P RIMALITY T ESTING IN P OLYNOMIAL T IME

A Theorem of
M. AGRAWAL , N. K AYAL , AND N. S AXENA
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur
Two Important Papers in the Literature:
• Etienne Fouvry, Théorèm de Brun-Titchmarsh, appli-
cation au théorèm de Fermat, Invent. Math 79 (1985),
383–407.
• Leonard Adleman and D. Roger Heath-Brown, The first
case of Fermat’s Last Theorem, Invent. Math 79 (1985),
409–416.

Notation. ⇡(x) = p : p prime  x

⇡s (x) = p : p prime  x, P (p 1) > p2/3

| {z }
" "
“s” as in special P (n) is the largest prime factor of n
Two Important Papers in the Literature:
• Etienne Fouvry, Théorèm de Brun-Titchmarsh, appli-
cation au théorèm de Fermat, Invent. Math 79 (1985),
383–407.
• Leonard Adleman and D. Roger Heath-Brown, The first
case of Fermat’s Last Theorem, Invent. Math 79 (1985),
409–416.

Lemma 1. There is a constant c > 0 and x0 such that

x
⇡s(x) c for all x x0 .
log x
Two Important Papers in the Literature:
• Etienne Fouvry, Théorèm de Brun-Titchmarsh, appli-
cation au théorèm de Fermat, Invent. Math 79 (1985),
383–407.
• Leonard Adleman and D. Roger Heath-Brown, The first
case of Fermat’s Last Theorem, Invent. Math 79 (1985),
409–416.

2x
Classical. ⇡(x)  for x large
log x
Lemma 2. There are positive constants c1 and c2 such
6 6
that the interval I = (c1(log n) , c2(log n) ] contains
a prime r with r 1 having a prime factor q satisfying
p
q 4 r log n and q|ordr (n).
Input: integer n > 1

1. if ( n is of the form ab, b > 1 ) output COMPOSITE;

2. r = 2;
3. while ( r < n ) {
4. if ( gcd(n, r) 6= 1 ) output COMPOSITE;
5. if ( r is prime )
6. let q be the largest prime factor of r 1;
p
7. if ( q 4 r log n ) and ( n(r 1)/q 6⌘ 1 (mod r) )
8. break;
9. r ! r + 1;
10. }
p
11. for a = 1 to 2 r log n
12. if ( (x a)n 6⌘ xn a (mod xr 1, n) ) output COMPOSITE;
13. output PRIME;
Input: integer n > 1

1. if ( n is of the form ab, b > 1 ) output COMPOSITE;

2. r = 2;
3. while ( r < n ) {
4. if ( gcd(n, r) 6= 1 ) output COMPOSITE;
5. if ( r is prime )
6. let q be the largest prime factor of r 1;
p
7. if ( q 4 r log n ) and ( n(r 1)/q 6⌘ 1 (mod r) )
8. break;
Note that n does not have
9. r ! r + 1;
any prime divisors < r.
10. }
p
11. for a = 1 to 2 r log n
12. if ( (x a)n 6⌘ xn a (mod xr 1, n) )Routput
⇡,P3 R⇡,P 2 R⇡,P1 =
COMPOSITE;
13. output PRIME;
Input: integer n > 1

1. if ( n is of the form ab, b > 1 ) output COMPOSITE;

2. r = 2;
3. while ( r < n ) {
4. if ( gcd(n, r) 6= 1 ) output COMPOSITE;
5. if ( r is prime )
6. let q be the largest prime factor of r 1;
p
7. if ( q 4 r log n ) and ( n(r 1)/q 6⌘ 1 (mod r) )
8. break;
9. r ! r + 1; P ROBLEM : Show that if n is composite, then the
10. } algorithm indicates it is.
p
11. for a = 1 to 2 r log n
12. if ( (x a)n 6⌘ xn a (mod xr 1, n) ) output COMPOSITE;
13. output PRIME;
S ITUATION :
q - n r is a prime
n is composite,
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)
√
WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ 2 r log n
such that
n ! n " r
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a (mod x − 1 , n ).
S ITUATION :
q - n r is a prime
n is composite,
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)
√
WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ !2 r"#log n$
such that
% & ℓ
n
(x − a) ̸≡ x − an r
(mod x − 1 , n ).
S ITUATION :
q - n r is a prime
n is composite,
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)
√
WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ !2 r"#log n$
such that
% & ℓ
n
(x − a) ̸≡ x − an r
(mod x − 1 , !"#$
n ).

