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Design Considerations for Military Data Link Architecture in Enabling

Integration of Intelligent Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs) with Navy Units

Conference Paper · June 2009

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 NATO UNCLASSIFIED

Design Considerations for Military Data Link Architecture in Enabling

Integration of Intelligent Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs) with Navy
Units
Mustafa Dinc*
Ph.D. Istanbul Technical University (ITU)
Istanbul/TURKEY
{mdinc1972@[Link]}

ABSTRACT
Since navy warship survival is highly dependent on the speed and quality of decisions taken on air threats
onboard, Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs) provide invaluable support especially for military missions such
as, intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition & identification, reconnaissance surveillance, terrain
mapping, target, and more. UAV systems combine air vehicles, sensor suites and ground-based
exploitation segments as part of a network-enabled capability. Furthermore, UAV systems are multi-
sensor, multi-mission and multi-platform solutions, designed to meet a broad range of military
requirements. Therefore, UAV systems place great emphasis on interoperability, survivability, persistence,
endurance and flight operations in military. Effective military use of next generation intelligent UAVs
dictates a System-of-Systems approach to insure robust network communication with respect to mission
essential flight management functions, such as trajectory generation, reporting, de-confliction, spacing,
targeting, including own-ship and multi-vehicle operations.

The information network architecture and inquiries between Command & Control (C2) system of navy
units and mobile UAVs in real time is highly critical issue. In addition, the success of military missions
conducted using UAVs are extremely dependent on the availability of robust and high performance
communication data links. Among the hierarchical network architectures, robust and secure military data
link systems such as, Link 11, 16 and 22 frameworks are the possible candidates for handling Command
& Control (C2) of UVAs primarily along with Navy units. However, UAV communications still requiring
further research and development. In this paper, we provide some background for these military data link
technologies and also discuss research developments that affect or will affect UAVs’ link communication
infrastructure in the near term. The researches conducted during the study of Turkish Navy requirements
on UAV data link systems to illustrate performance limits, trade-offs and feasibility of the recommended
solutions.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs) technology has rapidly improved over the last two decades in terms
of materials, engines, aeronautics, guidance, navigation and controls (GNC). This has resulted in
dramatically size decrease, improved speed, payload, endurance, operation range and reliability. But more
importantly, advances in electronics and computer technology has produced new intelligent UAVs that
can even perform onboard processing, imaging and networking with each other in autonomous group
flyers and the other units. Therefore, UAV systems continue to expand, encompassing a broad range of
mission capabilities [1].

UAVs provide invaluable support especially for military missions such as, intelligence, surveillance, target
acquisition & identification, reconnaissance, surveillance, terrain mapping, and more. UAV systems
combine air vehicles, sensor suites and ground-based exploitation segments as part of a network-enabled
capability. Furthermore, UAV systems are multi-sensor, multi-mission and multi-platform solutions,
designed to meet a broad range of military requirements. Therefore, UAV systems place great emphasis on
interoperability, survivability, persistence, endurance and flight operations in military.

As depicted in Figure 1, Military UAVs are basically categorized in three types in terms of range/altitude
and endurance [8]:
Tactical UAV (TUAV)
Medium Altitude Long Endurance UAV (MALE UAV)
High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE UAV).

TUAVs are small and inexpensive with limited payload, range and endurance. Flying altitude is more than
5 Kft and range (up to 50 km) is usually limited to line of sight of the ground control station. Typical
payloads for a TUAV are 50 kg. These UAVs are used for surveillance purposes. Navy units primarily use
this type of UAVs due to mission type. Typical examples of the TAUV are Phoenix (UK), Sender (UK),
Hunter (Israel/US), and Vulture (South Africa).

MALE UAVs are relatively large and expensive with considerably enhanced performance over the
TUAV. Flying altitude is more than 20 Kft. Payloads can be up to 300 kg, with much greater range (over
200 km) and endurance than the TUAV. These UAVs are used for reconnaissance purposes [8]. Typical
example UAV systems are Spectator (UK), Hermes 450 (Israel), TIHA (Turkey), Predator (US), Houros
(France/US).

HALE UAV can be substantive craft with endurance in excess of 12 hrs, and payload capacities of up to
800kg and above. These UAVs are used for strategic surveillance purposes. Typical examples of such
UAV systems include [8]: Global Hawk (US), Hermes 750 (Israel). However, Uninhabited Combat Air
Vehicles (UCAVs) are another UAV application more debated by the UAV Community. There are outside
the scope of this paper.

