EVOLUTION

Final Exam
 Terminology
1. Species: Organisms with similar characteristics that are able to
interbreed with one another to produce fertile offspring
2. Population: A group of individuals of the same species occupying a
particular habitat/same area and able to interbreed.
3. Speciation: The process by which new species are produced
through evolution from existing species.
4. Geographic speciation/Allopatric speciation: Formation of a new
species when the parent population is separated by a geographical
barrier.
5. Sympatric speciation: Formation of a new species by reproductive
isolation without geographic isolation.
6. Reproductive isolation: A mechanism that prevents two species
from mating with one another and making fertile hybrids.
7. Punctuated equilibrium: Evolution characterised by long periods of
little or no change followed by short periods of rapid change when
new species form.
 Terminology
8. Natural selection: Mechanism of evolution - organisms survive if
they have characteristics that make them suited to the
environment. They pass on genes for these characteristics to their
offspring.
9. Artificial selection: Human-driven selective force results in
changes within a species over generations, e.g. breeding of plants
and animals to produce desirable traits
10. Inbreeding: Mating of individuals that are closely related
11. Outbreeding: Mating of individuals that are not closely related
12. Speciation: The formation of a new species
13. Biogeography: The study of the past and present geographic
distribution of plants/animals.
14. Genotype: The genetic make-up of an individual including the
alleles that determine the trait.
 Terminology
15. Phenotype: Physical appearance of the organism controlled by
the genetic make-up/genotype.
16. Transitional fossil: Fossil of an organism that has intermediate/
common characteristics between two genera (common to both the
ancestor species and the species that follows)
17. Biological evolution: Genetic change in a population that is
inherited over several generations.
18. Hominids: A biological group that includes modern humans, our
early human ancestors, chimpanzees and bonobos, gorillas and
orangutans, sometimes collectively referred to as apes.
19. Hominins: A sub-group of the hominids and includes only modern
humans and early human ancestors.
20. Primates: A biological grouping that includes lemurs, baboons,
chimpanzees, apes, and humans. Primates share a number of
characteristics as will be detailed shortly.
21. Phylogenetic diagram: A branching diagram or "tree" showing the
evolutionary relationships among various biological species
 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
WHAT IS IT?
The word evolution means change over time.
Evolution is the process by which organisms
develop over time from earlier forms.
DEFINITION: Changes in the genetic traits of a
population, which promote survival, that is
inherited and becomes a characteristic of that
population over successive generations.
IMPORTANT
• Only populations can evolve NOT individuals
• Variation is required for evolution to occur;
evolution does not lead to variation
 “THEORY” OF EVOLUTION
IT IS IMPORTANT TO RECOGNISE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
EVERYDAY AND SCIENTIFIC MEANING OF THE WORD ‘THEORY’:

EVERYDAY SCIENTIFIC
MEANING MEANING
A guess or
A well-substantiated explanation of
untested
some aspect of the natural world
idea

Has been widely and repeatedly tested

and is accepted by scientists.

May be added to or refined but remains

fundamentally the same
 THEORY & HYPOTHESIS

THEORY: A theory is an explanation of

something that has been observed in
nature which can be supported by facts,
generalisations, tested hypotheses,
models and laws.
HYPOTHESIS: A testable statement
predicting the outcome of an investigation
which can be accepted or rejected.
 Implications of EVOLUTION
1. All present-day life forms have
descended from, and are related to
those that lived in the past
2. All present-day life forms may look
different from those that they
descended from because they
became modified from one generation
to another
 Theories of EVOLUTION
The most significant advocates of the
idea that species are not static, but have
changed over time, were Jean Baptiste
de Lamarck and Charles Darwin.
Lamarckism is not accepted today as an
explanation for evolutionary change. His
work did, however, set the groundwork
for scientists like Charles Darwin.
 Jean Baptiste Lamarck
• French naturalist who lived between 1744 -
1829
• First scientist to suggest change in living
organisms was as a result of a natural process
• Believed organisms constantly ‘trying’ to
evolve

Lamarck explained evolution using two ‘laws:

1. Law of Use and Disuse: Used organs improve
while unused organs disappear/get smaller.
2. Law of Inheritance: These modifications
could be inherited by their offspring.
 Jean Baptiste Lamarck
The Law of Use and Disuse:
Lamarck suggested that animals changed over time
in order to survive in a new environment. He argued
that if a structure OR organ was used more often,
that structure then became bigger in the following
generations. Similarly, if a structure was not being
Used (disuse), then this structure would become
smaller and might eventually disappear.
He called this the “law of use and disuse”.
The Law of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics:
Lamarck also explained that organisms could inherit
these changed structures/organs from their parents.
This he called “inheritance of acquired
characteristics”. Characteristics developed during
the life of an individual (acquired characteristics)
could be passed on to its offspring.
 Giraffe example
(according to Lamarck)
Lamarck used the elongation of the giraffe’s neck to
explain ideas.
According to Lamarck, the original giraffes found
themselves in an environment where, in order to reach
food at the tops of trees, they continually needed to
stretch their necks.
1. Giraffe used their neck more to feed off taller trees
therefore they grew long necks (LAW of USE and
DISUSE)
2. This acquired characteristic (of a long neck) was
inherited by offspring (INHERITANCE OF
ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTIC)
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
 Steps to explain Lamarck
1. Originally all giraffes had short necks
2. The giraffe used their neck to stretch and
reach the leaves in the tallest trees
3. As a result, the giraffe neck became
longer (law of use and disuse)
4. This acquired characteristic of long neck
was passed on to offspring (law of
inheritance of acquired characteristics)
5. Over time/today all giraffes have long
necks
STUDY THIS
 Lamarck example