p with p|n
S ITUATION :
R(x) n
= ispR 1 (x) =q
composite, - n r is2(x)
ph(x)Q a prime
+ pR2(x)
√
q is a prime, q≥4 r log n
()
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)
factoring r 1 can be √
WANT: There isdone
an integer 41 ≤ a ≤ 2
in O (log n) steps ! r"#
a with log n$
such that
% & ℓ
n n
Note this
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a is not r
h(x).
(mod x − 1 , n ).
! "# $ !"#$
This is mod r(h(x), p). p with p|n
h(x) monic, where h(x)|(x − 1) mod p

(Comment: We really will work mod (xr 1, p).)

 n n r
Rem ((x − a) − (x − a), x − 1, x) mod n = 0
⇓
n n r
Rem ((x − a) − (x − a), x − 1, x) mod p = 0
⇓ !
n n
Rem ((x − a) − (x − a), h(x), x) mod p = 0

n n r
(x − a) −(x − a) = (x − 1)Q(x) + R(x)
= h(x)u(x)Q(x) + pv(x)Q(x) + R(x)
= h(x)w
h(x)w(x)
1 (x)+
+R(x)
R(x)+ p w02(x)
+pR (x)
R(x) = pR1(x) = ph(x)Q2(x) + pR2(x)
 Rem ((x = n
− a) − (x
h(x)w 1
n
(x) + R(x)r
− a), x +−p w
1,2(x)
x) mod
=) n =
/ 0

⇓
= n
Rem ((x − a) − (x
h(x)w 1
n
(x) + R(x)r
− a), x +−p w x) mod
1,2(x) =) p =
/ 0

⇓ !
= n
h(x)w (x) n
Rem ((x − a) −1 (x +− a),+h(x),
R(x) x) mod
p w2(x) =) p =
/ 0

n n r
(x − a) −(x − a) = (x − 1)Q(x) + R(x)
= h(x)u(x)Q(x) + pv(x)Q(x) + R(x)
= h(x)w
h(x)w(x)
1 (x)+
+R(x)
R(x)+ p w02(x)
+pR (x)
R(x) = pR1(x) = ph(x)Q2(x) + pR2(x)
S ITUATION :
n is q -
composite, n
R(x) = pR1(x) = ph(x)Q r is2(x)
a prime
+ pR2(x)
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
()
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)
factoring r 1 can be √
WANT: There isdone
an integer a with
in O (log ≤ a ≤ 2 r log n
n)41 steps
such that
n ! n "
(x − a) ̸≡ x this
Note −ais not(mod
h(x). h(x), p),

where p is a prime dividing n and h(x) is a monic factor

r This is mod (h(x), p).
of x − 1 modulo p (both of our choosing).
(Comment: We really will work mod (xr 1, p).)
S ITUATION :
q - n r is a prime
n is composite,
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)

H OW TO C HOOSE p:
S ITUATION :
q - n r is a prime
n is composite,
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r logn
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)

e1 e2 et
H OW TO C HOOSE p: If n = p1 p2 · · · pt , then
S ITUATION :
q - n r is a prime
n is composite,
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)

e1 e2 et
H OW TO C HOOSE p: If n = p1 p2 · · · pt , then
d
d = ordr (p1) · · · ordr (pt) =⇒ n ≡1 (mod r).
S ITUATION :
q - n r is a prime
n is composite,
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)

e1 e2 et
H OW TO C HOOSE p: If n = p1 p2 · · · pt , then
d
d = ordr (p1) · · · ordr (pt) =⇒ n ≡1 (mod r).
We deduce q|d.
S ITUATION :
q - n r is a prime
n is composite,
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q - n, − 1), 1),
q|(r q|(r q|ordq|ord
r (n) r (n)

e1 e2 et
H OW TO C HOOSE p: If n = p1 p2 · · · pt , then
d
d = ordr (p1) · · · ordr (pt) =⇒ n ≡1 (mod r).
We deduce q|d. Fix p such that
p|n and q|ordr (p).
S ITUATION :
n is composite, r is a prime
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q|(r − 1), p|n, q|ordr (p)

Note that n does not have

any prime divisors < r.

R⇡,P3 R⇡,P2 R⇡,P1 = R⇡,Q

= h(x)w1(x) + R(x) + p w2(x) =)

S ITUATION :
n is composite, r is a prime
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r log n
q|(r − 1), p|n, q|ordr (p)

How do we choose h(x)?