Technically, the UAV system can be characterized by an air system and a ground system, interconnected
by data links, control links, and integrated into a technical and decision-making environment. Several
sensor/payload packages will be required in order to perform different military missions. Depending upon
the size of the UAVs, those sub-systems are combined together to enhance mission capability [10].
Electro-optical (EO)/ Infa-red (IR)/Laser Designator (LD) Sensor, for Reconnaissance and
Surveillance of generic targets both fixed and mobile.
Moving Target Indicator (MTI) Radar/Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), for monitoring of suspect
activities and tracking mobile ground targets.
Electronic Support Measure (ESM) and Position Locator System (PLS)

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Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)/Signal Intelligence (SIGINT) equipment for monitoring

communication and electronic activities.
Transponder/repeater equipment: for telecommunication relay for wideband application such as
C3 function, especially for out-of-area operations.

Figure 1: Classification of UAVs in terms of Speed, Altitude, and Endurance

In Table 1, it is given examples of different configurations of military UAVs used in various countries.
For instance, Global Hawk carries both an EO/IR sensor and a SAR with moving target indicator (MTI)
capability, allowing day/night, and all-weather reconnaissance. Sensor data is relayed over CDL LOS (X-
band) and/or beyond LOS (BLOS) (Ku-band SATCOM) data links to its mission control element, which
distributes imagery to up to seven theater exploitation systems.

Name Speed Altitude/Type Payload Data Link

EO (TV/IR/LD) Direct LOS

Heron/Israel 207 Km/h 30 Kft/MALE SAR, Maritime Patrol Radar Relay for Beyond LOS
(MPR) (BLOS) via SATCOM
COMINT & ESM capability Ground-based data relay
Communication relay

Global 650 Km/h 65Kft/HALE 2000-3000 pounds Wideband SATCOM

Hawk/USA SAR, EO, infrared (IR) sensors (either Ku or UHF) CDL
SAR-MTI, SIGINT for direct down link of
imagery LOS

Predator/USA 70-90 Kts 26 Kft/MALE EO/IR C-band LOS,

SAR(all weather) SATCOM (UHF and Ku)

Tipchak/Russia 108 Kts 10 Kft/Tactical 14.5 Kg Real-time digital data link

IR/Video

EADS 160 Km/h 25 Kft/MALE 600 pounds LOS

SIDM/France IR/EO/LD sensors, SAR, SATCOM
ELINT, and COMINT

TIHA/Turkey >75 Kts 30 Kft/MALE EO(TV/IR/LD-LRF) Direct LOS (C & UHF)

SAR SATCOM (X-Band)
BLOS, data relay

Bateleur/South 250 Km/h MALE 200 kg payloads LOS, BLOS (Ku band)
Africa EO(TV/IR/LD), SAR 750 km/4000 km. range

Fire Scout 125 Kts 20 Kft/Tactical 90/226 Kg payload option L-3 Comm TCDL
VTUAV/USA EO(TV/IR/LD), TSAR(MTI), 280 km LOS distance
SIGINT

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Table 1: Configurations of Different Type of UAVs

2.0 UAV DATA LINKS AND TECHNOLOGY TRENDS

One of the most critical components of a UAV system is the data link between the UAV itself and the
ground control station (GCS). Data Link system should be able to collect their data and transmit them to
the GCS. Hence, the success of UAV’s missions conducted is extremely dependent on the availability of
robust, high performance communication data links. In addition, using high capacity data links on UAVs
has became an inevitable need because of the developments in the optical and electronic sensor field. This
requirement is met by using digital based data links through satellite or in the Line of Sight (LOS). These
digital data links used primarily in military applications provide the capabilities of high data transmission
rate in a low bandwidth, jam resistance, transferring image, data and voice information in one link packet,
improved speed and robust link protocol, high resolution data, dynamic sampling rate, and secure and
observable data.

Commonly used frequency bands for UAVs are UHF/VHF, S and C bands, but these analog data links do
not meet the demand of desired data link rate of today. Therefore, more efficient frequency bands of L, X,
and Ku are used in UAV systems today. However, such a near-term solution still has some performance
gaps.

Today, extensive research and development effort is dedicated to data link systems for UAVs. These data
link systems constitute a new family of communication system which merges the demands for mobility,
high data rates and ultimate security. In this paper, general information will be given on some of the
widely used UAV data links and technology trends, such as CDL, TCDL, TDDL, HIDL and DVA.

