College of Engineering and Computer Science
Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
LABORATORY 5: ROTATIONAL MOTIONS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA
Members Date and Time of the Lab
Experimenter 1: Nguyen Thanh Phong 13:30, 26 May 2025
Experimenter 2: Nguyen Phu Khang
Experimenter 3: Nguyen Khac Dat Lab instructor: Dr. Quynh Le
1 Introduction
A heat engine is the most widely used type of engine today, evolving from early steam engines to
modern internal combustion engines found in motorcycles, cars, airplanes, ships, and more. The basic
principle of a heat engine is to convert thermal energy from a hot reservoir into mechanical energy, with
the remaining heat transferred to a cold reservoir. When using heat engines, one of the key concerns is
the efficiency of converting heat into mechanical work. Depending on the design and operating
conditions of the engine, this efficiency can be improved or reduced. In this experiment, we will
thoroughly study a simple thermodynamic cycle using the PASCO Heat Engine Cycle apparatus.
2 Theory
The theoretical maximum efficiency of a heat engine depends only on the temperature of the hot
reservoir, 𝑇𝐻, and the temperature of the cold reservoir, 𝑇𝐶. The maximum efficiency is given by:
𝑇𝑐
𝑒 = (1 − 𝑇𝐻
) × 100%
(1)
The actual efficiency is defined as:
𝑊
𝑒= 𝑄𝐻
× 100%
(2)
where 𝑊 is the work done by the heat engine on its environment and 𝑄𝐻is the heat extracted from
the hot reservoir.
At the beginning of the cycle, the air is held at a constant temperature while a weight is placed on
top of the piston. Work is done on the gas and heat is exhausted to the cold reservoir. The internal
energy of the gas:
△𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉△𝑇
(3)
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College of Engineering and Computer Science
Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
does not change since the temperature does not change. According to the First Law of
Thermodynamics:
△𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
(4)
where 𝑄 is the heat added to the gas and 𝑊 is the work done by the gas.
In the second part of the cycle, heat is added to the gas, causing the gas to expand, pushing the
piston up, doing work by lifting the weight. This process takes place at constant pressure
(atmospheric pressure) because the piston is free to move.
For an isobaric process, the heat added to the gas is:
𝑄𝑃 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃△𝑇
(5)
where:
● 𝑛: number of moles of gas,
● 𝐶𝑃: molar heat capacity at constant pressure,
● △𝑇: change in temperature.
The work done by the gas:
𝑊 = 𝑄 − △𝑈
(6)
and internal energy change:
△𝑈 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉∆𝑇
(7)
Since air consists mostly of diatomic molecules:
5
𝐶𝑉 = 2
𝑅
(8)
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College of Engineering and Computer Science
Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
and
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𝐶𝑃 = 2
𝑅
(9)
In the third part of the cycle, the weight is lifted off the piston while the gas is held at the hotter
temperature. Heat is added to the gas and the gas expands, doing work.
During this isothermal process, the work done is:
𝑉𝑓
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛( 𝑉𝑖
)
(10)
where:
- 𝑉𝑖: initial volume
- 𝑉𝑓: final volume
Since internal energy change is zero:
△𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 = 0 ⇒ 𝑄 = 𝑊
(11)
In the final part of the cycle, heat is exhausted from the gas to the cold reservoir, returning the
piston to its original position. This process is isobaric, and the same equations as in the second
part apply.
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Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
3 Experiments
3.1 Experiments setup and procedure
Table 1: Components for the experiment
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College of Engineering and Computer Science
Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
Figure 1. Experimental setup of the heat engine system, including the heat engine (1), 200 g mass (2),
main connector tubing (3), rubber stopper tubing (4), PASCO dual pressure sensor (6), thermal can (7),
and water container (8), connected through the pressure sensor adapter tubing (5).
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College of Engineering and Computer Science
Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
Figure 2. Experimental setup of the mechanical system, including the heat engine (1), 200 g mass (2),
thread (3), support rod (4), PASCO rotary motion sensor (5), and mass hanger with masses (6). The
components are arranged to study the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical work.
