Motion, Forces and Energy

Physical Quantities and Measurement Techniques

Units and basic quantities

• A standard or unit must be chosen before a measurement can be made.

• The size of the quantity to be measured is found using an instrument with a scale marked in
the unit

• Three basic quantities are measured in physics: length, mass, and time.

• Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and time.

• The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set of units used in many countries

Length

Unit of length: metre (m)

• 1 decimetre (dm) = 10⁻¹ m

• 1 centimetre (cm) = 10⁻² m

• 1 millimetre (mm) = 10⁻³ m

• 1 micrometre (μm) = 10⁻⁶ m

• 1 nanometre (nm) = 10⁻⁹ m

Multiples for large distances:

• 1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m

• 1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m

• Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter rule

For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure

Note: Take ± readings for

accuracy

Area
 • The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square centimetre (1 cm²).

• Area formula: area = length × breadth.

• SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a square with sides 1 m long.

Volume

• Volume is the amount of space occupied.

• Unit of volume: cubic metre (m³).

• Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).

• Volume of a cylinder: V=πr2hV=πr2h

• A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a liquid. Ensure the cylinder is upright and
the eye is level with the meniscus.

Time

• Unit of time: second (s).

• Time-measuring devices use oscillations.

• Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a stopwatch for the pendulum
period or a millisecond timer for measuring the speed of sound).

Scalars and Vectors

• Scalar quantity: has magnitude (size) only.

o Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy, temperature.

• Vector quantity: described by both magnitude and direction.

o Examples: force, gravitational field strength, electric field strength, weight, velocity,
acceleration, momentum.

• Representing Vectors: a straight line with length indicating the magnitude and an arrow
showing direction.

o Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic.

 o Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both magnitude and direction.

For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles:

• The magnitude of the resultant

F=FX2+FY2F=FX2+FY2

• Angle θ between FX and F

tan⁡θ=FYFXtanθ=FXFY

Motion

Distance-Time Graph Examples

• At rest ( BC).

• Constant speed (AB and CD)

• Speed is higher when the gradient is steeper. For example, the speed of the train at CD is
2m/s, but that at AB is 1m/s. It is higher in CD, which can be seen as CD being steeper.
 Non-Constant Speed

• When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time graph varies.

• Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating.

• The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating.

• Example:

Gradient of the tangent at T: ABBC=40m2s=20m/sBCAB=2s40m=20m/s

Speed

• Speed is the distance travelled by a body in unit time.

• When the distance travelled is (s) over a short time period (t), the speed (v) is given by:

v=stv=ts

• Key definition: Speed is the distance travelled per unit time.

• General formula:

Average speed=Total distance travelledTotal time takenAverage speed=Total time takenTotal distance
travelled

• Example: If a car travels 300 km in five hours, its average speed

is: Average speed=300 km5 h=60 km/hAverage speed=5 h300 km=60 km/h

Velocity

• Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given direction. Ie. Velocity = Speed given in
a specific direction.

• Speed is the distance travelled in unit time.

• Example: If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they have the same speed and velocity due
north. If one travels north and the other south, their speeds are the same, but not their
velocities.

• Key definition: Velocity is the change in displacement per unit of time.

• Velocity formula:
Velocity =Distance moved in a given directionTime taken=DisplacementTimeVelocity =Time takenDist
ance moved in a given direction=TimeDisplacement

• Velocity is the speed in a given direction.

• A body's velocity is uniform or constant if it moves at a steady speed in a straight line.

• Velocity is not uniform if the body moves in a curved path.

• Speed and velocity units are the same: km/h, m/s.

Note: Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector quantity. Displacement is a vector, unlike
distance which is a scalar

Acceleration

• When the velocity of an object changes, the object accelerates.

• Acceleration is defined as the change of velocity in unit time:

Acceleration=ΔvΔtAcceleration=ΔtΔv

o Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a velocity of 2 m/s after 1 second, its
acceleration is 2m/s2,due north2m/s2,due north

• Key definition: Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.