Use Lamarck’s theory (laws) to explain the small wings of modern penguins (6).
 Jean Baptiste Lamarck
Lamarck’s theory was rejected by
scientists because:
1. Organisms evolve randomly as a
result of genetic change in response
to the environment not by choice.
2. There is no evidence that changes
brought about by adaptation to
environment can be inherited.
 Charles Darwin
• Charles Darwin lived from 1809 – 1882
• English naturalist who travelled for 5 years to South
America and Australia on the ship HMS Beagle
• Spent most of his time on shore, observing, studying and
making drawings of plants and animals
• Galapagos Islands – noticed many different species of
finches
• Wrote the book “On the Origin of Species”
• Darwin was not the first scientist to recognise evolution
but he was the first to come up with a MECHANISM for
evolution.
• NATURAL SELECTION is the mechanism which
explains how evolution takes place.
Charles Darwin’s 5-year journey on the HMS Beagle
REMEMBER! Natural selection provides
the MECHANISM for evolution
 Charles Darwin’s Ideas
Based on his observations, Darwin came to three main
conclusions:
1. All organisms are involved in a struggle for survival
and only those best suited to the environment
would survive.
2. Organisms that survive are more likely to
reproduce, and therefore pass on their genes for
useful characteristics to their offspring.
3. Over many generations, reproduction between
individuals with different genetic makeup changes
the overall genetic composition of the population.
 Darwin’s Ideas –
NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection explains HOW evolution takes place.
• Those organisms best suited to a particular
environment produce the most offspring. This is
commonly referred to as “survival of the fittest”
NOTE: “fittest” does not mean the strongest, but the
best suited to the particular environment.
Some species are better equipped to face the
changing conditions in their environment.
These changes might include:
– Type and availability of food
– Shelter
– Competition with other individuals or species
– Predation
 NATURAL SELECTION
DEFINITION:
• The process by which the environment
favours survival of those individuals
who are genetically best adapted to
environmental conditions, and as a
result, will produce the most offspring.
• Genetic variation is a pre-requisite for
evolution by natural selection to occur.
NO VARIATION = NO EVOLUTION
 NATURAL SELECTION
HOW DOES NATURAL SELECTION OCCUR?
1. Genetic variation exists in the population of a species; no 2
organisms are genetically identical
2. When the environment changes or there is competition (for food,
space) there is a struggle for survival
3. Individuals with favourable genetic traits which make them better
suited to the new environment or competition are able to survive
4. These organisms grow, mature and are able to reproduce
5. If they reproduce, they may pass on the gene for the favourable trait
to their offspring
6. Thus, the gene gets passed from one generation to the next and
becomes more common in the population. The next generation will
have a higher proportion of individuals with the new trait or
characteristic.
7. A new favourable genotype becomes more frequent in the
population. If the genetic variation spreads throughout the whole
population, a new species may form.
 STUDY THIS
Natural Selection – exam guideline
• There is a great deal of (genetic) variation amongst the
offspring [Name trait].
• Some have favourable characteristics [Name trait] and some
do not [Name trait].
• When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if
there is competition [Name change/competition] , then
organisms with characteristics [Name trait], which make them
more suited, survive.
• Whilst organisms with unfavourable characteristics [Name
trait], which make them less suited, die.
• The organisms that survive, reproduce and thus, pass on the
allele for the favourable characteristic to their offspring.
• The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of
individuals with the favourable characteristic [Name trait].
BE SPECIFIC and name the traits – DON’T say ‘favourable/unfavourable’
BE SPECIFIC about the competition in your answer
Natural Selection - example cacti
Natural Selection - example cacti
• There is genetic variation among the population
of cacti in root length
• Some have short roots while others have long
roots
• Cacti with short roots are unable to reach water
deep down in the soil and die
• Cacti with long roots are able to reach the deep-
water source and survive, reproduce and pass on
their allele for long roots to their offspring
• Over time there will be a higher proportion of
cacti with long roots
NATURAL SELECTION MISCONCEPTIONS

WHAT PEOPLE THINK NATURAL THE REALITY

SELECTION MEANS
The environment causes The environment cannot cause
organisms to evolve any change, only inherent
genetic variation/mutations can
Organisms adapt when they Organisms cannot adapt because
“need” to they want or need to
They adapt during their lifetime Their genotype is fixed for their
lifetime, it cannot change
Individual organisms evolve Individuals do not evolve, the
allele frequency in the
POPULATION changes
DARWIN vs. LAMARCK
 Practice example
A scientist used guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in an investigation
to test Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Male guppies have
brightly coloured spots to attract females, but these spots also
attract predators. It was previously observed that males living in
streams where there were many predatory fish tended to have
fewer spots. This reduced their risk of being eaten. Those males
living in streams with fewer predators had more spots.
 Practice example
The procedure for the investigation was as follows:
• Equal numbers of male and female guppies were put into two
ponds (pond 1 and pond 2).
• In pond 1, predatory fish that prey on guppies were
introduced.
• In pond 2, predatory fish that do not feed on guppies were
introduced.
• The guppies were allowed to breed for 20 months,
representing several generations of guppies. (Guppies
reproduce when they are about three months old.)
The result of the investigation:
The male guppies in pond 2 had significantly more spots than the
male guppies in pond 1.
 Practice example - question
1.1 How could the validity of this investigation be
increased? (2)
1.2 Identify the:
(a) independent variable (1)
(b) dependent variable (1)
1.3 Explain why the scientist included pond 2 in this
investigation. (3)
1.4 Describe how Darwin's theory of natural selection
can be used to explain why the guppies in pond 1 had
fewer spots. (5)
 ARTIFICIAL Selection/
Selective Breeding
The process carried out by people of selecting and interbreeding
organisms with desirable characteristics to produce offspring with
those characteristics that will be of use to humans.

DEFINITION: The intentional breeding of individuals in a population

by humans with desirable characteristics (phenotype) to produce
offspring with those characteristics that will be of use to humans.
Artificial selection:
• Is a human-driven selective process.
• Occurs at a faster rate than natural selection.
• Results in less variation in the population than natural selection.
• Is an artificial version of natural selection and evolution, guided
by humans.
 Benefits & disadvantages of
ARTIFICIAL selection
BENEFITS:
1. Production of organisms resistant too disease and
pests
2. Improve the quality and yield of crops
3. Produce new strains of crops eg. broccoli and
brussels sprouts
4. Been able to domesticate wild plants eg. wheat
and animals eg. cattle and sheep

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Decreases in biodiversity OR the gene pool OR
genetic variation
2. Increase in genetic disorders.
 Differences between artificial and
natural selection
STUDY THIS
Artificial Selection Natural selection
Humans select the desired Nature selects the desired
characteristic/ Humans are the characteristic/ The environment/nature
selective force is the selective force
Selection is in response to Selection is in response to suitability to
satisfying Human needs / human the environment /characteristic
needs are fulfilled. improves the chance of survival

May involve more than one species Occurs within a species

Humans select organisms to breed Mating is random
Characteristics of the population do The characteristics of the population
not necessarily change change
The rate of change is fast The rate of change is slow
Results in less variation Results in more variation
Result is improved crops or Result is adaptation to the environment
livestock
DID YOU KNOW THAT ALL THESE DIFFERENT VEGETABLES CAME FROM THE SAME PLANT??
 Artificial selection created dogs
All dog varieties
originated from the Grey
wolf, Canis familaris. The
first few domesticated
wolves would have been
selected for traits such as
tameness,
submissiveness and ones
that were easy to work
with.