T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
 T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
Let r be a positive integer, and let p be a prime.
Write r = pk m where p ! m. Let f = ordm(p).
Then the r th cyclotomic polynomial Φr (x) factors
as a product of φ(m)/f incongruent irreducible
polynomials modulo p of degree f each raised to
k
the φ(p ) power.
 T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
Let r be a positive integer, and let p be a prime.
Write r = pk m where p ! m. Let f = ordm(p).
Then the r th cyclotomic polynomial Φr (x) factors
as a product of φ(m)/f incongruent irreducible
polynomials modulo p of degree f each raised to
k
the φ(p ) power.
 T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
Let r be a positive integer, and let p be a prime.
Write r = pk m where p ! m. Let f = ordm(p).
Then the r th cyclotomic polynomial Φr (x) factors
as a product of φ(m)/f incongruent irreducible
polynomials modulo p of degree f each raised to
k
the φ(p ) power.

r prime,
 T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
Let r be a positive integer, and let p be a prime.
Write r = pk m where p ! m. Let f = ordm(p).
Then the r th cyclotomic polynomial Φr (x) factors
as a product of φ(m)/f incongruent irreducible
polynomials modulo p of degree f each raised to
k
the φ(p ) power.

r prime, k = 0 ,
 T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
Let r be a positive integer, and let p be a prime.
Write r = pk m where p ! m. Let f = ordm(p).
Then the r th cyclotomic polynomial Φr (x) factors
as a product of φ(m)/f incongruent irreducible
polynomials modulo p of degree f each raised to
k
the φ(p ) power.

r prime, k = 0 , m = r,
 T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
Let r be a positive integer, and let p be a prime.
Write r = pk m where p ! m. Let f = ordm(p).
Then the r th cyclotomic polynomial Φr (x) factors
as a product of φ(m)/f incongruent irreducible
polynomials modulo p of degree f each raised to
k
the φ(p ) power.
r
x −1
r prime, k = 0 , m = r, Φr (x) =
x−1
 T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
Let r be a positive integer, and let p be a prime.
Write r = pk m where p ! m. Let f = ordm(p).
Then the r th cyclotomic polynomial Φr (x) factors
as a product of φ(m)/f incongruent irreducible
polynomials modulo p of degree f each raised to
k
the φ(p ) power.
r
x − 1 has a factor of degree ordr (p) modulo p
 T HE FACTORIZATION OF C YCLOTOMIC
P OLYNOMIALS M ODULO A P RIME
Let r be a positive integer, and let p be a prime.
Write r = pk m where p ! m. Let f = ordm(p).
Then the r th cyclotomic polynomial Φr (x) factors
as a product of φ(m)/f incongruent irreducible
polynomials modulo p of degree f each raised to
k
the φ(p ) power.
= h(x)w1(x) + R(x) + p w2(x) =) /
r
x − 1 has a factor of degree ordr (p) modulo p

q-n h(x)
S ITUATION :
n is composite, r is a prime
√
q is a prime, q ≥ 4 r logn
q|(r − 1), p|n, q|ordr (p)
h(x) irreducible mod p, degh = ordr (p)
S ITUATION :
R(x) n
= ispR 1 (x) = ph(x)Q
composite, r is2(x) + pR2(x)
a prime
√
q ≥ 4 r logn
q is a prime, ()
q|(r − 1), p|n, q|ordr (p)
factoring r 1 can be
h(x) irreducible mod p, degh
4 =
done in O (log n) steps ordr (p)
√
WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ 2 r logn
Note this is not h(x).
such that
n ! n "
(x − a) This
̸≡ xis −moda (h(x),
(modp). h(x), p).

(Comment: We really will work mod (xr 1, p).)

S ITUATION :
R(x) n
= ispR 1 (x) = ph(x)Q
composite, r is2(x) + pR2(x)
a prime
√
q ≥ 4 r logn
q is a prime, ()
q|(r − 1), p|n, q|ordr (p)
factoring r 1 can be
h(x) irreducible mod p, degh
4 =
done in O (log n) steps ordr (p)
√
WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ !2 r"#logn$
Note this is not h(x).
such that
% & ℓ
n
(x − a) This n
̸≡ xis − a (h(x),
(mod
mod p). h(x), p).

(Comment: We really will work mod (xr 1, p).)

