricant, just like oil or grease. iv).Name two crystalline form of element X.
v).Give one physical properties of the two forms
of X.
It has a relatively low melting and boiling point. It
Question 3
less dense due to spaces between the layers. It is
used as the main writing material in pencils State the reason why diamond is
because the layers of a piece of graphite flakes off i). Used in jewellery.
easily. This use is due to the weak bonds between ii) used as an abrasive
the layers. It is greyish black allotrope of carbon iii) a non-conductor of electricity
Question 4

Question 1 What is the hybridized state of the nitrogen in

each of the following species?
Explain why graphite is chemically more reactive
i). NH3 ii). NH4+ iii). HN=NH
than diamond.

97
 CHEMICAL FORMULA AND CHEMICAL EQUATION
Chemical formula (a) If the charge is +1 or -1 it is not written.
For example, magnesium chloride
A chemical formula is a symbol that represents
a compound. It shows the type of atoms which
combine to form the compound. It also gives the Mg2+ + Cl-
ratio of the atoms require to form the compound.
Chemical symbols are used in writing chemical 2 → MgCl2
1
formula.

(b) Where the oxidation number are equal

and opposite then they are not
Writing the chemical formula of ionic interchanged as subscripts; they cancel
compounds out and therefore not written.
Writing the correct chemical formula of an ionic
(i)Iron (ii) sulphide
compound depends on the oxidation number
(charge) of the elements that combine to form the Fe2+ + S2-
compound 2 2 → FeS

(i) Sodium chloride

Rules Na+ + Cl-

1. Write the correct symbols of the ions that make 1 1 → NaCl

up the compound (i.e cation and anion). The
cation is writing first followed by the anion.
3. For a radicle like CO32-, NH4+, SO42-, it is
considered as one group.
2. Interchange the oxidation numbers (charges)
Al3+ + (CO3)2-
on the ions to become right hand subscripts. i.e the
2 3 → Al2(CO3)3
oxidation number of the cation becomes the write
hand subscript on the anion and vice versa. Note:
Consider cation XM+ an anion YN-, the formula
of the compound between X and Y IS In writing a chemical formula, each element
XM+ + YN- begins with a capital letter. Example are
CaCl2, Na2O and NH3.
N M → XNYM
For example
Chemical nomenclature
(i) Aluminium and oxygen
Chemical nomenclature is a set of rules for
Al3+ + O2- naming chemical compounds.

2 3 → Al2O3
98
 Types of chemical nomenclature The naming of substances is determined by their
oxidation numbers or oxidation states. The
1. The trivial, non- systematic or common name following are rules for determining the oxidation
2. The systematic, or IUPAC name
state of substance.

Trivial, non- systematic or common names

1. The oxidation number of:
These are old or traditional names. This system of a. An element in its uncombined or atomic
naming is not based on rigid rules as the or molecular form is zero(0).
systematic names. For example nitric acid is a 1. Uncombined or atomic form, e.g Al, Na,
common name for HNO3 and sulphuric acid for Mg, etc
H2SO4. 2. Molecular form, e.g. H2, Cl2, H2, O3, etc.

b. An ion of a single atom is equal to the

charge on the ion, e.g. Cl-1 has oxidation
The systematic names (IUPAC names)
number of +, O2- has oxidation number of
This system of naming is more useful than the -2 and Ca2+ has oxidation number of +2.
common name because it follows a set of rules
that allows us to give one name for one molecule c. An oxygen atom is -2 except in peroxide,
or compound. The systematic nomenclature or e.g. H2O2 and K2O2 and superoxide, e.g.
1
naming is as called IUPAC nomenclature. KO2 where it is -1 and - 2 .
d. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of
+1 but in metal hydrides, e.g. NaH, it
has an oxidation number of -1.
IUPAC nomenclature is as system of naming
compounds based on the rules set by International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. IUPAC
2. The total of the oxidation numbers of all
means International Union of Pure and atoms in a neutral formula is zero. Neutral
Applied Chemistry. formula carries no charge, [Link]. H2SO4,
CaSO4. Taking CaSO4 as an example,
Some common name accepted by IUPAC
Oxidation number of Ca + oxidation
naming
number of S + oxidation number of O = 0.
H2O – Water NH3 – Ammonia