Pedigree dogs sometimes

suffer from deformities
and can be more
vulnerable to diseases ARTIFICIAL SELECTION FROM WOLVES
and parasites - due to a CREATED ALL DOMESTIC DOG BREEDS
decrease in the gene pool
.
 ARTIFICIAL SELECTION TO MAKE THE
PERFECT COW
1. High milk yield
2. Resists mastitis
3. Easy birthing of calves
4. Hooves don’t need trimming….etc
The modern-day maize plant (Zea
may) was bred from a multi-stemmed
wild grass. Over 1000’s of years,
farmers selected & interbred maize
plants that had bigger ears of corn and
required less space to grow.
 Practice example - question
The graph below shows the results of artificial selection for
protein content in mealie plants over 50 generations.
 Practice example - question
1. Describe how this farmer did artificial selection of the
mealie plant. (3)

2. What was the average percentage of the protein content in

the mealie grains (kernels) at the 15th generation? (1)

3. By how many times did the average percentage of the

protein content in the mealie grains (kernels) increase
between the 40th and 50th generation? Show ALL
working. (2)
 Punctuated Equilibrium
Punctuated equilibrium was proposed by Niles
Eldredge and Stephen J. Gould in 1972.
It explains the speed at which evolution occurs.
Punctuated Equilibrium :
• There are long periods of time where species have
relatively little or no change through natural
selection (equilibrium)
• This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods
of time where rapid evolutionary change occurs
though natural selection when species become
extinct, or new species form (speciation occurs).
• Different to gradualism: Phenotypic characteristics
of the population gradually change due to
accumulation of small genetic changes
 Punctuated Equilibrium
Gradualism Punctuated equilibrium

Punctuated equilibrium is supported by the absence

of transitional fossils (“missing-links”) in the fossil
record indicating periods of rapid change.
Punctuated Equilibrium
Equilibrium (very little/no change)

Punctuated sudden change

 Punctuated Equilibrium -
example
The graph below shows the speed at which evolution
occurs in a species of butterfly.
 Punctuated Equilibrium -
question
1. Explain the trend in evolution represented by:
a) phase A (2)
b) phase B (2)
2. In view of the trend represented by A and B, what
type of evolution is represented by the graph? (1)
3. Explain why the chances of speciation are great
during phase B. (2)
 VARIATION
There is variation between individuals of the same species in a
population. This variation may be caused by:
1. Crossing over during Prophase I of meiosis
2. Random arrangement of maternal and paternal
chromosomes at the equator during metaphase of meiosis
3. Random fertilisation between different egg cells and different
sperm cells formed by meiosis result in offspring that are
different from each other.
4. Random mating between organisms within a species leads to
a different set of offspring from each mating pair.
5. A mutation changes the structure of a gene or chromosome
and therefore the organism’s genotype. Since the genotype
influences the phenotype, it creates organisms with new,
different characteristics from one generation to the next
 Continuous and discontinuous
variation
CONTINUOUS VARIATION DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION
Trait controlled by several Trait controlled by a single pair
genes of genes
Environment and genes Genes only determine the
determine the phenotype phenotype
No distinct categories/range of Distinct categories/phenotypes
phenotypes (often only TWO)
Can be expressed as a Can be expressed at a BAR
HISTOGRAM graph
Eg) height, hair colour, foot size Eg) A/B/O/AB blood types,
tongue roller or non-roller in
humans
Continuous and discontinuous
variation
 SPECIATION
The formation of a new species is called speciation.
You have already learnt that variation in individuals is
caused by:
– Random mating
– Random fertilization
– Genetic mutations
– Crossing over during meiosis
– Random arrangement of chromosomes during meiosis
• If enough of these variations occur and are kept within a
population, it is more likely that a species can change.
• Genetic variation is IMPORTANT as it increases a
species chance of surviving in a changing environment
(natural selection).
• Speciation increases biodiversity and extinction
decreases biodiversity
 SPECIATION
DEFINITION: The process by which new
species are produced through evolution
from existing species.
The new species is genetically distinct
from the parental species

There are 2 types of speciation:

1. Geographic speciation (Allopatric)
2. Sympatric speciation
 GEOGRAHIC speciation
• A new species is formed when part of a
population becomes isolated from the
ancestral/parent population due to a physical
barrier.
• The geographic separation results in the 2 new
populations being unable to interbreed
• The geographic separation results in genetic
divergence
• Is the most common form of speciation in
animals, but not in plants
REMEMBER – Biological
definitions of species and
population!!
 BARRIERS for Geographic
Separation
1. Rivers change course
2. Continental drift
3. Mountain ranges form
4. A lake dries, forming 2 separate
smaller bodies of water
5. Seeds stuck on a bird’s feather fall
onto a newly formed island
6. Sea currents wash insects/lizards
onto an island with no such organisms
GEOGRAPHIC speciation
HOW DOES GEOGRAPGIC SPECIATION
OCCUR?
A population is SEPARATED by a geographical barrier and splits into
two populations

The two populations cannot mate and so NO GENE FLOW occurs

between the two populations

The 2 populations are exposed to DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL

INFLUENCES and selective forces.

NATURAL SELECTION OCCURS independently in each population

simultaneously

The two populations become different from the original population and
each other both GENOTYPICALLY and PHENOTYPICALLY

Even if the populations were to come together again, they would NOT
BE ABLE TO INTERBREED with one another and therefore have become
DIFFERENT SPECIES
 Speciation through geographic
isolation STUDY THIS
1. A population of a single species becomes
separated by a geographic barrier (name the
barrier)
2. The population splits into two
3. There is no gene flow between the 2
populations during the separation.
4. Each population is exposed to different
environmental conditions/selection pressures.
5. Natural selection occurs independently in each
of the two populations.
IMPORTANT: Use ‘species’ &
‘population’ CORRECTLY
 Speciation through geographic
isolation STUDY THIS

6. The individuals of each population

became different from each other;
Genotypically and consequently
phenotypically.
7. Even if the two populations were to
mix again, they would not be able to
interbreed/ reproduce resulting in the
formation of a new species
8. The two populations are now different
species
 Geographic Speciation -
question
The diagram shows the distribution of various camels
on the different continents. The arrows indicate the
current distribution of the animals.