The system consists of three main components: a cylinder connected to a tube via air hoses, forming an
isolated gas system, sensors interfaced with the Capstone software, and two thermal reservoirs (hot and
cold). Initially, hot water at approximately 80°C is used as the hot reservoir, while ice serves as the cold
reservoir. Before taking measurements, please follow the steps below:
1. In PASCO Capstone, set the sample rates of the Rotary Motion Sensor and the Dual Pressure
Sensor to 40 Hz and set the sample rate of the Quad Temperature Sensor to 5 Hz.
2. Create a graph of Absolute Pressure (kPa) versus Position (cm).
3. To obtain a P-V graph, convert the horizontal axis from Position (cm) to Volume (cm³) using
Capstone’s calculator with the following formula:
V [cm³] = πr²x, where x = [Position (m)] from the Rotary Motion Sensor.
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College of Engineering and Computer Science
Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
After entering the formula, you can select Volume as the horizontal axis variable.
4. Put hot water (about 80°C) into one of the plastic containers (about half full). Put ice water in the
other plastic container. The large (about 3 liter) containers keep the hot and cold temperatures
constant during the heat engine cycle.
5. Insert the two stainless steel temperature probes into the two thermal reservoirs, one probe in
each reservoir. Click on Digits in the Capstone toolbar, then select Temperature to monitor the
temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.
6. Adjust the position of the piston so that it is approximately 2–3 cm above the bottom of the
cylinder. Then, place the tube into the ice-water bath. Since the air in the tube and the cylinder is
connected and sealed, the cooling causes the gas to compress, resulting in the downward
movement of the piston. Wait until the piston comes to a complete stop, then readjust its position
so that it is again about 2–3 cm above the bottom of the cylinder.
Note: To adjust the piston position, disconnect the coupling between the gas tube and the
cylinder.
3.2 Experiment result
Figure 3. Pressure–Volume (P–V) Diagram of the Heat Engine Operating Between Two Thermal
Reservoirs with ∆𝑇1
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College of Engineering and Computer Science
Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
Figure 4. Pressure–Volume (P–V) Diagram of the Heat Engine Operating Between Two Thermal
Reservoirs with ∆𝑇2
Figure 5. Pressure–Volume (P–V) Diagram of the Heat Engine Operating Between Two Thermal
Reservoirs with ∆𝑇3
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4 Post Lab questions
4.1 Identify the types of processes and the actual physical performance for each process.
In one complete cycle of the laboratory heat-engine, the working gas experiences four successive
thermodynamic transformations whose nature can be inferred from the pressure–volume trace and from
the experimental protocol.
First, during the A → B stage, a 200 g mass is gently placed on the piston while the cylinder remains
immersed in an ice-water bath. Because the bath maintains the gas at the cold-reservoir temperature 𝑇𝐶,
the compression proceeds essentially isothermally: the volume decreases, the pressure rises slightly, and
heat is released to the cold bath.
Second, in the B → C stage, the cylinder (still bearing the 200 g load) is transferred to an 80 °C
hot-water bath. The external pressure exerted by the load balances the internal pressure almost perfectly,
so the gas expands nearly isobarically. During this interval the gas absorbs heat from the hot reservoir,
part of which increases its internal energy while the remainder is converted into 𝑝∆𝑉 work as the piston
rises. Quantitatively, the first-law statement for this segment is
𝑄𝐵𝐶 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃(𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶) + 𝑝(𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵)
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Where 𝐶𝑃 = 2
𝑅 for diatomic air under the conditions of the experiment. Because the heat is supplied at
the highest temperature encountered in the cycle, the 𝐵 → 𝐶 process is chiefly responsible for setting the
theoretical (Carnot) efficiency limit and therefore plays a pivotal role in any comparison between ideal
and actual performance.
Third, during the C → D stage, the mass is removed while the cylinder remains in the hot bath. The gas
now undergoes an isothermal expansion at 𝑇𝐻; the pressure drops modestly as the volume increases, and
virtually all of the heat absorbed from the bath is transformed directly into mechanical work.
Finally, in the D → A stage, the cylinder—with no external load—is returned to the ice bath. The gas
cools back to 𝑇𝐶at roughly constant pressure, the volume contracts, and heat is expelled to the cold
reservoir, thereby completing the closed loop.