. 3. The total of the oxidation numbers of all

Oxidation number atoms of a polyatomic ion is equal to the
The oxidation number of an atom is the real or charge carried by the radicle. Examples of
hypothetical charge the atom carries in its pure radicle are SO42-, CO32-, NH4+. Taking SO4
state or in its compound. Oxidation number is as an example,
also known as oxidation state.

99
Oxidation number of S + oxidation number of x + (-2 ͯ 3) = 0
O = -2.
Points to note: solving for x

x-6=0
 Some elements have more than one oxidation
state; they are said to show variable oxidation x=+6
states, [Link]. iron(Fe) and Cu has two oxidation
states.
 The charge on a substance is written as a right
superscript followed by its positive or negative Oxidation H2CO3,
sign
Let x be the oxidation state of C, the sum of
 All metals show a positive oxidation state.
oxidation state of all species equals zero.
 In substance with oxidation state of + 1 or -1,
Oxidation state of H = +1
only the sign is written.
(1 ͯ 2) + x + (-2 ͯ 3) = 0
Question 1 Solving for x
Determine the oxidation number of the underline x-6+2=0
elements in the following compounds: H2, CO2,
SO3, H2CO3, NO3-, NH4- x=+4

Answer

Oxidation of H2 = 0 Oxidation NO3-,

Oxidation CO2, Let x be the oxidation state of N, the sum of

oxidation state of all species equals one.
Let x be the oxidation state of C, the sum of
oxidation state of all species equals zero. The x + (-2 ͯ 3) = -1
oxidation state of O = -2.
Solving for x
x + (-2 ͯ 2) = 0
x - 6 = -1
Solving for x
x = -1 + 6
x-4=0
x = +5
x=+4

Oxidation NH4+,
Oxidation SO3
Let x be the oxidation state of N, the sum of
Let x be the oxidation state of S, the sum of oxidation state of all species equals zero.
oxidation state of all species equals zero.
x + (1 ͯ 4) = 1
100
 Solving for x in Roman capital numerals in parentheses
immediately after the name of the element.
x + 4 = -1
Table 11.4 Cations with variable oxidation
x=1-4
state
x = -3 Cation Name Oxidation
sate
The compounds to be named will be classified Fe2+
Iron(II) ion +2
into these categories in order to make naming Fe3+
Iron(III) ion +3
easier. Cu +
Copper(I) ion +1
2+
1. Ions 2. Binary compounds Cu Copper(II) ion +2
2+
3. Oxoanions 4. Acids Pb Lead(II) ion +2
3+
Pb Lead(IV) ion +4
5. Bases 6. Salts

3. Anions take the suffix ʽideʼ as does the more

Ions electronegative component of a binary
compound plus the word ion.
Simple ions are named using the following rules.

1. For cations of elements with fixed (only) Table 4.5 Some anions and their oxidation sate
oxidation state, the name of the element is written
Anion Name Oxidation
plus the word ion; the oxidation state is not shown.
Examples are shown below. state
F- Fluoride ion -1
Table 11.3 Cations with fixed oxidation sate Cl- Chloride ion -1
Cation Name Oxidation Br- Bromide ion -1
state I- Iodide ion -1
Li +
Lithium ion +1 O2- Oxide ion -2
Na +
Sodium ion +1 S2- Sulphide ion -2
K +
Potassium ion +1 N3- Nitride ion -3
Mg 2+
Magnesium ion +2 H- Hydride ion -
Ca 2+
Calcium ion +2 OH- Hydroxide ion -
2+
Zn Zinc ion +2
3+
Al Aluminium ion +3
+ Binary ionic compound
H Hydrogen ion +1
+
NH4 Ammonium ion +1 Binary compounds consist of atoms of two
different elements only. Binary ionic compounds
contain a positive ion (cation) always written first
2. For cations of elements with variable in the formula and negative ion (anion). In
oxidation states, the oxidation state is written naming these compounds, the following rules are
applied.