2.1 Common Data Link (CDL)

The Common Data Link (CDL) is the early version of UAV data link system which consists of a secure,
jam resistant uplink (from surface-to-air link) operating at 200kbps and a downlink (from air-to-surface
link) that can operate at 10.71, 137, or 274 Mbps (currently only the first of these downlink rates is
secure). CDL family links are used to achieve both LOS and, using relay beyond LOS (BLOS). CDL
permits the remote operation and exploitation of sensors carried by CDL fitted platforms from BLOS
locations via satellite. US designated the Common Data Link (CDL) as its standard for use in imagery and
signals intelligence in 1991.

2.2 Tactical Common Data Link (TCDL)

The aim of the Tactical Common Data Link (TCDL) is to develop a family of CDL-compatible, low-cost,
light weight, and digital data link with the capability to support a wide range of Intelligence, Surveillance
and Reconnaissance (ISR) applications. The TCDL is a secure data link currently being developed by the
U.S. military to send secure data and streaming video links from airborne platforms to ground stations.
The initial TCDL design will be targeted for UAV applications (e.g., Predator and Outrider). In the future
TCDL design is expected to be extended to additional manned and unmanned applications [4].

The TCDL can accept data from many different sources, then encrypt, multiplex, encode, transmit, de-
multiplex and route this data at high speeds. It uses a Ku narrow band uplink that is used for both payload
and vehicle control, and a wide band downlink for data transfer. The TCDL uses both directional and
omni-directional antennas to transmit and receive the Ku band signal. The TCDL was designed for
UAV’s, as well as manned non-fighter environments. The TCDL transmits radar, imagery, MPEG II video
and other sensor information at rates from 1.544 Mbps to 10.7 Mbps over the range of 200 km [4], these
rates will expand to 45 and 274 Mbps, and finally it has the option of flexible I/O support. The TCDL

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return link must be designated to operate in the 14.4 to 14.83 GHz band, and the forward link must operate
in the 15.15 to 15.35 GHz band. The TCDL design goal for LOS slant range is 200 km at 15 Kft above
ground level [13].
2.3 Tactical Digital Data Link (TDDL)
The Tactical Digital Data Link (TDDL) is a new generation advanced digital data link system developed
specifically designed for UAVs and other unmanned aerial platforms requiring highly secure
communication combined with extended range and excellent reliability [5]. The TDDL provides point-to-
point, full-duplex, jam-resistant and digital microwave communications between sensor platforms and
control terminals. Software Defined Radio (SDR) technology used in TDDL allows for flexibility and
programmability of coding modulation and data rates and includes provision for interoperability with
TCDL and STANAG 7085.

2.3.1 TDDL Key Features

The TDDL has high data rates, extended range, provision for airborne relay, range and direction
measurement options, low latency, selectable bit rate, high video quality for target identification/tracking,
Forward Error Correction, variable rate interleaving, direct sequence waveform, efficient spectrum
utilization, anti-jamming: SpSp, FH(optional), provision for encryption, digital video compression, MPEG
2/4 compatibility, multiple sensors/payloads, interfaces for SAR and FLIR sensors, lightweight airborne
terminal, convection cooled, compact packaging, high reliability, very low life-cycle costs, Built-In Test
and Built-In Calibration [5].

2.3.2 TDDL Characteristics

The TDDL has range up to 200 km without relay, data rate for uplink is about from 9.6 to 200 kbps, for
downlink 1.6 to 10.71 Mbps, modulation is BPSK for uplink, quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) for
downlink, error correction codes are convolution, concatenated, interleaving, control interfaces are Mil-
Std-1553B, RS-422, 10/100 Base-T; remote operation via F/O interface available, less than 6 kg low
weight [5].

2.3.3 TDDL Configurations

The TDDL has wide range of frequency bands of Ku and band from 14.40 to 15.35 GHz. And other bands
(S, C, X) are also available. Transmitter power output is about from 2W to 10W. Power consumption is
less than 200W. Airborne antenna options are omni, sector or one-axis steerable. On the other hand,
ground base antenna options are omni, one-axis steerable, or 2-axis directional antenna with integrated
pedestal and monopulse tracking system or GPS based tracking. It also has airborne relay configuration
for over-the-horizon missions.

2.4 High Integrity Data Link (HIDL)

The HIDL consists of airborne and surfac-based terminals with a full-duplex, narrow-band and jam-
resistant data link operating in broadcast mode to control at least two UAVs simultaneously up to ranges
of 200 km. It has a requirement of being able to operate with the wideband TCDL. It will operate at 225-
400MHz (UHF) and 100 kbps bandwidth. The HIDL is being formed the basis a new NATO standard,
STANAG 4660.