• Example: For a steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to 50 m/s in 5

seconds: Acceleration=(50−20),m/s5s=6m/s2Acceleration=5s(50−20),m/s=6m/s2

• Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction should be stated.

• For motion in a straight line, the magnitude of the velocity equals the speed, and the
magnitude of the acceleration equals the speed change in unit time.

• Example: A car accelerating on a straight road with the following speeds:

Time (s) Speed (m/s)

0 0

1 5

2 10

3 15

4 20

5 25
 Time (s) Speed (m/s)

6 30

• The speed increases by 5 m/s every second, and the acceleration is constant at 5 m/s².

• Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases.

• Acceleration is negative if the velocity decreases (also called deceleration or retardation).

Speed-Time Graphs

• Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against time.

• Used to solve motion problems.

Constant Speed

• Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving with a constant speed of 20 m/s.

A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates constant speed.

Constant Acceleration

• The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant acceleration.

• The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating constant acceleration.

Variable Acceleration

Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest, constant speed, and deceleration.
 Example 2: The figure shows
changing acceleration with a curved shape.

• Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each second, indicating decreasing
acceleration.

Using Gradient to Calculate

Acceleration

• The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the acceleration.

• For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero acceleration.

• For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by:

\n Gradient=ΔyΔx=Y2−Y1X2−X1Gradient=ΔxΔy=X2−X1Y2−Y1

• For changing acceleration, the gradient changes, indicating changing acceleration.

• An object accelerates if the speed increases and decelerates if the speed decreases with
time.

Area Under a Speed-Time Graph

• Measures the distance travelled.

• The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant.

• The distance equals the shaded area under the graph.

Equations for constant acceleration

• First Equation

o If an object is moving with constant acceleration ( a ) in a straight line and its speed
increases from ( u ) to ( v ) in time ( t ):

o Acceleration is given by:

a=v−uta=tv−u

o Rearranging gives:

v=u+at(Equation 1)v=u+at(Equation 1)

• Second Equation

o For an object moving with constant acceleration, its average speed equals half the
sum of its initial and final speeds:

Average speed=u+v2Average speed=2u+v

o If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then:

Average speed=stAverage speed=ts

o Combining these, we get

st=u+v2ts=2u+v

o Rearranging gives:

s=(u+v)2⋅t(Equation 2)s=2(u+v)⋅t(Equation 2)

Air Resistance and Free Fall

• In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper due to air resistance.

• In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate.

• Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies compared to heavy bodies.

• Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low speeds.

Acceleration of Free Fall

 • All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate uniformly if air resistance is negligible.

• This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of free fall, denoted by ( g ).

• The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on average.

• The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about 9.8m/s every second.

A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates by about 9.8 m/s every second, reaching
its highest point after 3 seconds.

As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its acceleration.

• When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at a terminal velocity.

• Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape, and weight.

• A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and accelerates for a longer distance.

• A light object or one with a large surface area, like a raindrop or parachute, has a low
terminal velocity and accelerates over a shorter distance.

• Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling parachutist:

Explanation:

• Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the plane, they experience free fall. During
this phase, their velocity increases steadily due to the acceleration of gravity
(approximately 9.8m/s29.8m/s2 acting downwards. The graph slopes upwards steeply.

• Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases significantly when the parachutist
deploys their parachute. This causes a decrease in acceleration, leading to a less steep slope
on the graph. The parachutist’s velocity continues to increase but at a slower rate compared
to free fall.

• Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall, their velocity eventually reaches a
maximum constant value known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the forces of
gravity and air resistance (drag) balance out, resulting in zero net acceleration. On the
velocity-time graph, this appears as a horizontal line where the velocity remains constant.

Mass and Weight

Mass

• The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it. It is a measure of the
quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to an observer.

• The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the gram (g) being one-thousandth of a
kilogram: 1g=10−3kg=0.001kg1g=10−3kg=0.001kg

• Mass is different from weight, which is a gravitational force on an object with mass.

Weight

• Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that has mass.

• The weight of an object can vary with location due to differences in gravitational field
strength.

• The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured in newtons and can be determined
using a spring balance.