S ITUATION :
√
n is R(x) = pR1(x)
composite, r is=aph(x)Q
prime, 2(x)
ℓ= + 2pR2r(x)
log n
√
q is a prime, () q ≥ 4 r log n
q|(r − 1), p|n, q|ordr (p)
factoring r 1 can be
h(x) irreducible mod p, deg 4h = ordr (p)
done in O (log n) steps

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

Note this is!not h(x).
n
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a n (mod h(x), p).
This is mod (h(x), p).

(Comment: We really will work mod (xr 1, p).)

S ITUATION :
√
n is R(x) = pR1(x)
composite, r is=aph(x)Q
prime, 2(x)
ℓ= + 2pR2r(x)
log n
√
q is a prime, () q ≥ 4 r log n
q|(r − 1), p|n, q|ordr (p)
factoring r 1 can be
h(x) irreducible mod p, deg 4h = ordr (p) ≥ 2 ℓ
done in O (log n) steps

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

Note this is!not h(x).
n
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a n (mod h(x), p).
This is mod (h(x), p).

(Comment: We really will work mod (xr 1, p).)

A RITHMETIC M ODULO h(x), p
 A RITHMETIC M ODULO h(x), p

Well-Known: Arithmetic modulo h(x), p forms a field F

with p deg h elements which can be represented by the
polynomials of degree < deg h with coefficients from
{0 , 1 , . . . , p − 1 }.
 A RITHMETIC M ODULO h(x), p

Well-Known: Arithmetic modulo h(x), p forms a field F

with p deg h elements which can be represented by the
polynomials of degree < deg h with coefficients from
{0 , 1 , . . . , p − 1 }. As with any finite field, the non-
zero elements form a cyclic group under multiplication.
 A RITHMETIC M ODULO h(x), p

Well-Known: Arithmetic modulo h(x), p forms a field F

with p deg h elements which can be represented by the
polynomials of degree < deg h with coefficients from
{0 , 1 , . . . , p − 1 }. As with any finite field, the non-
zero elements form a cyclic group under multiplication.
Main Lemma: The set
e e e
G = {(x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ : ej ≥ 0 }
1 2

forms a subgroup of the multiplicative group of non-

zero elements of F (which necessarily is cyclic).
 A RITHMETIC M ODULO h(x), p

Well-Known: Arithmetic modulo h(x), p forms a field F

with p deg h elements which can be represented by the
polynomials of degree < deg h with coefficients from
{0 , 1 , . . . , p − 1 }. As with any finite field, the non-
zero elements form a cyclic group under multiplication.
Main Lemma: The set
e e e
G = {(x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ : ej ≥ 0 }
1 2

forms a subgroup of the multiplicative group of non-

zero elements of F (which necessarily is cyclic) of size
>2 ℓ
 A RITHMETIC M ODULO h(x), p

Well-Known: Arithmetic modulo h(x), p forms a field F

with p deg h elements which can be represented by the
polynomials of degree < deg h with coefficients from
{0 , 1 , . . . , p − 1 }. As with any finite field, the non-
zero elements form a cyclic group under multiplication.
Main Lemma: The set
e e e
G = {(x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ : ej ≥ 0 }
1 2

forms a subgroup of the multiplicative group of non-

zero elements of F (which necessarily is cyclic) of size
>2 ℓ
 A RITHMETIC M ODULO h(x), p

Well-Known: Arithmetic modulo h(x), p forms a field F

with p deg h elements which can be represented by the
polynomials of degree < deg h with coefficients from
{0 , 1 , . . . , p − 1 }. As with any finite field, the non-
zero elements form a cyclic group under multiplication.
Main Lemma: The set
e e e
G = {(x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ : ej ≥ 0 }
1 2

forms a subgroup of the multiplicative group of non-

zero elements
√ of F (which √
necessarily is cyclic) of size
ℓ
>2 =2 2 r log n =n2 r .
 A RITHMETIC M ODULO h(x), p

Well-Known: Arithmetic modulo h(x), p forms a field F

with p deg h elements which can be represented by the
polynomials of degree < deg h with coefficients from
{0 , 1 , . . . , p − 1 }. As with any finite field, the non-
zero elements form a cyclic group under multiplication.
Main Lemma: The set
e e e
G = {(x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ : ej ≥ 0 }
1 2

forms a subgroup of the multiplicative group of non-

zero elements
√ of F (which √
necessarily is cyclic) of size
ℓ
>2 =2 2 r log n =n2 r .
Main Lemma: The set
e e e
G = {(x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ : ej ≥ 0 }
1 2

forms a subgroup of the multiplicative group of non-

zero elements
√ of F (which √necessarily is cyclic) of size
ℓ
>2 =2 2 r log n =n2 r .
Main Lemma: The set
e e e
G = {(x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ : ej ≥ 0 }
1 2

forms a subgroup of the multiplicative group of non-

zero elements
√ of F (which √necessarily is cyclic) of size
ℓ
>2 =2 2 r log n =n2 r .