The HIDL is a robust digital data link and will assist operators in making safe UAV takeoffs and landings
on ships and also allow the transfer of sensor photos and data to naval vessels and other surface terminals
for operators to study and disseminate. HIDL also offers variable data rate from 3 Kbps to 20 Mbps,
backup for CDL, uses time and frequency diversity for resistance to jamming, uses any available RF

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channels, even if non-contiguous, low latency for safe control during launch and recovery.

The HIDL’s command & control (C2) link was developed to cope with the most challenging operational
requirements. It is provided robust C2 of UAV using a secure anti-jam waveform and offers highly
reliable RF connectivity in all environments [14]. With the decreasing availability of the RF spectrum,
HIDL importantly has the ability to control multiple UAVs simultaneously. In addition to these benefits of
HIDL, it includes over-the-horizon relay functions.

2.5 Digital Video over Analog (DVA)

The Digital Video over Analog (DVA) is a new technology which enables simple conversion of older FM
analog video links to encrypted digital links. The DVA converts to an encrypted digital video link without
replacing any of the RF equipment in either the UAV or the ground. The improved digital performance
increases UAV video link range by a factor of four while using only a quarter of the bandwidth of analog
video links.

The DVA can transmit 2 Mbps of IP data simultaneously with compressed FMV (Full Motion Video)
using the same FM video transmitter that was designed for a single analog video channel [9]. A digital
link is essential for the newer IP-based payloads and the overall need to use bandwidth efficiently. The
DVA receive unit outputs both NTSC video and an Ethernet stream with H.264 compressed video and
Key-Length-Value (KLV) metadata, which is a smarter data encoding approach, elementary streams
embedded in an MPEG2 transport stream.

3.0 INTEROPERABILITY
Interoperability becomes highly desirable requirement when UAVs have to be used in a multi-national
environment or, in general, when multiple UAV systems must coexist in the same scenario.
Communication interoperability for UAVs covers transmission of imagery, associated auxiliary data and
link management data from the airborne terminal and; if necessary, commands, controls, and Link
Management data from the ground terminal. This will enable the surface terminal of any nominated
surveillance & reconnaissance (S&R) system to receive data from the airborne terminal of another system
[2]. For now, there is no common interoperability standard for every data type used in UAVs, however,
STANAG AR 7085 provides the interoperability standards for three types of imagery data links used for
primary imagery data transmission: Analogue Links; Point-to-Point Digital Links, and Broadcast Digital
Links. In the STANAG, EO, IR, SAR, SLAR, MTI, and future sensors are considered as imagery
systems. Flight tasking and C2 of the aircraft and the reconnaissance system are outside the scope of the
STANAG, but the command/up link of the imagery data link may be available for this purpose.

The names analogue and digital are derived from the fundamental classification of the imagery signal
carried by the down link (from air-to-surface or Return Link), from the airborne platform to the surface.
The data link model applies to the down link and the possible associated Up Link (from surface-to-air or
Command link) [2]. Analog links are low cost, though lacking the capability of digital links. Frequency
modulation is also used to convey the imagery information from the aircraft to the surface station.

First, the analogue link is used to transfer sensor and auxiliary data from an airborne platform (manned or
unmanned) to one or more nominated stations. The receive station or stations are generally on the surface
but potentially airborne. Second, Point to Point digital data links are used to transfer imagery data and the
associated auxiliary data from an airborne platform (manned or unmanned) to a station (return link)
generally on the surface, but potentially airborne. The two terminals may be mobile. Command link from
the surface station may be used to send commands to task the sensor(s) and/or the platform. Systems may
operate without a command link. Point to Point digital links provide the surface terminal with real time or
recorded raw data. In-flight tasking of the sensor and/or the platform from the surface terminal(s) is

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possible. Point to Point digital data links have a return link data rate between 1 and several hundred Mbps.
It is higher than with broadcast data links, and it is much higher than tactical network capabilities.
Finally, for Broadcast Digital links, simplex mode of transmission is used to send imagery information to
all surface stations. The Simplex mode does not support end-to-end connections, which require
confirmation and response from the answering end and consequently connectionless exchanges are used.
Principal applications include the transfer of MTI radar and/or SAR data. Data rate is up to 1 Mbps. Data
may be real-time or may have been previously recorded for later transmission.