Aspect Mass Weight

Measure of the amount of Gravitational force acting on an object

Definition
matter in an object with mass

Units Kilogram (kg), gram (g) Newton (N)

This can be measured using a Measured using a spring balance or

Measurement
balance scale

Independent of location and Depends on location and gravitational

Dependency
gravitational field field strength

Symbol in
mm (W),or,(Fg)(W),or,(Fg)
Equations

Gravitational Field

• Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in contact with the Earth to fall towards it.

• Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass and is a vector quantity with
magnitude and direction.

• On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2, representing both the acceleration due to
gravity and the gravitational field strength.

Density

Definition

• Density (ρ(ρ) is the measure of mass per unit volume

ρ=mVρ=Vm
 • Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm³).

Calculation Methods

• Regular Shape: Measure mass (m)(m) using a balance, and measure volume (VV) by direct
measurement of dimensions.

• Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m)(m) using a balance. Measure volume (V)(V) using
displacement methods:

Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder filled with water, record the initial and final
water levels to find volume.

Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout. Immerse the object in the water and find
the volume of water displaced. That volume of water is the volume of the object.
 • Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, add liquid, measure total mass, and
subtract to find the mass of the liquid. Divide by the known volume to find density.

• Air: Measure the mass of a flask filled with air, then remove the air with a vacuum pump.
Calculate air density by dividing the mass difference by volume measured using water
displacement.

Example Calculations

• Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass of 63 g and a volume of 7

cm³ ρ=mV=63 g7 cm³=9 g/cm³ρ=Vm=7 cm³63 g=9 g/cm³

• Example 2: Determine the mass of an aluminium sheet with a volume of 73 cm³ and a
density of 2.7 g/cm³

m=ρ×V=2.7 g/cm³×73 cm³=197.1 gm=ρ×V=2.7 g/cm³×73 cm³=197.1 g

Floating and Sinking:

• Objects float or sink in liquids based on their density relative to the liquid's density. A higher-
density object sinks in a lower-density liquid and vice versa.

Forces

Force

• A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion, speed, or shape of an object.

• It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction of moving objects.

Extension in Springs
 • Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is proportional to the stretching force up to the
limit of proportionality.

• Symbolically, extension∝stretching forceextension∝stretching force

Spring Constant

• The spring constant (k)(k) measures the force needed to cause a unit extension in a spring.

k=Fxk=xF, where (F)(F) is the force applied and (x)(x) is the resulting extension.

Load-Extension Graphs

• Used to graphically represent the relationship between applied force (load) and resulting
extension in materials like springs.

• Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality indicate permanent deformation.

Forces and Resultants

• Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by arrows in diagrams.

• Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g. weight and support force) or have a
resultant force.

• The resultant force is the single force that has the same effect as all forces acting together.

• A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by altering its speed or direction of
motion.
Newton’s First Law

• An object remains at rest or continues to move at a constant speed in a straight line unless
acted upon by a resultant force.

• This means that no force is required to maintain constant velocity if no external forces act on
the object.

Friction and Air Resistance

• Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to slow down and eventually come to
rest.

• In their absence, objects would continue moving indefinitely with constant speed.

Newton’s Second Law

• States that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.

• Mathematically expressed as:

F=maF=ma

where (FF) is the resultant force in newtons (NN), (mm) is the mass in kilograms (kgkg), and (aa) is
the acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s2)(m/s2).

Proportional Relationships

• Acceleration (aa) is directly proportional to the force (FF) when mass (mm) is constant

a∝Fa∝F

• Acceleration (aa) is inversely proportional to mass (m(m) when force (FF ) is constant

a∝1ma∝m1
Units and Constant (k(k)

• The unit of force, the newton (NN), is defined as the force that gives a 1 kg mass an
acceleration of 1m/s21m/s2

• kk in F=kmaF=kma equals 1 when m=1kgm=1kg and a = 1 m/s2m/s2

Resultant Force and Motion

• Resultant force (FF ) causes an object to accelerate in the direction of the force.

• When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but changes in shape may occur due to
internal forces within the object.

Friction

• Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one surface over another.