Collectively, the sequence “isothermal compression at 𝑇𝐶→ isobaric expansion → isothermal expansion
at 𝑇𝐻→ isobaric compression” generates the clockwise 𝑃 − 𝑉 loop observed in the data; the enclosed
area equals the net work produced per cycle, while the two high-temperature segments account for the
total heat input that determines the engine’s measured efficiency.
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College of Engineering and Computer Science
Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
4.2 Identify and label the two processes in which heat is added to the gas.
Step B → C – Heat-Input during Isobaric Expansion
Experimental setting
Cylinder carries the 200 g load and is moved from the ice bath into the hot bath.
Your raw tables list cold-bath temperatures 𝑇𝐶 near 0°𝐶 and hot-bath temperatures 𝑇𝐻between
about 30 °C and 62 °C, depending on the run (e.g., 29.95 °C in Run 1).
Why heat flows into the gas
Because the external mass fixes the pressure almost constant (the Capstone trace shows the
𝐵 → 𝐶 segment running horizontally on the 𝑃 axis), the only way the gas can follow the
ideal-gas relation 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 while its temperature climbs from 𝑇𝐶to 𝑇𝐻is by expanding. The
first-law statement for this constant-pressure process is
𝑄𝐵𝐶 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃(𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶) + 𝑝(𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵)
where both terms on the right are positive in every run. Hence 𝑄𝐵𝐶 > 0: heat enters the gas to
raise its internal energy and to supply the expansion work that lifts the weighted piston.
Step C → D – Heat-Input during Isothermal Expansion at 𝑇𝐻
Experimental setting
The load is removed while the cylinder remains immersed in the same hot bath. The gas
therefore continues to expand, now without the additional external pressure, but its temperature
stays fixed at the recorded 𝑇 for that run.
𝐻
Why heat flows into the gas
For an ideal gas, an isothermal process satisfies △𝑈𝐶𝐷 = 0; yet the piston still does positive
work
𝑉
𝑊𝐶𝐷 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐻𝑙𝑛( 𝑉𝐷 ) > 0
𝐶
(the 𝐶 → 𝐷 in the PV diagram plot slopes downward and to the right). To prevent the gas from
cooling while this work is produced, an equal amount of energy must enter as heat, so
𝑄𝐶𝐷 = 𝑊𝐶𝐷 > 0.
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Physics 1010. Classical Mechanics and Heat
Spring 2025
4.3 Calculate the actual efficiency and compare it with the ideal efficiency for a heat engine
operating between the two temperatures you measured above.
To calculate and compare the actual and ideal efficiencies, we use the following formulas:
- Ideal Efficiency (Carnot Efficiency):
𝑇𝐶
𝑒𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = (1 − 𝑇𝐻
) × 100%
where 𝑇𝐶is the temperature of the cold reservoir and 𝑇𝐻 is the temperature of the hot reservoir, both
in Kelvin.
- Actual Efficiency:
𝑊
𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝐻
× 100%
where 𝑊 is the work done by the gas (area inside the P-V cycle), and 𝑄𝐻is the heat extracted from
the hot reservoir during processes 𝐵 → 𝐶 (isobaric expansion) and 𝐶 → 𝐷 (isothermal expansion).