4.0 TACTICAL DATA LINKS (TDL) USED IN NAVY

Tactical Data Links (TDLs) facilitate the exchange of information to support the decision process and the
ordering and reporting process [6]. The TDLs allow increasing the mission effectiveness reducing the
effort. One of the main functions of a C2 system is sending the information obtained from the tactical field
to other users in fast and secure way, provide information to decision makers to help them make the
necessary assessments and send the decisions to the appropriate users so that all the resources are managed
effectively. In a C2 system, using standard TDLs for data communications also provide means for
interoperability with other C2 systems.

Figure 2. NATO Tactical Data Link Transition Architecture

In this paper, general information will be given on some of the widely used NATO standard Navy TDLs,
such as Link-4A, Link-11, Link-16, Link-22 and VMF.

4.1 Link-4A
The Link-4A (TADIL C) system is a fully automatic, high-speed data transmission system used for
aircraft control. The system provides controlling information to the aircraft, using radio transmission
between the controlling ship and the controlled aircraft. The Carrier Aircraft Inertial Navigation System
(CAINS) is also a part of the Link-4A system. The CAINS system is used to load alignment and way-
point data into the aircraft on the flight deck or the hangar deck. The Link-4A CDS system is used to
provide one-way or two-way communications between the controlling station and up to 100 controlled
aircraft. The controlling station transmits to the aircraft control messages containing vectoring
information, commands, and data pertaining to the target or destination of the aircraft. The aircraft

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transmits reply messages containing information concerning its heading, altitude, airspeed, and tactical
readiness.

Link-4A uses a command-and-response protocol and the principle of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
to derive apparently simultaneous channels from a given frequency spectrum. It connects two points by
assigning a sequence of discrete time intervals to each of the individual channels. Thus, one controller can
control multiple aircraft independently on the same frequency.

4.2 Link-11
Link 11 (TADIL A) employs a polling protocol and netted communication techniques using standard
message formats. A net is an ordered conference whose participants have common information needs or
similar functions to perform. Data is exchanged using the Conventional Link Eleven Waveform (CLEW)
over a differential QPSK modulated data link operating at a rate of 1364 (HF/UHF) or 2250 (UHF) bits
per second (bps). Since this waveform is susceptible to ECM, a recent addition has been the Single Tone
Link Eleven Waveform (SLEW), which disperses data bit errors uniformly utilizing data interleaving. This
greater ECM resistance provides a data rate of 1800 bps. Link 11 is designed for operation on High
Frequency (HF) and thus has a beyond LOS (BLOS) capability to a theoretical range of approximately
300 NM. Link 11 can also operate in the UHF band but is then limited to LOS ranges (approximately 25
NM surface-to-surface or 150 NM surface-to-air). As an alternative, communication media satellite and
fibre optic can be used. Units which exchange data via Link 11 are designated Participating Units (PUs).
Message standards are defined in STANAG 5511.

The Link-11 net is normally operated according to a protocol called Roll Call. Participating Units (PUs)
transmit all data eligible for reporting when they are polled by the Net Control Station (NCS). After
transmission, they revert to the receive mode while, one by one, the other PUs transmit their data. This
cycle continues until all PUs have transmitted at least once, and then it is repeated. The Link-11 data is
divided into 24-bit frames, with two frames constituting a Link-11 message. The messages used to
exchange information over Link-11 are known as the M-series messages.

4.3 Link-16
Link 16 (TADIL J), a widely used TDL among all application areas, has been developed to meet the
information exchange requirements of all tactical units, supporting the exchange of surveillance data, EW
data, mission tasking, weapons assignments and completely meets the requirements for C2 functionality
and aircraft control. Link-16 does not significantly change the basic concepts of tactical data link
information exchange supported by Link-11 and Link-4A. Rather, Link-16 provides certain technical and
operational improvements to existing tactical data link capabilities. Link-16 uses the Joint Tactical
Information Distribution System (JTIDS), which refers to the communications component of Link-16
and it encompasses the terminal software, hardware, RF equipments, and the high-capacity, secure, high
level of encryption, error detection and coding, anti-jam waveform that they generate. Among NATO
subscribers, JTIDS is equivalent term for the Multifunctional Information Distribution System (MIDS)
[11]. JTIDS uses only high fidelity UHF spectrum; Link-16 communications are limited to LOS unless
suitable relay platforms are available. In order to overcome this requirement to necessarily provide
dedicated airborne MIDS/JTIDS relays, Joint Range Extension (JRE) is intended to provide a means of
exchanging Link 16 messages over media other than MIDS/JTIDS, primarily to achieve BLOS
communication.

Link-16 message architecture is designed for tactical data link communication requirement of all military
forces (Navy, Air force, and Army). Three types of messages are possible: fixed format, free text, and
variable format. The fixed-format messages exchanged over Link-16 are known as the J-series messages,
which are defined in STANAG 5516.