• It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can prevent proper movement on
surfaces like ice.

Types of Friction

• Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the starting of motion between surfaces in
contact.

• Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the motion of surfaces sliding past each
other.

• Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an object moving through a fluid (air or
liquid), increasing with speed and reducing acceleration.

Effect of Force and Mass on Friction

• Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases friction initially.

• Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, causing a rise in temperature when
contacting surfaces.

Centripetal Force

• In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path due to a force directed towards the
centre of the circle.
Acceleration in Circular Motion

• Despite constant speed, circular motion involves acceleration because velocity direction
changes continuously.

• Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary to maintain circular motion.

Factors Affecting Centripetal Force

Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following:

• Speed (v)(v): Increasing speed increases centripetal force.

• Radius (r)(r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal force.

• Mass (m)(m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force.

Role of Centripetal Force

• It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from the centre of the circle.

Moment of a Force

• The turning effect of a force around a pivot point is called the moment of the force.

• It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
pivot to the line of action of the force.

• Mathematically, the moment is given by:

M=F×dM=F×d

where dd is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force.

• The unit of moment is the Newton metre (Nm)(Nm).

Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

• To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of moments (or law of moments) is
used.

• The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about any
point equals the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.

• This principle is essential for designing and understanding the equilibrium of lever systems
and other balanced structures.

Conditions for Equilibrium

An object is in equilibrium if:

• The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static equilibrium).

• The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise) around any point is zero (rotational
equilibrium).

Centre of Gravity

• The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is the point through which the entire
weight of the object acts.

• It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this single point.

• For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity is at its geometric centre.

Determining the Centre of Gravity

• Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina involves suspending the object
from different points and using a plumb line to mark the vertical line through which it hangs.
The centre of gravity is where these lines intersect.
Stability and Toppling

• The stability of an object depends on the position of its centre of gravity relative to its base.

• An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its base of support.

• Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls outside the base of
support.

• Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of gravity improves stability.

Types of Equilibrium

• Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original position when displaced slightly (e.g., a
ball in a bowl).

• Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away from its original position when
displaced slightly (e.g., a ruler balanced on its edge).

• Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new position when displaced (e.g., a ball sitting
on a flat surface).

Momentum

• Momentum (pp) is the product of an object's mass (mm) and its velocity (vv).

• Mathematically, p=mvp=mv

• It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.

• The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second (kgm/s)(kgm/s) or newton

second (Ns)(Ns).
Conservation of Momentum

• The total momentum of a closed system of objects remains constant if no external forces act
on it (such as friction or air resistance).

• This principle is known as the conservation of momentum.

• Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and inelastic) and explosions. For
example, in a collision, the total momentum before and after the collision remains the same.

pinitial=pfinalpinitial=pfinal

Example:

A trolley of mass m1=3m1=3 kg moving with velocity u1=5u1=5 m/s collides and couples with a
stationary trolley of mass m2=2m2=2 kg. They move off together with the same velocity (v).(v). We
need to find (v)(v).

1. Calculate initial momentum (pinitial)(pinitial):

pinitial=m1⋅u1=3 kg⋅5 m/s=15 kgm/spinitial=m1⋅u1=3 kg⋅5 m/s=15 kgm/s

2. Calculate final momentum (pfinal)pfinal):

Since they move off together with velocity (v)(v):

pfinal=(m1+m2)⋅v=(3 kg+2 kg)⋅v=5 kg⋅vpfinal=(m1+m2)⋅v=(3 kg+2 kg)⋅v=5 kg⋅v

3. Apply conservation of momentum (pinitial=pfinal)(pinitial=pfinal):

15 kgm/s=5 kg⋅v15 kgm/s=5 kg⋅v

4. Solve for (v)(v):

v=15 kgm/s5 kg=3 m/sv=5 kg15 kgm/s=3 m/s

So, the velocity (v(v) of the two trolleys moving together after the collision is 3 m/s3 m/s

Impulse

• Impulse (JJ) is the change in momentum (Δp)(Δp) of an object when a force acts on it over a
period of time (Δt)(Δt).