101
1. The cation is always named first and the Question 3
anion second
2. A monoatomic (one atom) cation takes its Write the systematic name of the following
name from the name of the element. For example, compounds: FeCl2, FeCl3, CuO
Li is called lithium in the names of the compounds
Answer
containing this ion.
3. A monoatomic anion is named by taking the FeCl2: Iron(II) chloride
root of the element name and adding ʽideʼ.
Examples are shown in table 4.5. FeCl3: Iron(III) Chloride

CuO: Copper(II) oxide

Question 2

Write the systematic name of the following

Binary covalent compounds
compounds: NaCl, NaO, MgCl, Li3N, HCl
Binary covalent compounds are formed between
Answer two non-metals. These compounds are named
NaCl : Na – sodium + Cl – chloride similarly to binary ionic compounds although
they do not contain ions. In naming these
= Sodium chloride compounds, the following rules are applied.
NaO : Na- sodium + O – oxide 1. The second element is named as it were an
anion. Thus, the last few letters are replaced
= Sodium oxide
by the suffix ʽideʼ.
MgCl : Mg – magnesium + Cl – chloride 2. The first element in the formula is named first
using the elements full name.
= Magnesium chloride 3. The oxidation state of the first element is put
in parentheses in Roman capital numerals.
Li3N: Li – lithium + N- nitride

= lithium nitride Question 4

HCl: H- Hydrogen + Cl- Chloride Write the systematic name of the following
compounds: CO2, SO2, PCl3,
= Hydrogen chloride
Answer

Systematic name of CO2

For cations with variable oxidation state, the name
of the cation is written followed by the oxidation Firstly, the names of the first and second
state in Roman capital numerals in parenthesis, element are written using the rule given
before the name of the anion follows. above.

That is, C = carbon and O = oxide.

102
Secondly, the oxidation number of the first x + (-1 ͯ 3) = 0
element is calculated. The oxidation state of the
solving for x
second element is taken as the charge on its
anion. The oxidation state is written in Roman x-3=0
capital numerals in parentheses.
x=+3

PCl3 = Phosphorus (III) chloride

For CO2,

Let x be the oxidation state of C, the sum of

oxidation state of all species equals zero. Oxoanions

x + (-2 ͯ 2) = 0 Oxoanions are radicals or polyatomic ions in

which oxygen atom(s) are bonded to a central
Solving for x atom. Naming is based on the oxidation number
x-4=0 of central atom and the number of oxygen atoms
bonded to it, e.g. NO3-, SO42-. The rules for
x=+4 naming oxoxanions are given below

CO2 = Carbon (IV) oxide 1. The suffix ʽateʼ replaces the last two or three
letters in the name of the central atom.
2. The oxidation number of the central atom is
written in Roman capital numerals in
For SO2
parenthesis after its name.
S = Sulphur O = Oxide 3. The number of oxygen atom is placed before
the name of the central atom as dioxo for 2,
Let x be the oxidation state of S, the sum of trioxo for 3, tetra for 4, pentaoxo for 5,
oxidation state of all species equals zero. hexaoxo for 6, heptaoxo for 7.
4. The wordʽ ionʼ is added to the name.
x + (-2 ͯ 2) = 0

Solving for x
Question 5
x-4=0
Give the systematic name for the following:
x=+4 NO3-, SO42, CO32-, SO32-

SO2 = Sulphur (IV) oxide Answer

Systematic name for NO3-

For PCl3 Nitrogen become Nitrate; the three oxygen

becomes trioxo;
Let x be the oxidation state of P, the sum of
oxidation state of all species equals zero