Explain how speciation of camels may have occurred. (6)

 Sympatric speciation

• A new species arises in the same area

as the ancestral species, without any
geographic barriers
• Both species occupy the same habitat
• Reproductive isolation occurs for a
different reason
 Mechanisms for REPRODUCTIVE
ISOLATION
Reproductive isolation is the mechanism that
prevents two species from mating with one
another and making fertile hybrids, even when
not separated by a geographic barrier.
• Such mechanisms are used mostly to separate
species that live in the same environment.
• A new species can arise in the same area as
the ancestral species
• Reproductive isolation occurs for a different
reason.
 Mechanisms for REPRODUCTIVE
ISOLATION
1. Breeding at different times of the year:
Different species will have different breeding seasons or, in the
case of plants, will flower at different times of the year, in order
to prevent cross-pollination.
2. Species-specific courtship behaviour:
Some animals have very specific courtship behaviours that do
not attract individuals of other species, even if they are closely
related species. Courtship behaviour is a physical or chemical
signal that an organism is ready to mate. This can include
anything from being brightly coloured, to singing elaborate
mating songs or mating dances, to the secretion of pheromones
in order to attract a mate.
3. Prevention of fertilization
Gametes (egg cell and sperm cell) come into contact but are
unable to fuse by fertilization.
 Mechanisms for REPRODUCTIVE
ISOLATION
4. Plant adaptation to different pollinators:
Many plants and their flowers are specifically adapted for
specific pollinators. Some closely related species of plants have
different characteristics such as flower shape, size, colour,
reward type (nectar or pollen), scent and timing of flowering all
play a role in attracted certain pollinators to them. Also, cross-
pollination between the different species is prevented.
5. Infertile offspring in cross-species hybrids:
Even if two species are able to physically mate and produce
offspring, they will still be reproductively isolated due to the fact
the most hybrid offspring are infertile. E.g) Mule is a result of
breeding a female horse (64 chromosomes) and a male donkey
(62 chromosomes). The mules has 63 chromosomes and cannot
produce a viable gametes because of the odd chromosomes
number.
MECHANISMS OF REPRODUCTIVE
ISOLATION
 Geographic speciation -
example
Darwin discovered two different species of tortoises on two different
islands in the Galapagos. One had a domed shell and short neck, the
other had an elongated shell and a longer neck. The two islands had very
different vegetation. One of the islands (island X) was rather barren, dry
and arid. It had no grass but rather short tree-like cactus plants. On the
other island (island Y), there were no cactus plants but it had a good
supply of water and grass grew freely.

The diagram below shows the two main species of tortoise.

Geographic speciation -
example
 Geographic speciation -
questions
1. Which tortoise (1 or 2) would have been found on:
a) Island X (1)
b) Island Y (1)
2. Describe how the two tortoise species became
different species. (5)
 EVIDENCE for Evolution
There are a number of different areas
which provide evidence for evolution:
1. Fossil record (Paleontology)
2. Genetic (molecular biology)
3. Modification by decent (homologous
structures)
4. Biogeography
NOT STUDIED IN SCHOOL: Comparative Embryology,
Vestigial organs
 FOSSIL Evidence
Paleontology is the study of fossils
• Fossils are the remains of ancient life forms preserved in rocks,
ice, tar & dried tree sap.
• Fossils are formed by:
– Petrification i.e organism turned to stone
– Imprints/impressions formed as organisms decay.
– Freezing in ice
– Tar pits in which organism is trapped
– Organism trapped in amber which is hardened tree sap
• Age of fossils established by radiometric dating (fossils older than
100 million years) or carbon dating (fossils less than 50 000 years
old)
• Fossils form only under VERY specific conditions
• Examples of fossils: bones of vertebrae, shells of invertebrates,
footprints, imprints of leaves and small animals
NB! NOT ALL
ORGANISMS
CAN FORM
FOSSILS
 What does the fossil record show?

• An increase in complexity; from

simplest organisms first to more
complex
• Oldest fossils are found in the oldest
rock layers lower down
• Increase in diversity of organisms
• There are more extinct species the
further back in time you go in time
• The existence of transitional fossils
 Why are there gaps in the fossil
record?
The formation of fossils requires VERY specific conditions:
• Organisms need to die where they will be covered
quickly by sediment
• They need to get buried deeper and deeper, where no
oxygen is present
• The pH of the sediment must be just right
• Calcium phosphate in the bones must be replaced by
silica from the surrounding sediment
• The fossil must be uncovered /excavated out by erosion
or weathering of rock
• A palaeontologist must find the fossil
• Some organisms eg. soft bodied ones, cannot become
fossilized
 GENETIC Evidence
Species that are closely related have a greater genetic
similarity because they share a more recent common
ancestor. Genetic evidence includes:

• DNA structure is exactly the same in all life forms & has
not changed in 3 billion years.
• Similar genes sequence and proteins are proof of
relation.
• Similar portions of non-coding DNA (junk DNA)
• Similar mutations (Mitochondrial DNA)
• Protein synthesis occurs in exactly the same way in all
living organisms
• Glycolysis is the same in most life forms & aerobic
respiration occurs by means of Kreb’s Cycle in all
present-day life forms.
 DNA
STRUCTURE
THE SAME

CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
THE SAME

PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
THE SAME
 Modification by decent/
Comparative anatomy Evidence
The study and comparison of similar
structures in different organisms
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES:
- Structures (body parts) that are
derived from a common ancestor but
evolved in different environments
- They must be similar in fundamental
structure, position and development
 EXAMPLE OF A HOMOLOGOUS
STRUCTURE
• The pentadactyl limb – a limb with 5 fingers
or toes
• PENTADACTYL LIMB (fore limb) of
Mammals, reptiles and birds ALL share
similar bone structure
• eg. The flipper of a whale and a human arm
have very similar bone structure, although
they look very different on the outside
PENTADACTYL LIMB = HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE
 ANALYGOUS STRUCTURES
• Structures are similar in different organisms
because they evolved in a similar environment
• Usually serve same or similar function. Eg. Bats
and insects both have wings
• They share a common function but the structure
is very different, one made of bone, the other
chitin
• No common ancestor, organisms developed the
ability to fly along 2 separate evolutionary paths
ANALYGOUS STRUCTURES
 HOMOLOGOUS and ANALUGOUS
Structure Comparison
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES

• Not superficially similar • Superficial similarity

• Similar in position and • Differ in fundamental
fundamental structure structure
• Not necessarily similar in • Common function
function • Similarity due to adapting
• Similarity due to a to common environment
common ancestor • eg. wing of an insect and
• eg. forelimb of a human a bird
and a bat
Evidence from BIOGEOGRAPHY
Biogeography refers to the study of past and
present distribution of individual species
• Closely related species tend to occur in the
same geographic location
• Similar habitats in different locations are
occupied by different species
• Convergent evolution (acquisition of the
same traits by unrelated species) is a factor.
• Leads to development of analogous
structures
 NATURAL SELECTION in
present times
Evolution is always happening. Most of the time it
is impossible to observe changes in populations
and species because evolution happens very
slowly.
However, there are some cases in organisms
which rapidly reproduce that allow scientists to
study how species change in response to
environmental factors.
This gives us a chance to see evolution over a
relatively short period of time in insects, small
animals, bacteria and viruses.
 NATURAL SELECTION in
present times (examples)
1. Use of insecticides and consequent
resistance to insecticides in insects
(E.g. DDT and Anopheles mosquito)
2. Development of drug resistance
strains of Tuberculosis-causing
bacteria (MDR and XDR)
3. HIV resistance to antiretrovirals
4. Bill (beak) and body size of Galapagos
finches. 1977 drought and 1984/5 rain.
 NATURAL SELECTION in
present times (examples)

TB CAUSING BACTERIA HAVE

MOSQUITOS HAVE BECOME
BECOME RESISTANT TO
RESISTANT TO DDT
MULTIPLE DRUGS
 NATURAL SELECTION in
present times (examples)
Anopheles mosquito
• DDT is a chemical used to kill Anopheles mosquitos which
carry Plasmodium, the malaria parasite.
• The mosquito population had (genetic) variation.
• Certain mosquitoes had a genetic mutation which made them
resistant to DDT, while other mosquitos did not have this
mutation
• The mosquitos without the advantageous mutation died
• The mosquitos with the mutation were able to grow,
reproduce, and pass on the advantageous mutation to their
offspring
• Over time a higher proportion of mosquitos in the population
had the mutation which made them more resistant to DDT
• DDT is longer effective against these mosquitoes and is no
longer used in most countries
 Evolution in Present Times
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• TB is caused by the bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Initially there were a number of antibiotics which effectively killed
the TB bacteria
• Certain of these bacteria had a genetic mutation which made
them more resistant to the antibiotics, while other bacteria did not
have this mutation
• Bacteria with the advantageous mutation were able to survive,
reproduce and pass this advantageous mutation on to their
offspring
• Over time a higher proportion of the bacteria in the population
contain the mutation
• Antibiotics which were previously effective are no longer killing
these bacteria
• XDR-TB (extremely drug resistant) and MDR-TB (multidrug
resistant) bacteria have resulted
Evolution in Present Times
 Practice example –
peppered moth
• Moth species found in England
• Example of Natural selection
 Practice example –
peppered moth
Before the industrial revolution, light-coloured moths were
far more common in England than dark-coloured moths.
Trees were covered by a pale lichen which provided
camouflage for the lighter moth. Dark moths were much
more visible and were eaten by birds.

Due to pollution from factories in the 19th century, the

environment changed. Lichen was killed off, and a black
soot covered the bark on the trees. This provided good
camouflage for the dark-coloured moths, but the light-
coloured moths stood out from their background and were
ready prey for birds.
 Practice example –
peppered moth
The following is a graph showing the changes in the
percentage of dark-coloured moths over a number of years.
 Practice example –
questions
3.1 What is the relationship between the dark-
coloured moth population and the pollution from 1965
to 1985? (1)
3.2 Why did the population of the light-coloured moths
decrease during the 19th century? (2)
3.3 Once the air pollution had decreased, what do you
think happened to the population of the light-coloured
moths? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
3.4 How would Charles Darwin have explained the
change in frequency of the different coloured moths
using natural selection
HUMAN EVOLUTION
 Terminology
1. Arboreal: Living primarily in trees
2. Opposable thumb: A thumb that can be placed opposite the
fingers of the same hand for grasping objects
3. Sexual dimorphism: Distinct differences in size or
appearance between the sexes of an animal in addition to
the sexual organs themselves
4. Bipedalism: The ability to walk on two legs
5. Quadrupedalism: The use of four limbs for locomotion
(quadrupeds)
6. Diurnal: Active during the day rather than at night.
7. Transitional fossil: Fossil of an organism that has
intermediate/ common characteristics between two genera.
(common to both the ancestor species and the species that
follows)
 Terminology
8. Foramen magnum: Hole in the base of skull through
which the spinal cord passes
9. Cranial ridge: Ridge of bone running across the top of the
skull that served to attach large jaw muscles to the head
10. Prognathous: Protruding (projecting forward) upper /
lower jaw.
11. Anthropology: Study of the natural history &
development of humans from their early beginnings
12. Artefact: Weapons, tools, rock art and other products of
early human life
13. Brachiation: Swinging from branch to branch with arms
overhead.
 What is important for Human
Evolution?
1. Reading phylogenetic trees (including simple
calculations)
2. Similarities and differences between humans
and primates.
3. Changes in skull and skeleton shown in the fossil
record that show evolution (what makes human
beings, different from the apes / other primates).
4. Fossil, genetic and cultural evidence that
support the idea of common ancestors for living
hominids
5. The ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis
6. Importance of the Cradle of Humankind
Phylogenetic Trees/Cladograms
Diagrams showing evolutionary
relationships between organisms.

We can tell the following information

from a phylogenetic tree:
– Evolutionary relationships of organisms
– Common ancestry
– When extinction and speciation events occurred
– Phylogenic trees which also show characteristics
that arose at specific times
How to read a phylogenetic tree

The root of the phylogenetic diagram

represents the ancestor, and the tips
of the branches, the descendants of
that ancestor.
How to read a phylogenetic tree

Speciation is represented as a
branching of the tree, as a single
ancestral lineage gives rise to several
new species/lineage.
How to read a phylogenetic tree

Each lineage
has ancestors
that are unique
to that lineage
and common
ancestors that
are shared with
other lineages.
OUR PLACE IN THE ANIMAL
KINGDOM
Modern humans
– scientific name
Homo sapiens
(homo: man,
sapiens: wise) –
are considered
part Kingdom
Animalia
OUR PLACE IN THE ANIMAL
KINGDOM
 Primate Phylogenetic tree

Humans share a common ancestor with chimpanzees that lived

approximately 6 million years ago.
 Human evolution
We will focus now specifically on the Family
Hominidae, exploring the relationships between
humans and other hominids.