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Figure 3. Link-16 Application Infrastructure

Link-16 uses the principle of Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), an automatic function of the
JTIDS terminal. All JTIDS Units are pre-assigned sets of time slots in which to transmit their data and in
which to receive data from other units. Each time slot is 7.8125 milliseconds (msec), in duration [11].
There are 51 frequencies available between 960-1215MHz UHF frequency bands for JTIDS transmissions.
The frequency is not held constant during the time slot but is changed rapidly (every 13 microseconds)
according to a predetermined pseudo-random pattern. This technique is called frequency hopping (FH). So
a net is a set of time-slots which use the same frequency hopping pattern. Each Link-16 word comprises
70 bits of data. The effective tactical data rates of Link-16 are 26.88, or 53.76, or 107.52 Kbps [11],
depending on the data packing structure used.

4.4 Link-22
Link-22 is a "Link-16 Family" data link along with S-TADIL J, Link-16 and VMF. The fixed-format
messages exchanged over Link-22 are known as the FJ-series messages, which are defined in STANAG
5522. Link-22 is an ECM resistant, BLOS tactical data communication system utilizing Fixed Frequency
or Frequency hopping techniques in the HF and/or the UHF bands. As the time being, Link-22 is going to
take place of Link-11.

The architecture employed in Link 22 can be TDMA or Dynamic TDMA (DTDMA), which provides
increased flexibility and decreasing net management overheads. Initially evolved as NILE (NATO
Improved Link Eleven), Link 22 is something of a hybrid between MIDS Link-16 and Link-11, and the
NILE name is preserved in the naming of the participants as NILE Units [15]. A Link-22 unit may operate
up to four networks simultaneously, each on different media, as part of a Super Network with any
participant on any network able to communicate with any other. With the addition of data forwarding to
other links the age of network centric warfare is available.

Link 22 is designed to operate over conventional military HF (3 – 30 MHz) and UHF (225 – 400 MHz)
communication frequency bands. The former provides BLOS gapless cover to the extent of HF ground
wave (150-300) nautical miles without the requirement for relays and up to 1500 miles with relay; ideal if
airborne assets operating for reasonable periods at suitable altitude are scarce or not available. UHF
provides LOS communications and, with relay, BLOS capability. However, since it may be possible that
only surface units are to be fitted, range at UHF remains a limiting factor.

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In order to deliver a degree of ECM resistance within these frequency bands, Link 22 is designed to
operate using fixed or frequency agile waveforms. The latter mimics to some extent the MIDS/JTIDS
frequency hopping philosophy, albeit slow hop, thus presenting the potential jammer with a wider
spectrum problem. Link 22 is defined as medium speed – the precise speed being dependent upon the
transmission medium in use and the prevailing RF propagation conditions. The effective tactical data rates
of Link-22 supported are 1.2 to 3.6 Kbps for a single HF network and 2.4 to 12.6 Kbps for a single UHF
network. Improvements to these rates may occur with the application of newer techniques.

As similar to Link 16, Link 22 covers following functional areas [15]:

• Participant Location and Identification (PLI Air, Surface, Subsurface, Land)

• Surveillance (Air, Surface, Subsurface, ASW, Land, Point)
• Electronic Warfare (FJ14.x)
• Information Management (FJ7.x)
• Intelligence (FJ6.0)
• Status (FJ13.x)

4.5 Variable Message Format (VMF)

Variable Message Format (VMF) is the title given to the “K” Series Message Standard found in MIL-STD
6017. VMF is media-independent and can operate over any digital-capable RF broadcast or point-to-point
system. VMF messages provide a common means of exchanging digital data across any interface between
combat units at various organizational levels with varying needs for volume and detail of information and
are applicable to a broad range of tactical communications systems.

VMF is a bit-oriented digital information standard consisting of variable length messages that provide the
user with the flexibility to send only the required information through the use of presence/repeatable
fields; this is particularly significant when operating in bandwidth-constrained environments. VMF is a
member of the J-Series family of message formats, along with Link 16 and Link 22; VMF uses the same
core common data element dictionary used by Link 16 and Link 22. The VMF message standard forms,
or will form, the backbone of tactical data exchange requirements for the US Army, in addition to many
future NATO and coalition forces, predominantly in the ground environment.