103
Oxidation NO3-, ClO- - oxochlorate (I) ion

Let x be the oxidation state of N, the sum of ClO4- - tetraoxochlorate (VI) ion
oxidation state of all species equals zero.
ClO3- - trioxochlorate (V) ion
x + (-2 ͯ 3) = -1
MnO4- - tetraoxomanganate (VI) ion
Solving for x
CrO42- - tetraoxochromate (VI) ion
x - 6 = -1
PO43- - tetraoxophosphate (v) ion
x = -1 + 6
Cr2O72- - heptaoxodichromate (VI) ion.
x = +5
When hydrogen is attached to the oxoanion the
-
NO3 = trioxonitrate (V) ion. name of the hydrogen should be named first
before the name of the oxoanion.

Systematic name of HCO3-

Systematic name for SO42-
Carbon becomes carbonate; the three oxygen
Sulphur becomes sulphate; the four oxygen atoms become trioxo. Oxidation number of C is
atoms become tetraoxo. Oxidation number of S is +4.
+6.
HCO3- = Hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV) ion.
SO42- = tetraoxosulpate (VI) ion
Other examples are

HSO32- = hydrogen trioxosulpate (IV) ion

Systematic name for CO32-
HSO42- = hydrogen tetraoxosulpate (VI) ion
Carbon becomes carbonate; the four oxygen
atoms become trioxo. Oxidation number of C is HPO43- = hydrogen tetraoxophosphate (v) ion
+4.
Acids
2-
CO3 = trioxocarbonate (IV) ion.
The rules for naming acids depend on whether
Systematic name for SO32- the acid contains oxygen or not. If the acid does
not contain oxygen, the hydrogen is named as
Sulphur becomes sulphate; the four oxygen hydro and the anion part is named with the suffix-
atoms become trioxo. Oxidation number of S is ic. For example, when gaseous HCl is dissolved
+4.
in water, it forms hydrochloric acid (HClaq).
SO32- = trioxosulpate (IV) ion H2S and H2Br dissolve in water to form
hydrosulphuric acid and hydrobromic acid
Other examples are respectively. If the acid contains oxygen, it is
named as oxoanions.
NO2- - dioxonitrate(III) ion

104
 formula Name of dry Name of its HClO3 – trioxochlorate (V) acid
compound aqueous solution

HCl Hydrogen Hydrochloric acid

Base
chloride
A Base is a substance that contains oxides or
HF Hydrogen Hydrofluoric acid
hydroxide ions. They are named by adding
fluoride
oxide or hydroxide to the name of the cation.
HBr Hydrogen Hydrobromic acid Examples are:
bromide
CuO – Copper (II) oxide
HI Hydrogen Hydroiodide acid
Fe2O3 – Iron (III) oxide
iodide
NaOH – Sodium hydroxide
H2S Hydrogen Hydrosulphuric
sulphide acid Ca(OH) – Calcium hydroxide

Fe(OH)2 – Iron (II) hydroxide

NH4OH – Ammonium hydroxide

Oxoacids

Oxoacids are compounds containing one or more Salt

hydrogen atom(s) and oxoanion. They are named
in the same way as oxoanions but the word ʽacidʼ A salt is formed when metal (or ammonium)
replaces the word ʽionʼ in the name of the cation replaces the hydrogen(s) in an acid.
oxoanion. Examples are Types of salt
HNO3 – trioxonitrate (V) acid  Normal salts
H2SO4 - tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid  Acidic salts
 Double salt
H2CO3 – trioxocarbonate (IV) acid  Basic salt
HClO – oxochlorate (I) acid  Hydrated salts.

H2SO3 - trioxosulpate (IV) acid

Normal salt
H3PO4 - tetraoxophosphate (v) acid
Normal salt can be divided into binary salt
HNO2 - dioxonitrate(III) acid and oxoanion salt.