• Mathematically, J=FΔt=ΔpJ=FΔt=Δp

• Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same direction as the force causing it.

Force and Momentum:

• Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum:

o (F=ΔpΔt)(F=ΔtΔp), which is an alternative form of Newton's second law.

Energy, work and power

Types of energy stores

• Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of substances like food, fuels (oil, gas,
coal, wood).
 • Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object possesses due to its position relative to a
reference point (usually the Earth's surface).

• Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it is compressed, stretched, or

deformed.

• Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object.

• Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged objects due to their separation in an electric
field.

• Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom..

• Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the microscopic motions and interactions
of particles within a substance.

Energy Transfers

• Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action of a force, like lifting a weight.

• Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric current, such as in batteries or electric

motors.

• Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of energy through waves, like light or sound
waves.

• Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes, like heating water in a boiler.

Principle of Conservation of Energy

• Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. Thus
the total amount of energy is constant.

Energy Forms

• Kinetic Energy (Ek)(Ek): Energy possessed by an object due to its motion.

o Ek=12mv2Ek=21mv2, where (m)(m) is mass and (v)(v) is velocity.

• Example Calculation: For a football of mass 0.4 kg moving at 20 m/s:

o Ek=12×0.4×(20)2=80 JEk=21×0.4×(20)2=80 J

• Potential Energy (Ep)(Ep):Energy an object has due to its position or condition or

configuration.

o Ep=mghEp=mgh , where (m)(m) is mass, (gg) is acceleration due to gravity, and (hh)
is height.

• Example Calculation: For a 0.1 kg mass raised vertically by 1 m:

o Ep=0.1×9.8×1=0.98 JEp=0.1×9.8×1=0.98 J

Work

• Work (WW) is done when a force (FF) displaces a body through a distance (dd) in the
direction of the force.
 • Formula: W=F⋅dW=F⋅d

• Unit: The unit of work is the joule (J), where 1 J=1 N⋅m1 J=1 N⋅m

Example Calculation

• If a force of 50 N is used to move a crate 3 m horizontally:

W=50 N×3 m=150 JW=50 N×3 m=150 J

• If lifting a mass of 3 kg vertically by 2 m (where g ≈10 m/s2≈10 m/s2):

W=30 N×2 m=60 JW=30 N×2 m=60 J

Energy resources

Renewable or
Energy Type Non- Advantages Disadvantages
renewable

High energy density, Limited supply, environmental

Non-
Fossil Fuels readily available pollution (CO2, SO2), finite
renewable
during peak demand. resource.

Radioactive waste disposal

Non- High energy output,
Nuclear Fuels issues, potential for accidents
renewable low CO2 emissions.
(e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima).

Abundant, no
Intermittent availability, high
emissions during
Solar Energy Renewable initial costs for large-scale
operation, diverse
installations.
applications.

Clean energy source,

Visual and noise impacts,
Wind Energy Renewable abundant in suitable
intermittent nature of wind.
locations.

Technologically challenging,
Wave Energy Renewable Renewable, potential environmental
predictable in coastal impacts.
 Renewable or
Energy Type Non- Advantages Disadvantages
renewable

areas with consistent

waves.

Predictable and
High infrastructure costs,
consistent, minimal
Tidal Energy Renewable environmental impacts on
greenhouse gas
marine ecosystems.
emissions.

Reliable, long Disruption of aquatic

Hydroelectric operational life, ecosystems, potential
Renewable
Energy minimal greenhouse displacement of communities,
gas emissions. limited suitable sites.

Reliable, low Limited to geologically active

Geothermal
Renewable emissions, constant areas, high upfront costs for
Energy
energy source. exploration and drilling.

Renewable, lower Competition with food

Biofuels Renewable emissions compared production, land use issues,
to fossil fuels. varying energy content.

How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations

• Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a boiler to produce heat.

• Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas is burned directly in a gas turbine.

• The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to boil water, creating high-pressure
steam.

• The steam drives turbines connected to electrical generators.

• Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor) mounted on a shaft, which rotates when
steam is directed onto them.

• As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is transferred to the rotor, causing it to
spin.