To trace the evolutionary development of modern

humans from an ancestor shared by all hominids, it is
helpful to consider their anatomical similarities and
their anatomical differences.
The differences point to the existence of different
species, while the similarities point to a possible
common ancestor.
 HOMINID = Great apes
and humans

HOMININ = Humans and

fossil ancestors
 Characteristics that humans SHARE
with African apes
Hominids (members of the Family Hominidae, including
humans) share a number of characteristics. Scientists
argue that these arose from their adaptation to arboreal
living (life spent mostly in trees).
SHARED characteristics = evidence of common ancestor
1. UPPER LIMBS:
– Long upper arms
– Freely rotating arms
– Rotation around elbow joints
– Wrist rotating about 180 degrees
– Flat nails instead of claws
– Bare (sensitive) fingertips
– Opposable thumbs (The thumb work in opposite direction
to finger allowing for precision and power grip)
Characteristics that humans SHARE
with African apes
2. BRAIN:
– Large brain relative to body mass
– Sensory area enlarged
– Olfactory area reduced
3. VISION:
– Two eyes in front on the head
– Binocular vision – focusing on object with
both eyes & achieving depth perception
– Stereoscopic vision – observing solid 3D
nature of object.
– Presence of cones (for colour vision)
Characteristics that humans SHARE
with African apes
4. UPRIGHT POSTURE:
- Primates have the ability to sit upright with their
head held high.
- Allows hands to be free for carrying food, tools,
offspring
5. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM:
- Difference in size and appearance between
male and females of same species
6. NUMBER OF OFFSPRING:
- Primates have fewer offspring than many other
mammals and they are dependent on their parents
for longer
The biggest difference between
humans and other primates is
the fact that we are ALWAYS
bipedal
Anatomical DIFFERENCES between
African apes and humans
Many of the anatomical differences
between modern humans and other apes
are related to habitual bipedalism.
All apes are capable of upright posture
and at times walking on two feet.
Most primates occasionally display
bipedalism, but humans are always
bipedal.
CHARACTERISTICS WHICH MAKE HUMANS
DIFFERENT FROM African Apes

BIPEDALISM - Ability to walk upright on 2 legs

[Link]

BIPEDAL QUADRAPEDAL
 Anatomical DIFFERENCES as a
result of bipedalism
1. Foramen magnum in forward position
2. S-shaped spine
3. Shorter, broad/wide pelvis
4. Femur angled inward
5. Big toe in line with other toes
6. A foot arch
 Foramen Magnum

The position of the foramen magnum – the hole in the base of the skull
where the spinal cord leaves / enters the skull.
Quadrupeds have the foramen magnum in a backward position.
Humans, walking upright have it in a forward position.
 Curvature (shape) of the spine

Gorilla Human
C-shaped S-shaped
spine spine

Human spine is curved to absorb shock/allow flexible movement/for

support. The upper body is directly above the pelvis when standing erect.
 Shape of the pelvis and foot
Chimpanzee pelvis is long and narrow as Human pelvis is short and
it is adapted for quadrupedal movement wide to support the upper body

Grasping big toe Big toe in line with other toes

 Femur angle
In humans, the shape of the pelvis means the femur
is angled inwards for maximum load bearing.

Human Chimpanzee
 WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF
BIPEDALISM?
• Hands free, allows for carrying of food,
offspring, tools.
• Better view/Wider view of surroundings to
see predators or approaching danger
• More energy efficient movement (uses less
energy)
• More efficient thermoregulation (better air
flow around body, vertical posture exposes
less surface area to the sun)
• Phallic display - In courtship behaviour, the
male sex organ is readily displayed
Other anatomical DIFFERENCES
• FLAT FACE:
– Foreheads do not slope backwards as
much
– Well developed chin
– Non protruding nasal and jaw bones i.e non
prognathous
• JAW SHAPE:
– Smaller jaw, palate shape is gently curved
at sides and front
• DENTITION:
– Smaller teeth
– Small canines
 The Skull

Prominent brow ridge Reduced brow ridge

Chimp Human

Humans:
Chimpanzee: Flat face
Sloping face Well developed chin
Not well-developed chin Less Prognathous/ Non-
Prognathous jaw prognathous jaw
Prominent brow ridge Reduced brow ridge
Jaw, teeth and palate shape
 Jaw, teeth and palate shape
African Ape Human
Large jaw Small jaw
Large teeth Small teeth, similar size
teeth
Large canines Small canines
Big gaps between teeth No gaps between teeth
Long/rectangular palate Curved palate shape
shape
 Differing Characteristics
• ENLARGED BRAIN:
– Largest brain size of all primates
– Generally large brain associated with
greater intelligence
• LANGUAGE:
– Natural language – sounds used by
animals as a means of communication.
– Artificial language - created language
such as English, isiZulu, French etc
 Cranium size/ Brain size

Ape Human

As early humans evolved, the brain grew in size and complexity. Over the
course of human evolution, brain size tripled. Humans have a larger brain
(cranium size) than chimpanzees (apes)
 Cranial ridge

A cranial ridge serves as attachment for the muscles involved with chewing
 Summary of DIFFERENCES
between humans and African apes
 EVIDENCE for evolution
There are 3 sources of evidence for
human evolution:
1. Fossil record
2. Genetic evidence
3. Cultural evidence
 HOMININ evolution
• Human evolution was driven in part by climate
change. Climate has always been variable and
organisms could adapt to slow changes.
• More rapid changes however, with a scarcity of
resources, placed enormous pressure on all
organisms to adapt.
• Hominins (humans) survived, and flourished,
because of their bipedalism - ability to walk
upright, their larger brain’s ability to
communicate, to problem-solve, and to make
tools.
 HOMININ SPECIES
• Large number of hominin species
• Many co-existed at the same time
• No ladder-like progression of one species giving
rise to the next
• Here we trace the development of hominins from
the genus Ardipithecus that lived about 5 million
years ago
• There are two main genus groups
(genus plural = genera)
1. Australopethicus
2. Homo
 HOMININ SPECIES
Australopithecus