HIO3 – trioxoiodatE (V) acid

H2CO3 – trioxocarbonate (V) acid

105
Binary salt *Na2HPO4 – Disodium hydrogen
tetraoxophosphate (V)
Binary salts are named similarly to binary
compounds. The name of the binary salt is the * NaH2PO4 – Sodium dihydrogen
combination of the names of the names of the tetraoxophosphate (V)
cation and anion of the salt. Examples are:
NB: Disodium and dihydrogen is used for only
NaCl – Sodium chloride this particular salts to differentiate the two acid
salts.
NH4Cl – Ammonium chloride

FeS – Iron (II) Sulphide

Double salts

They are salts formed from two different salts

Oxoacid salts with different cations but the same anion. When
Oxosalts are named by written the name of the naming the double salts the cations are named in
cation, followed by its oxidation number if its alphabetical order followed by the name of the
variable. The name of the oxoanion is then added. anion.
Examples are: KAl(SO4)2 – Aluminiumn potassium bis
CaCO3 – Calcium tioxocarbonate(IV) tetraoxosulphate(VI)

MgSO4 – Magnesium tetraoxosulphate(VI) KCr(SO4)2 – Chromium potassium bis

tetraoxosulphate(VI)
CuSO4 – Copper(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI)
Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 – Ammonium iron(III) bis
Pb(NO3)2 – Lead(II) trioxonitrate (V) tetraoxosulphate(VI)

Acidic salt Basic salts

Acid salts are formed when some of the They are formed when insufficient acid is used to
replaceable hydrogen ions are replaced by metal neutralize the base. When naming the basic salts
ion. In naming them, the cation is named first, the simple salt part is named followed by
followed by the name of hydrogen and then the hydroxide or oxide
name of the anion. Examples are
Zn(OH)Cl – Zinc chloride hydroxide
NaHCO3 – Sodium hydrogen tioxocarbonate (IV)
Mg(OH)Cl – Magnesium chloride hydroxide
KHSO4 - Potassium hydrogen tetraoxosulphate (VI)

LiHSO3 – Lithium hydrogen trioxosulphate (IV)

106
Hydrated salts Determination of the molecular formula of
a compound
Hydrated salts are salts with water molecules
attached to them. Water of crystallization is the The followed are taken:
number of water molecules attached to salts or
ions in their crystalline state. Those without any i). A quantitative test is done to find out the
water molecule attached are called anhydrous. different types of elements present in the
molecule or compound
When naming a hydrated salt , the part without the
water molecule (anhydrous part) is named first ii). A quantitative test is done to determine the
followed by the number of water molecule. The mass or percentage mass of the different
prefix, di, tri, tetra, penta , hexa, hept, dodeca are elements.
place before the word hydrate(which represents iii). The empirical formula is calculated from the
one) to indicate the number of water molecules. qualitative and quantitative test.
CaCO3●5H2O – Calcium tioxocarbonate (IV) iv). The molar mass or relative molecular mass is
pentahydrate determined by mass spectrometry.
CaCl2●6 H2O – Calcium chloride hexahydrate v).The molecular formula is determined using the
MgSO4●7 H2O – Magnesium tetraoxosulphate relation:
(VI) heptahydrate

Molecular mass = (empirical mass)n, Where n is

the number of empirical formula units in the
Determination of chemical formula
molecular formula.
Empirical formula
For gaseous substances Molecular mass = 2 ×
It is the formula which shows the simplest whole vapour density
number ratio of the different types of atoms in a
molecule or compound. Molecular formula = (empirical mass)n

Molecular formula

It is the formula of a compound which shows the NB:

actual whole number ratio of the different types of Empirical formula is found by dividing the
atom in a molecule or compound. percentage composition of each element in a
Structural formula compound by their relative atomic mass.
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
It shows how the atoms in the molecule or i.e = number of atoms of
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
compound are bonded to each other. the elements