5.0 DISCUSSION
Communications, both control and data, will exploit next generation secure communications using
available and future bandwidths developed to allow command and data signals traffic. These secure
channels will allow the uninterrupted flow of required data [1]. On the other hand, the information
network architecture and inquiries between C2 system of navy units and mobile UAVs in real time is
highly critical issue. In addition, the success of military missions conducted using UAVs are extremely
dependent on the availability of robust and high performance communication data links. For instance, on-
board systems need to handle communications with other UAV nodes and ground C2 stations; however,
they suffer from payload constraint. There is not a unique approach to handle the C2 of UAVs that is
mainly associated with the data link used to exchange information with UAVs. Countries are seeking to
get all services to use a common data link. For instance, the above-mentioned TCDL allows point-to-point
data transmissions of up to 274 Mbps and enough to handle full-motion video UAVs. TCDLs use a
standard waveform instead of a proprietary one, making it cheaper and easier to communicate across
service boundaries.

There are several proposals for hierarchical system architecture to manage the information flow and

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inquiries between a C2 System of navy units and UAVs in real time. The UAVs are organized into a
Master-Slave hierarchy, where a Master is associated with a number of autonomous Slave UAVs. The
Station communicates with the Master through station-level queries and commands whereas the Master
broadcasts master-level queries to the Slaves for detailed sensory data collection and processing.

According to NIAG, which is a high-level consultative and advisory body of senior industrialists of
NATO member countries, SG53 group recommendations, a suitable UAV communication system capable
to satisfy the requirements can rely on a double Data Link architecture: a wideband data link, whose
primary functions are sensors data transmission and aircraft/payload Command and Control, broadcasting
and communications relay, and a narrow band data link, whose primary function is to enhance data link
integrity during safety critical flight phases [17]. But the long-term solution is based on emerging
technologies, standards and systems, as well as technologies still under research. On the other hand, using
high capacity data links on UAVs has became an inevitable requirement because of the developments in
the optical and electronic sensor field. The result will be a co-operative networking solution with sufficient
flexibility to adapt to changing regulations and capability requirements. Further improvements in
flexibility and performance, will be provided e.g. via software defined radio (SDR), cognitive radio and
free space optical communication technology.

A SDR system is a radio communication system where components that have typically been implemented
in hardware (e.g. mixers, filters, amplifiers, modulators/demodulators, detectors. etc.) are instead
implemented using software on a personal computer or other embedded computing devices. The SDR
approach, hinges on three factors: immediate availability of a range of tri-service programmable wideband
radios, expertise in key technologies necessary to drive even greater interoperability and networking, and
the development of standards through various programs. Cognitive radio, an intelligent and adaptive radio
system, is a paradigm for wireless communication in which either a network or a wireless node changes its
transmission or reception parameters to communicate efficiently avoiding interference with licensed or
unlicensed users. This alteration of parameters is based on the active monitoring of several factors in the
external and internal radio environment, such as radio frequency spectrum, user behavior and network
state.

On the other hand, the TDLs allow increasing the mission effectiveness reducing the effort. For instance,
the most commonly used TDLs between Navy units are Link 11 & Link 16 today. As the time being, Link
22 is going to take place of Link 22. However, UAVs are not currently a NATO mission type. Since there
is not a unique approach to handle the C2 of UAVs, The US has a plan to equip all UAVs with Link 16
capabilities while other Nations think this is far too expensive [16]. In Table 2 below, a comparison is
given between UAV data links and TDLs in terms of rate, frequency band and range. The main difference
between UAV data link and TDLs are data rates. For example, TDLs have Kbps data rate level, on the
contrary that UAV data links start with Mbps. However, VMF, Link-16 and Link-22 technically look
more suitable for handling the C2 of UAVs but further researches are required.

Effective military use of next generation intelligent UAVs dictates a System-Of-Systems approach to
insure robust network communication with respect to mission essential flight management functions, such
as trajectory generation, reporting, de-confliction, spacing, targeting, including own-ship and multi-vehicle
operations. Within near future, the UAV data link solution will most likely consist of a mixture of current
and emerging technologies, standards and systems. The mid-term solution will provide increased
functionality and performance filling the gaps in interoperability, European self-sustainability, throughput
and EW-protection. The utilization of SDR technology will provide additional flexibility and
interoperability.

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Finally, data link systems for future UAVs move to LOS and satellite links needed for both air vehicle
control and operating the onboard sensors. Also the recent study programs cover all types of UAVs
including tactical, MALE, HALE, and combat aircraft, and will include innovative, economical bandwidth
solutions, plus enhanced protection against electronic warfare.