• A. anamensis
• A. afarensis
• A. africanus
• A. robustus
• A. sediba

Homo

• H. habilis
• H. erectus
• H. sapiens (archaic)
• H. neanderthalensis
• H. sapiens sapiens
HOMININ SPECIES
 Characteristics of the genus
AUSTRALOPITHECUS
• Australopithecus appears after Ardipithecus
• Australopithecus has a slightly bigger brain
than ancestors - 400-500cm3
• Fully BIPEDAL, mostly short in stature, big toe
in line with the rest of the toes
• Prognathous face with heavy brow ridge, large
teeth and jaws
• Eg. A. afarensis (Lucy), A. africanus (Mrs Ples)
• One australopithecine line gives rise to early
humans/ Homo habilis/ handy man.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS
AUSTRALOPITHECUS -
examples
Australopithecus changes
 AUSTRALOPITHECUS
A. anamensis (4,2 – 3,8 mya)
A. afarensis (3,6 – 3 mya)
1. “Lucy”: Discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia
2. “Laetoli footprints”: Discovered in 1976 by Mary
Leakey in Tanzania
A. africanus (3 - 2 mya)
1. “Taung child”: Discovered in 1924 in South Africa by
Raymond Dart
2. “Mrs Ples”: Discovered at Sterkfontein caves by Robert
Broom
3. “Little Foot”: Very complete skeleton, discovered at
Sterkfontein by Ron Clarke, Stephen Motsumi &
Nkwane Molefe
 A. afarensis
Lucy
Australopithecus
afarensis
- Ethiopia
- 1974
- Donald Johanson,
Yves Coppan &
Tim White

Skull reconstruction
 A. afarensis
Laetoli Footprints
(Tanzania Africa)
What deductions
did science reach
on the basis of
these prints?

A. afarensis was
bipedal!
 A. africanus
PROF. PHILIP TOBIAS – WORLD
RENOWNED PALAENTOLOGIST
FROM WITS – WITH THE TAUNG
CHILD

Discovered by Raymond Dart in

1924 (NW prov)
 Mrs Ples
Mrs Ples
Australopithecus
africanus
• Sterkfontein
Caves
• 1947
• Robert Broom
• Male adult version
of Taung Baby
 Little foot
Little Foot
• A. africanus
- Sterkfontein
Caves
- 1997/98
- Ron Clarke,
Stephen
Motsumi &
Nkwane Molefe
- Very complete
skeleton
RON CLARKE
BUSY
EXCAVATING
LITTLE FOOT
 AUSTRALOPETHICUS (cont)
A. robustus (2 – 1mya)
- Not regarded as ancestral to humans
- Sometimes called Paranthropus robustus
- Lived at same time as H. habilis and H. erectus

A. sediba (1,9 – 1,7mya)

- “Karabo” found by Lee Berger at Cradle
of Humankind
- Possibly transitional species between
Australopithecines and first Homo species
(habilis)
- Smaller brain like Australopithecus but teeth similar
to Homo
Image result for paranthropus robustus skull diagram

A. sediba
Image result for australopithecus sediba skull

A. robustus
Very strong jaw and
pronounced cranial
ridge

Smaller brain like A but teeth

similar to H
 Characteristics of the genus
HOMO
• Larger brain – 1200-1700cm3
• Upright and fully bipedal, longer legs
and shorter arms
• Taller/larger body
• Human-like teeth (no large canines)
• Rounded dental arch
• Non-prognathous face and reduced
brow ridge
Characteristics of the genus
HOMO
Genus HOMO – examples
[Link]

Image result for hominin skeletons

 Homo
H. habilis (2,2 – 1,6mya)
• “Handy Man” – First use of stone tools.
H. erectus (sometimes called H. ergaster) (2 – 0,4mya)
• “Turkana boy”
• First Homo species to spread out of Africa (1.8 mya)
Archaic H. sapiens (600 000 – 200 000ya)
• Sometimes called H. hiedelbergensis
H. neanderthalensis (135 000 – 30 000ya)
• Large brain
• Lived in Europe and West Asia
• Not direct ancetors of modern humans
H. sapiens sapiens
• Earliest fossils found in Ethiopia
• Only surviving Homo species
 Genus HOMO
• Homo habilis gave rise to Homo
erectus
- as tall as modern humans
- bigger brain than Homo habilis
Image result for homo habilis fossil

H. erectus
H. habilis (Kenya) H. erectus
(Java Man - Indonesia)
(Turkana boy)
H. neanderthalensis

H. heidelbergensis
Florisbad skull
 Genus HOMO
• Homo erectus gradually gives rise to
Homo sapiens
• H sapiens much larger brain & flat face
• 4 other human species develop
concurrently with Homo sapiens
• Homo sapiens naturally selected, only
species which survived, all others died
out
 Homo naledi
• Discovered in 2013 in the
Rising Star cave system in
the Cradle of Humankind

• Lived 335,000-236,000 years ago

• Estimated 15 individual specimens found
• Evidence of bipedalism, tree climbing,
smaller cranial capacity and tool use
• Challenges previous theories that larger brain
provided an evolutionary advantage
What changes are seen in evolution
towards H. sapiens?
Changes include:
1. Gradual shift of foramen magnum to
forward position.
2. More rounded skull
3. Increased cranium & skeleton size
4. Flatter face/less sloping forehead
5. More rounded jaw/decreased prognathous
6. Change in dentition – smaller jaw/teeth
7. More developed chin
 Foramen magnum

Foramen magnum MORE FORWARD POSITION

Evolution of the skull
Brain/cranial size increase

Cranial capacity/Brain getting LARGER

 Skull changes

Brain getting LARGER, Cranium getting more ROUNDED

Teeth and jaw getting SMALLER

Face getting LESS SLOPED

Chin getting MORE developed

Body changes

Increase in HEIGHT
 Summary of some important hominin fossil discoveries
SPECIES APPROXIMATE AGE WHERE AND WHEN
Sahelanthropus tchadenis 7mya Chad , 2001
(Toumai)

Ardipithecus ramidus 4.4mya Ethiopia, 1992

A. anamensis 4mya Kenya, 1994

A. afarensis (Lucy) 3,2mya Ethiopia, 1973

A. africanus (Little foot) 2,6 – 3,3mya Sterkfontein, South Africa 1997

A. africanus (Taung child) 2 – 3mya Taung, N. Cape, South Africa ,1926

A. Africanus (Mrs Ples) 2,5mya Sterkfontein, South Africa 1947

Paranthropus boisei 1,8mya Tanzania, 1959

(Nutcracker Man)