107
Question 1 Question 2

An organic liquid A was found to contain 60% An organic compound contains carbon,
carbon and 13.3% hydrogen. The third component hydrogen and nitrogen with the percentage
composition of 53.5, 8.9 and 37.6
was assumed to be oxygen. The vapour density of
respectively. Calculate the empirical formula
the substance was 30. Calculate empherical
of the compound [C = 12, H = 1, N =14]
formula and molecular formula of A
Answer
Answer
C H N
% mass of oxygen = 100- [60 +13.3] = 26.7 %𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ
53.5 8.9 37.6
C H O 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 53.5 8.9 37.6
%tage mass of each 60 13.3 26.7 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 12 1 114

% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 60 13.3 27.7 Ratio of atoms 4.45 8.9 2.68

𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 12 1 16
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 4.45 8.9 2.68
Divide by the smallest
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 2.68 2.68 2.68

5 13.3 1.67
1.67 1.67 1.67
1.7 : 3.3 : 1

2.99 7.96 1 2 3 1

3 : 8 : 1 Empirical formula = C2H3N

Empirical formula = C3H8O

Question 3
Molecular mass = 2 × vapour density
20g of compound C, H and O, are found to
= 2 × 30 contain 8.0g of C and 1.33g of H. calculate
= 60 the empherical formula of this compound and
hence its molecular formula when relative
Molecular formulae mass = (empirical mass)n molecular mass is given as 60. [ C =60, H =
60 = [C3H8O]n 1, O = 16]

= [(12 × 3) + (1× 8) + (16 × 1)] Answer

= (36 + 8+ 16)n Since the compound contains only C, H and

O, the mass of oxygen in the 20.0g of the
= 60n compound = 20 – [8 + 1.33] = 10.67g
n= 1
Molecular formula is C3H8O

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 C H O Answer

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ Hydrocarbon contains carbon and hydrogen

8.0 1.33 10.6
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 only
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 8.0 1.33 10.67
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 12 1 16
% mass of carbon = 100 - 11.1%= 88.9%

Ratio of atoms 0.67 1.33 0.67 C H

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 0.67 1.33 0.67 %tage mass of each 88.9 11.1
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 0.67 1.67 0.67
% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 88.9 11.1

1 : 2 : 1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 12 1

7.4 11.1
Empirical formula = CH2O
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 7.4 11.1
The molecular formula is (CH2O)n, where n is a
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 7.4 7.4
whole number
1 1.5
60 = [(12 × 1) + (1× 2) + (16 × 1)]n
2 : 3
60 = 30n
N=2 Empirical formula = C2H3

Molecular formula = (CH2O)2 = C2H4O2 𝑉 1.12

iii). n(gas) = 𝑉𝑚 = = 0.05 mole
22.4
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Molar mass of the gas = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Question 4
2.7
= 0.05
2.7g of a gaseous hydrocarbon, which contains
11.1% of hydrogen, occupies a volume of = 54 gmol-1
1.12dm3 at s.t.p. what is the iv). Molecular mass = [C2H3]n
i). Percentage composition of carbon in the 54 = [(12 × 2) + (1× 3)]
compound?
54 = (27)n
ii). Empirical formula of the compound? n= 2
iii). Molar mass of the compound? Molecular formula = C4H6

iv). Molecular formula of the compound?

[C = 12, H= 1 Molar bvolume of gas at s.t.p is Question 5

22.dm3] An organic compound X contains 48.6% of
carbon and 8.1% of hydrogen, the remainder
being oxygen. The vapour density of A is 37.

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Calculate Question 6
i).the empirical When burned completely in oxygen, 0.545g of
ii).molecular formula of X. aluminium produces 1.030g of aluminium oxide.
Find the empirical formula of the oxide [O = 16,
Answer
Al = 27]
% mass of oxygen = 100- [48.6 +8.1] = 43.3
Answer

Mass of oxygen in the oxide = 1.03 – 0.545 =

C H O 0.485g
%tage mass of each 48.6 8.1 43.3 Al H
% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 48.6 8.1 43.3
Mass of each 0.545 0.485
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 12 1 16
% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.545 0.485
4.05 8.1 2.7 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 27 16