We explain why this main lemma gives us what we want

Main Lemma: The set
e e e
G = {(x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ : ej ≥ 0 }
1 2

forms a subgroup of the multiplicative group of non-

zero elements
√ of F (which √necessarily is cyclic) of size
ℓ
>2 =2 2 r log n =n2 r .

We explain why this main lemma gives us what we want

and then discuss why it is true.
S ITUATION :
√
n is R(x) = pR1(x)
composite, r is=aph(x)Q
prime, 2(x)
ℓ= + 2pR2r(x)
log n
√
q is a prime, () q ≥ 4 r log n
q|(r − 1), p|n, q|ordr (p)
factoring r 1 can be
h(x) irreducible mod p, deg 4h = ordr (p) ≥ 2 ℓ
done in O (log n) steps

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

Note this is!not h(x).
n
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a n (mod h(x), p).
This is mod (h(x), p).

(Comment: We really will work mod (xr 1, p).)

Notation:
Notation: Since G is cyclic, there is an element
e e
g(x) = (x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ
1 2 e
√
in G (and, hence, in F ) of order |G| > n 2 r .
 R(x) = pR1(x) = ph(x)Q2(x) + pR2(x)
Notation: Since G is cyclic, there is an element
()
e e
g(x) = (x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ
1 2 e
√
factoring r 1 can
in G (and, hence, in F ) of order |G| > n be2 r . Define
4
donemin O (log
m
n) steps r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}.
Note this is not h(x).
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2

=⇒ g(x )m 1 m 2 ≡ g(xm 1 m 2 ) (mod xm1r−1, p)

 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2

=⇒ g(x )m 1 m 2 ≡ g(xm 1 m 2 ) (mod xm1r−1, p)

 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2

=⇒ g(x )m 1 m 2 ≡ g(xm 1 m 2 ) (mod xr −1, p)

 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2

=⇒ g(x )m 1 m 2 ≡ g(xm 1 m 2 ) (mod xr−1, p)

 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2

=⇒ g(x )m 1 m 2 ≡ g(xm 1 m 2 ) (mod xr−1, p)

 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2

=⇒ g(x )m 1 m 2 ≡ g(xm 1 m 2 ) (mod xr−1, p)

m
g(x ) ≡ g(x)
1 m 1 r
(mod x −1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2

=⇒ g(x )m 1 m 2 ≡ g(xm 1 m 2 ) (mod xr−1, p)

m
g(x ) ≡ g(x)
1 m 1 r
(mod x −1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)

g(x)m 2 m r
≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)
2

=⇒ g(x) m 1 m 2 ≡ g(xm 1 m 2 ) (mod xr−1, p)

m
g(x ) ≡ g(x)
1 m 1 r
(mod x −1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
 m
R(x) = pRm (x) = r
ph(x)Q
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1,
1 2 (x)p)}
+ pR2

()
P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ mfactoring
1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
r 1 can be
4
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r) steps
done in O (log n)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)
Note this is not h(x).

This is mod (h(x), p).

 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d= order of g(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
d
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod ) where d= order of g(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m j m j m j ! (m −m )j "
x 2 −x 1 =x 1 x 2 1 −1
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m j m j m j ! (m −m )j "
x 2 −x 1 =x 1 x 2 1 −1
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m j m j m j ! (m −m )j "
x 2 −x 1 =x 1 x 2 1 −1
m j ! r "! "
=x 1 x − 1 ···
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m j m j m j ! (m −m )j "
x 2 −x 1 =x 1 x 2 1 −1
m j ! r "! "
=x 1 x − 1 ···
=⇒ x m 2 j ≡xm 1 j r
(mod x − 1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m j m j m j ! (m −m )j "
x 2 −x 1 =x 1 x 2 1 −1
m j ! r "! "
=x 1 x − 1 ···
=⇒ x m 2 j ≡xm 1 j r
(mod x − 1, p)
=⇒ m m r
g(x ) ≡ g(x ) (mod x − 1, p)
2 1
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m m
g(x ) ≡ g(x 1 )
2 r
(mod x − 1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m m r
g(x ) ≡ g(x ) (mod x − 1, p)
2 1