H. habilis (Handy Man) 2 – 1,6mya Kenya, 1960

H. erectus (Turkana Boy) 1,6mya Kenya, 1984

H. sapiens (Florisbad skull) 600 000 – 200 South Africa, 1932

000BCE

H. sapiens sapiens 200 000years ago –

present day
 EVIDENCE for evolution
There are 3 sources of evidence for
human evolution:
1. Fossil record
2. Genetic evidence
3. Cultural evidence
GENETIC evidence for evolution
1. Studies comparing the nuclear DNA shared by humans and
apes reveal that:
– The genetic difference between modern-day humans is
very small. They share 99,9% of the same genes.
2. The analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the
differences that exist between the mtDNA of two different
species enables scientist to determine how long ago the
species separated.
– Given the amount of genetic material shared between
humans and other hominids (the apes), they must have had
a common ape-like ancestor who lived approximately 5 – 6
million years ago.
 EVIDENCE for evolution
There are 3 sources of evidence for
human evolution:
1. Fossil record
2. Genetic evidence
3. Cultural evidence
 CULTURAL evidence for evolution
(page 274 & 279)
• Non-genetic process of adaptation = cultural evolution
• Consisted of learned skills passed on to offspring
• Artefact – weapons, tools, rock art and other products of
early human life
• Larger brain and structure of the hand enabled
development of tools
• Stone tools dated to 2.5-2 mya (H habilis)
• More advanced tools and fire use 1.2-1 mya (H erectus)
• The control of fire (being able to make a fire) to provide
warmth, to allow for the cooking of food, and contribute to
social cohesion.
• H neaderthalensis and H sapiens skilled hunters, tool
makers, evidence of artwork, clothing and burial rituals.
HOMININ tools (Artefacts)
• The use of tools is
not exclusive to
humans and has
been observed in
the animal kingdom.
• The manufacturing
of tools is unique to
humans – belonging
to the genus Homo.
• The type of tool,
and the gradual
development of
more sophisticated
tools, is illustrated
in the diagram (left)
 ‘Out of Africa’ Hypothesis
The ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis states that all modern humans originated
in Africa, and then migrated out of Africa to the rest of the world.
 Out of Africa Hypothesis
• Approximately 150 – 200 000 years ago, Homo erectus
evolved into Homo sapiens in eastern and southern
Africa.
• About 70 000 years ago, these modern humans spread
out, into Europe, Asia and across the world.
• Due to an ice age, the sea levels on the Red Sea would
have been quite low, allowing Homo sapiens to cross first
into the Middle East, then to Eurasia, Europe and
Australia, and about 20 000 years ago into N. America.
There are 2 sources of evidence:
1. Fossils
2. Genetic evidence
 Fossil evidence for the
‘Out of Africa’ Hypothesis
1. Ardipithecus fossils found in Africa ONLY
2. Australopithicus fossils found in Africa ONLY
(inluding Littlefoot, Taung Child and Mrs Ples)
3. Homo habilis fossils found in Africa ONLY
4. Oldest Homo erectus fossils found in Africa –
younger H. erectus fossils found on other
continents.
5. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils have ALL
been found in Africa.
STUDY THIS
 Genetic evidence for the
‘Out of Africa’ Hypothesis
• Geneticists use mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to
study human origins and migrations.
• mtDNA is passed unchanged from mother to
offspring.
• mtDNA is used because it is not involved in
fertilisation i.e. the mtDNA of sperm does not fuse
with that of egg.
• Also, mtDNA mutates about 20 times faster than
nuclear DNA, which makes it easier to detect and
follow genetic patterns over time
• However, during a person’s life, mutations (changes)
to the mtDNA do occur.
 Genetic evidence for the
‘Out of Africa’ Hypothesis
• Scientists can determine the rate at which such
mutations (or markers) take place and can then use
them as a type of molecular clock to determine the
age of a particular maternal mtDNA lineage.
• Thus, tracing markers of descent in mtDNA allows
the tracing of female lineage
 Genetic evidence for the
‘Out of Africa’ Hypothesis
Conclusions from mtDNA analysis:
• African populations of Homo sapiens have the greatest
number of mtDNA markers and are thus the oldest.
• mtDNA research shows that there is greater genetic
diversity among Africans than any other populations
around the world.
• Thus, Africans are “older” and other race groups are
“younger”
• The most recent common ancestor whose genetic
marker is found in all living humans, must have lived in
eastern Africa approximately 150 000 years ago.
• Based on markers in non-African populations, scientists
believe that modern humans moved out of Africa about
60 – 70 000 years ago.
 Genetic evidence for the
‘Out of Africa’ Hypothesis
 South African contribution

The Cradle of Humankind is situated in Gauteng north-

west of Johannesburg includes 15 different sites
 The Cradle of Humankind
has produced ALMOST
40% of the world’s hominin
fossils.
 Important fossil sites
(5 out of 15)
1. Sterkfontein caves:
• First hominin discovery in 1936, and since then,
about 500 hominin fossils have been found there.
• 40% of all hominin fossils found world-wide.
• Famous fossils:
• In 1947, Robert Broom discovered Mrs Ples, the
most complete skull of the species A. africanus.
• In 1997, Ron Clarke, working with Stephen Motsumi
and Nkwane Molefe, discovered Little Foot, the
oldest fossil remains from the Cradle of Humankind.
• In 2013, Lee Berger and his team excavated about
1550 fossils (at least 15 individuals) of Homo naledi,
a species of hominin not known previously.
 Important fossil sites
(5 out of 15)
2. Swartkrans:
• Largest sample of Paranthropus robustus fossils
anywhere, with numerous homo fossils as well.
The oldest fossils date from 2,1 – 1,9 mya.
• First H. erectus fossils were found by Robert
Broom at Swartkrans.
3. Kromdraai:
• First discovery of Paranthropus robustus in 1938,
identified by Robert Broom. 29 hominin specimen,
dated 2 – 1,8 mya have been found there, with
stone tools from around 1 mya.
 Important fossil sites
(5 out of 15)
4. Malapa:
• Karabo (Homo sediba), dated 2 mya – a transitional
species linking A. afarensis and the earliest form of
the genus Homo.
5. Other sites: Drimolen, Plover’s Lake, and
Gladysvale.
 Fossil sites in Africa
ETHIOPIA – Afar valley
Ardipithicus fossil
Lucy – A afarensis

TANZANIA KENYA
Olduvai Gorge Lake Turkana (Turkana boy)
Nutcracker man (A boisei) H habilis and H erectus fossils
H habilis fossils
Laetoli footprints (A afarensis)
Fossils found elsewhere in Africa
Chad
Toumai
a 7 million year old
fossil was found
Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Oldest hominin fossil

Fossils found elsewhere in Africa
Great Rift Valley
Fossils older than
those found in South
Africa were
discovered in other
countries in Africa
eg. Tanzania
Nutcracker man;
Laetoli footprints
East Africa was then
considered to be the
Cradle