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 4.05 8.1 2.7 0.02 0.03

𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 2.7 2.7 2.7
0.02 0.03
1.5 3 1 Divide by the smallest 0.02 0.02

3 : 6 : 2 1 1.5 × 2

Empirical formula = C3H6O2 2 : 3

Empirical formula = Al2O3

ii). Molecular mass = 2 × vapour density

= 2 × 37 Question 7

= 74 If a hydrocarbon consist of 83.3% by mass of

Molecular formula = (empirical mass)n carbon has a relative molar mass of 72, what
is its
74 = [C3H6O2]n
i). Empherical formula
= [(12 × 3) + (1× 6) + (16 × 2)]
= (36 + 6 + 32)n ii). Molecular formula

= 74n Answer

n= 1 % mass of hydrogen = 100 – 83.3 = 16.7

Molecular formula = C3H6O2 C H

Mass of each element 83.3 16.7

110
 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 83.3 16.7 Try question
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 12 1
Question 1
6.94 16.7
6.94 16.7 An organic compound contains 62.1% carbon,
Divide by the smallest 6.94 6.94 10.3% hydrogen and 27.6% oxygen. If the
vapour density of the compound is 58, calculate
1 2.4 ×5
i). the empirical formula
5 12
ii). Molecular formula of the compound. [C = 12,
Empirical formula = C5H12
H = 1, O =16]
Molecular formulae = (empirical mass)n
Question 2
72 = [C5H12]n
An oxide is formed by reaction of 45.0g of an
= [(12 × 5) + (1× 12)] element M with 24.0g of oxygen. If O = 16 and
= 72n M =120. What is the empirical formula of the
oxide?
n= 1
Molecular formula = C5H12 Question 3

A typical set of analytical data could be presented

as follows.
Question 6
C = 45.9%. H =10.60%, N= 13.11%. Assuming
An alkanoic acid with the general formula that the weight of the material unaccounted for is
CnH2n+1COOH as the molecular mass of 88. oxygen, find the empirical formula.
Deduce its molecular formula.
b). an independent measurement shows that the
Answer relative molecular mass of the compound is 210.
Find the molecular formula [C = 12, H = 1, O
CnH2n+1COOH is the general molecular formula
=16, N = 14]
Formula mass,
Question 4
88 = 12n + 2n + 1 +12 + (16 × 2) + 1
An analysis of a compound made up of 12A and
32
88 = 14n + 46 B showed that 2.4 g of A combined with 19.2
of Y. what is the possible formula of the
N=3 compound formed?

Question 5

0.03035g of an organic compound was

combusted and water was given off in the
process. Determine the empirical formula

111
 assuming that the rest of the material id Result
oxygen. [C = 12, H = 1, O =16]
Let
Question 6
Mass of crucible = Ag
A compound was found to contain 64.9% carbon
and 13.5% hydrogen. The third component was Mass of crucible + magnesium = Bg
assumed to be oxygen. If the molecular mass of Mass of crucible + magnesium oxide = C g
the compound is 74. Calculate empherical formula
and molecular formula of A Mass of Mg = (B– A)g

Question 7 Mass of oxygen = (C – B)g

A compound has the following composition: H =

7.75%, C= 37.21%, Cl = 55.04%. Determine the
Calculation
empirical formula of the compound [C = 12, H =
1, Cl =35.5] Mole of magnesium = mass of magnesium
Question 8 Molar mass
𝐵−𝐴
Nicotine from cigarette smoke is found to contain = =x
24
8.65% hydrogen, 74.0% carbon and 17.3% 𝐶−𝐴
nitrogen. What is the empirical formula of Moles of oxygen = =y
16
nicotine [N =14, H =1, C=12]
Hence the formula is MgxOy
But from accurate experiment x = y = 1
Experiment to determine the formula of The formula of magnesium oxide is MgO
magnesium oxide, MgO The molecular formula is MgO.
Procedure

i). An empty crucible with its lid is weighed

ii). A piece of magnesium ribbon is placed in the Percentage masses of elements

crucible and weighed again. It is the percentage by mass of each element in a
compound it can be determined experimentally.
iii). The crucible is heated strongly and
occasionally the lid is opened to allow air to enter Calculation of percentage mass
to bring about complete combustion. If the empirical formula or molecular formula of
a compound is known the percentage
iv). After complete burning of magnesium oxide,
composition of each element can be calculated as
the crucible and its contents are made to cool in a follows:
desiccator and the weighed