=⇒ g(x) m 2 ≡ g(x)m 1 r
(mod x − 1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m m r
g(x ) ≡ g(x ) (mod x − 1, p)
2 1

=⇒ g(x) m 2 ≡ g(x) m 1 r
(mod x − 1, p)
=⇒ g(x) m 2 −m 1 r
≡ 1 (mod x − 1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

m m r
g(x ) ≡ g(x ) (mod x − 1, p)
2 1

=⇒ g(x) m 2 ≡ g(x) m 1 r
(mod x − 1, p)
=⇒ g(x) m 2 −m 1 r
≡ 1 (mod x − 1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

M ORAL :
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)

M ORAL : There are ≤r positive integers ≤d in Ig(x).

 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

n ! n "
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a (mod h(x) , p).
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

n ! n " r
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a (mod x − 1 , p).
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

n ! n " r
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a (mod x − 1 , p).

Assume otherwise.
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

n ! n " r
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a (mod x − 1 , p).

Assume otherwise. Then, for all a ∈ {1, 2, . . . , ℓ},

n ! n "
(x − a) ≡ x − a (mod xr − 1 , p).
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

n ! n " r
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a (mod x − 1 , p).

Assume otherwise. Then, for all a ∈ {1, 2, . . . , ℓ},

n ! n "
(x − a) ≡ x − a (mod xr − 1 , p).
e e e
g(x) = (x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ
1 2
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

n ! n " r
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a (mod x − 1 , p).

Assume otherwise. Then, for all a ∈ {1, 2, . . . , ℓ},

n ! n "
(x − a) ≡ x − a (mod xr − 1 , p).
e e e
g(x) = (x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ
1 2
n n r
=⇒ g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x − 1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

WANT: There is an integer a with 1 ≤ a ≤ ℓ such that

n ! n " r
(x − a) ̸≡ x − a (mod x − 1 , p).

Assume otherwise. Then, for all a ∈ {1, 2, . . . , ℓ},

n ! n "
(x − a) ≡ x − a (mod xr − 1 , p).
e e e
g(x) = (x−1) (x−2) · · · (x−ℓ) ℓ
1 2
n n r
=⇒ g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x − 1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x)

p p
g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x)

p p
g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod xr−1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x)

p p
g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod xr−1, p)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)

m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)
i j √
n p ∈ Ig(x)
m ≤ i, j ≤ [ rr]
for 0 m
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d = order of g(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)
i j √
n p ∈ Ig(x) for 0 ≤ i, j ≤ [ r]

i
1≤np j
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)
i j √
n p ∈ Ig(x) for 0≤ i, j ≤ [ r]

i j
1≤ n p ≤ ni+j
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)
i j √
n p ∈ Ig(x) for 0≤ i, j ≤ [ r]
√
i j
1≤ n p ≤ ni+j ≤n2 r
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)
i j √
n p ∈ Ig(x) for 0≤ i, j ≤ [ r]
√
i j
1≤ n p ≤ ni+j ≤n2 r ≤d
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

P ROPERTIES OF Ig(x) :
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) =⇒ m1m2 ∈ Ig(x)
• m1, m2 ∈ Ig(x) and m1 ≡ m2 (mod r)
=⇒ m1 ≡ m2 (mod d) where d= order of g(x)
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)
i j √
n p ∈ Ig(x) for 0≤ i, j ≤ [ r]
√
i j
1≤ n p ≤ ni+j ≤n2 r ≤d
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)
i j √
n p ∈ Ig(x) for 0≤ i, j ≤ [ r]
√
i j
1≤ n p ≤ ni+j ≤n2 r ≤d

ni1pj1 = ni2pj2
 m m r
Ig(x) = {m : g(x) ≡ g(x ) (mod x −1, p)}

M ORAL : There are ≤ r positive integers ≤ d in Ig(x).

n ∈ Ig(x), p ∈ Ig(x)
i j √
n p ∈ Ig(x) for 0≤ i, j ≤ [ r]
√
i j
1≤ n p ≤ ni+j ≤n2 r ≤d

ni1pj1 = ni2pj2 =⇒ n = pk