• The spinning rotor generates electricity through electromagnetic induction in the generator.

How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations

• Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission reactions with uranium to generate
heat.

• This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a heat exchanger.

 • The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines connected to generators to produce
electricity.

• The operation involves the steam passing through a turbine's fixed blades (stator) onto the
rotating blades (rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is converted into rotational
motion.

• The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the electrical generator, producing electricity
for consumption.

Power

• The power of a device is the work it does per second, or the rate at which it does work.

• Power also represents the rate at which energy is transferred from one store to another.

• Formula:

o power=work donetime takenpower=time takenwork done

o P=P= WttW where WW is the work done in time tt

o P=P= ΔEttΔE where ΔEΔE is the energy transferred in time tt

• Key definition: Power is the work done per unit time and the energy transferred per unit
time.

• Unit of power: watt (W)(W), where 1 WW = 1 J/sJ/s

• Larger units:

o 1 kWkW = 1000 WW = 103103 WW

o 1 MWMW = 1,000,000 WW = 106106 WW

• Example: If a machine does 500 JJ of work in 10 ss, its power is:

500J10s=50W10s500J=50W

Efficiency

• % Efficiency formula for energy

Efficiency (%)=(Useful Energy OutputTotal Energy Input)×100%Efficiency (%)=(Total Energy InputUsef

ul Energy Output)×100%

• % Efficiency formula for power

Efficiency (%)=(Useful Power OutputTotal Power Input)×100%Efficiency (%)=(Total Power InputUseful

Power Output)×100%

Example a: Electric Motor

• Given:

Energy input = 400 J

Work done on load = 300 J

Calculate Efficiency:

Efficiency=(300 J400 J)×100Efficiency=(400 J300 J)×100 = 75%

Example b: Electric Drill

• Given:

Power input to drill = 300 J/s

Useful power output (excluding thermal losses) = 200 J/s

• Calculate Efficiency:

Efficiency=(200 J/s300 J/s)×100Efficiency=(300 J/s200 J/s)×100 = 66.67%

Sankey Diagrams

• Sankey diagrams are used to represent energy transfers and efficiencies visually.

• They show how input energy is divided into useful output energy and wasted energy.

• The width of the arrows in a Sankey diagram is proportional to the amount of energy they
represent.

• A wide arrow represents a large amount of energy, while a narrow arrow represents a small
amount.

Pressure

• Pressure is the force per unit area.

• Formula:

pressure=forceareapressure=areaforce

• Key definition: Pressure is the force per unit area.

• Unit of pressure: pascal (Pa)(Pa), where 1 PaPa = 1 N/m²N/m²

• Greater area over which a force acts results in less pressure.

Liquid Pressure
 • Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the further down you go, the greater the
weight of liquid above.

• Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.

• Pressure depends on the density of the liquid; the denser the liquid, the greater the pressure
at any given depth.

• The change in pressure ΔpΔp at a depth ΔhΔh below the surface of a liquid with density ρρ is
determined by considering a horizontal area AA.

• Force acting vertically downwards on area AA equals the weight of the liquid column of
height ΔhΔh and cross-sectional area AA above it.

• Volume of the liquid column: ΔhAΔhA

• Mass of the liquid

column: mm == ρΔhAρΔhA (mass=density×volume)(mass=density×volume)

• Weight of the liquid column: mg=ρΔhAgmg=ρΔhAg

• Force on area AA: ρΔhAgρΔhAg

• Pressure due to the liquid column:

pressurepressure = forceareaareaforce

ρΔhAgA=ρgΔhAρΔhAg=ρgΔh

• Formula: Δp=ρgΔhΔp=ρgΔh \n ΔpΔp is the change in pressure beneath the surface of the
liquid at depth ΔhΔh due to the weight of a liquid of density ρρ

o gg is the gravitational field strength

o This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth ΔhΔh and depends only
on ΔhΔh and ρρ.

• Value will be in pascals (PaPa) if ΔhΔh = is in meters (m)(m) and (ρ)(ρ) is in kilograms per
cubic meter (kg/m³).(kg/m³).

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