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 %mass of the element = = 40%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
× 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Or
%mass of the element =
𝐴𝑟(𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚)
× 100 Question 3
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒

Calculate the percentage mass of sulphur in

potassium tetraoxosulphate (VI).[K = 39, O = 16
Question 1 S = 32]
Calculate the percentage mass of oxygen in Answer
carbon (IV) oxide [C= 12, O =16]
M(K2SO4) = (2 × 39) + (32 × 1) + (16 × 4)
Answer
= 174 gmol-1
M(CO2) = (12 × 1) + (16 ×2)
32
% of S = 174 × 100
= 44 gmol-1

Percentage of O =
16×2
× 100 = 18.4%
44

= 72.73%
Question 4
NB: the relative atomic mass of oxygen is
multiplied by two because, there are two moles of Calculate the percentage mass of water of
it in CO2. crystallization in washing soda crystals
(Na2CO3.10H2O) [Na = 23, O = 16, H =1, C =12]
Answer
Question 2
M(Na2CO3●10H2O) = (23×2) + 12 + (16× 3) +
Calculate the percentage mass of carbon in 10(2 + 16)
C6H12O6 [C =12, O =16, H =1]
= 46 + 12 + 48 + 180
Answer
= 286 gmol-
M(C6H12O6) = (12 ×6) + (12×1) +(16×6)
= 180gmol-1
12×6
Percentage of O = × 100
180

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TRY QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following compounds has a tetrahedral structure?

A. CCl4 7. What mass of H2SO4 is contained in
B. CO2 400cm3 of 0.50 mol dm-3 solution?
C. C2H2 [Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98]
D. NH3 A. 1.96 g
B. 12.50 g
2. The number of unshared pair(s) of electrons C. 19.60 g
in ammonia is D. 125.00 g
A. one
B. two 8. What volume will 11.0 g of carbon (IV) oxide
C. three occupy at standard temperature and pressure
D. four (s.t.p)? [CO2 = 44, Molar Volume of a gas at
s.t.p. = 22.4dm3]
3. Graphite is quite different from diamond A. 0.056 dm3
because graphite B. 0.56 dm3
A. contains covalent bonds C. 5.6 dm3
B. cannot be easily melted D. 56.0 dm3
C. conducts electricity
D. contains only carbon atoms 9. Calculate the relative molecular mass of
(NH4)2 SO4, FeSO4, 6H2O. [H = 1.0, N = 14.0,
4. What is the shape of the water molecule? O = 16.0, S = 32.0, Fe = 56.0]
A. Linear A. 296
B. Pyramidal B. 312
C. Tetrahedral C. 374
D. V-shaped D. 392

5. Which of the following molecules is trigonal 10. Which of the following solutions could be
pyramidal in shape? considered to be standard?
A. CH4 A. 2.0 dm-3 Na2CO3 solution
B. BCl3 B. 2.0 mol dm-3 Na2CO3 solution
C. NH3 C. 2.0 moles Na2CO3 solution
D. H2O D. 2.0 Na2CO3 solution

6. Which of the following statements is correct? 11. How many moles of hydrogen atoms are in
A. A 𝜋-bond is stronger than a 𝜎-bond 49.0g of H2SO4? [H = 1, O = 16, S = 321]
B. A 𝜋-bond is more reactive than a 𝜎-bond A. 0.2
C. A 𝜋-bond is formed by the head-on B. 0.4
overlap of two atomic orbitals C. 1.0
D. A triple bond consists of two 𝜎-bonds and
one 𝜋-bond

114