System Data Link Data Link Data Type Frequency

Type Rate Band Range

CDL LOS 10.71, 137, or 274 Data, Video, I, X, S, Ku

Mbps Downlink Image Band, UHF >200 km

TCDL LOS/BLOS 1.544 to 10.7 Data, Video, Ku Band >200 km

Mbps Downlink Image UHF above 15 Kft

TDDL LOS/BLOS 1.6 to 10.71 Mbps Data, Video, S, C, X, Ku 200 km w/o relay
Downlink Image Band

HIDL LOS/BLOS 3 Kbps to 20 Data, Video, UHF 200 km w/o relay

Mbps Downlink Image

Link 4A Point-to-point 5 Kbps Aircraft UHF UHF -150 NM

Control, C2

Link 11 Broadcast 1.364 (HF/UHF) Voice, Video, UHF/HF HF –300 NM

Point-to-point or 2.25 (UHF) Free Text, UHF –30 NM SS
Kbps Fixed Format UHF -150 NM SA

Link 16 Broadcast 26.88, 53.76, or Voice, Free UHF 300 NM

Point-to-point 107.520 Kbps Text, Fixed >1000 NM with
Format, JRE
Variable
Format

Link 22 Broadcast HF 4.053 Kbps Voice, Video, UHF/HF HF – 1500 NM

Point-to-Point UHF 12.667 Kbps Free Text, UHF – 120 NM
Fixed Format

VMF Broadcast Variable VHF/UHF

Point-to-Point Format

Table 2: Comparison of UAV Data Links and Tactical Data Links

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6.0 ABBREVIATIONS
BLOS Beyond Line of Sight
BPSL Binary Phase Shift
COMINT COMmmunication INTelligence
C2 Command & Control
ELINT ELectronic INTelligence
EO Electro-optic
FH Frequency Hopping
IR Infra-red
ISR Intelligence, Surveillance & Reconnaissance
JRE Joint Range Extension
JTIDS Joint Tactical Information Distribution System
LOS Line of Sight
MIDS Multi-function Information Distribution System
MTl Moving Target Indicator
NPGs Network Participation Groups
PLS Position Locator System
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
SatCom Satellite Communication
SIGINT SIGnal INTelligence
SDR Software Defined Radio
SLAR Sideward Looking Airborne Radar
STANAG STANdardization Agreement
TDL Tactical Data Link
TSAR Tactical SAR
UAVs Unmanned Air Vehicles
UCAVs Uninhabited Combat Air Vehicles
VMF Variable Message Format
VTUAV Vertical Takeoff UAV

7.0 REFERENCES
[1] Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Roadmap, 2005-2030, U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).

[2] NATO STANAG 7085 Edition 2, “Interoperable Data Links For Imaging Systems”, 2004.

[3] Mäkipaja, S., " Technology Demonstration Study on Digital Line of Sight and Beyond Line of Sight
Data links for Long-Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (LE-UAVS)", Project Overview, INSTA,
Patria, February 2008.

[4] [Link] March, 2009.

[5] [Link] TDDL, March, 2009.

[6] Schenk, J., “Tactical Data Links A NATO Perspective”, 12th NATO Tactical Data Link Symposium,
March, 2009.

[7] Tobias, S., “Transitioning tactical data link standards: A Right of Passage toward NNEC”, 12th

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NATO Tactical Data Link Symposium, March, 2009.

[8] Tozer, T., Grace, D., Thompson, J., Baynham, P., “UAVs and HAPs - Potential Convergence for
Military Communications”, University of York Department of Electronics, 2005.

[9] [Link]
rover-receivers/, April, 2009.

[10] Gatti, A., “From Manned to Unmanned: a Viable Alternative to the Shipyard” AGARD MSP
Symposium on “System Design Considerations for Unmanned Tactical Aircraft (UTA) “, 1997.

[11] Vasquez, J., “Understanding Link-16”, a Guidebook for New Users, Northrop Grumman
Corporation, September 2001.

[12] “The Roadmap from Link 22 via Multilink Demonstrator EXSysTDLBw to a TDL Solution for F-
125”, Atlas Electronic, 12th NATO Tactical Data Link Symposium, March, 2009.

[13] [Link] May, 2009.

[14] [Link] May, 2009.

[15] [Link] Data Link 22 Introduction, December, 2006.

[16] [Link]
[Link], April, 2009.

[17] S. Baiotti, G. [Link], G. Battaini, E. Crovari, “Advances in UAV Data Links: Analysis of
Requirement evolution and implications on future equipment” NATO SCI Symposium RTO MP-44,
April 1999.

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