- To evaluate the performance of the heat engine, we must determine the net work output 𝑊 and
the total heat input 𝑄𝐻. In this experiment, the gas absorbs heat during two key stages of the
thermodynamic cycle:
1. Isobaric heating (B → C)
2. Isothermal expansion (C → D)
Therefore, the total heat input is the sum of the heat absorbed during these two processes:
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑄𝐵→𝐶 + 𝑄𝐶→𝐷
Using equation (5) - (9), the added heat in segment B -> C is:
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𝑄𝐵𝐶 = 𝑛𝐶𝑃∆𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 2
𝑛𝑅(𝑇𝐶 − 𝑇𝐵) = 2
𝑃𝐵𝐶(𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵)
Since the volume increase during B to C, so:
𝑄𝐵𝐶 > 0 (absorb heat)
Using equation (3) and (4), the added heat in segment C -> D is:
∆𝑈𝐶𝐷 = 𝑛𝐶𝑉∆𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 0
The amount of heat absorbed by gas is:
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𝑉
𝑄𝐶𝐷 = 𝑊𝐶𝐷 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐶𝐷𝑙𝑛( 𝑉𝐷 )
𝐶
Since 𝑉𝐷 > 𝑉𝐶 ⇒ 𝑄𝐶𝐷 > 0
Applying these formulas to calculate actual efficiency and ideal efficiency in following table:
Trial 𝑄𝐵→𝐶(𝐽) 𝑄𝐶→𝐷(𝐽) 𝑄𝐻(𝐽) 𝑊(𝐽) η actual η Carnot
△𝑇1 7.915 0.543 8.46 0.0387 0.46 % 9.87 %
△𝑇2 16.395 0.597 16.99 0.0781 0.46 % 18.47 %
△𝑇3 6.314 0.529 6.84 0.0659 0.48 % 15.5 %
Comparison Between Actual and Carnot Efficiency
The data shows a clear and consistent gap between the actual efficiency (η actual) and the ideal Carnot
efficiency (η Carnot) across all trials. While the theoretical Carnot efficiency ranges from 8.03 % to
18.47 %, the measured actual efficiency remains below 1 % in every case. This dramatic difference can
be explained by several practical limitations in the experimental setup.
First, mechanical losses such as friction in the piston and seals consume a significant portion of the
input energy, preventing it from being converted into useful work. Second, a large amount of thermal
energy is lost to the surroundings through conduction and convection in the can walls, tubing, and
other components, rather than being transferred to the air inside the system. Additionally, the assumption
of ideal gas behavior and negligible heat loss does not hold in reality, especially at small pressure
differences like the ~2.4 kPa observed in the experiment. Finally, the system's low compression ratio
severely limits the engine's potential to do work, making it inherently inefficient even under idealized
assumptions.
These factors together explain why the actual efficiency is significantly lower than the Carnot limit. The
experiment demonstrates that while the Carnot cycle defines the theoretical upper bound for efficiency,
real engines must contend with numerous energy losses that drastically reduce their real-world
performance.
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4.4 Calculate the actual work done on the 200g mass using 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ. Be careful to use only the
change in height of the mass. How does this compare to the work done by the gas? Does the gas do
any work other than lifting 200g mass?
To calculate the actual mechanical work done on the 200 g mass, we use the formula:
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ
∆𝑉 ∆𝑉
With ∆ℎ = 𝐴 = 2 (r = 1.675 cm)
π𝑟
Trial ∆𝑉(𝑐𝑚 )
3 ∆ℎ 𝑊(𝐽) 𝑊𝑃𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚(𝐽)
ΔT₁ (0 → 29.95 14.5 1.65 0.0323 0.0387
°C)
ΔT₂ (0 → 61.95 28.5 3.23 0.0634 0.0781
°C)
ΔT₃ (0 → 50.33 24.5 2.78 0.0545 0.0659
°C)
From the table above, the mechanical work done on the 200 g mass was calculated using 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ,
∆𝑉 ∆𝑉
where ∆ℎ = 𝐴 = 2 . The results show that the work done by lifting the mass (W) in all three trials is
π𝑟
slightly less than the total work done by the gas, which was measured as the area enclosed in the P-V
diagram.
This difference indicates that while the majority of the gas’s work goes into lifting the 200 g mass, it
also does additional work. These include:
● Overcoming friction between the piston and the cylinder wall
● Pushing against resistance in the tubing or seals
● Possibly causing minor vibrations or air movement in the system
● And any heat expansion or deformation in parts of the apparatus
Therefore, we can conclude that although the primary observable mechanical output is lifting the 200 g
mass, the gas also performs other forms of work within the system that are not accounted for by the
change in height alone. This explains why 𝑊𝑃𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 > 𝑊𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 in each trial.
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Spring 2025
5 Conclusion
This experiment aimed to analyze a simple thermodynamic cycle and evaluate the actual efficiency of a
basic heat engine in converting thermal energy into mechanical work. Across three temperature ranges,
we observed net work outputs and calculated actual efficiencies of under 0.5% in all
cases—substantially lower than the theoretical Carnot efficiencies based on our measured reservoir
temperatures.
The gap between theory and reality can be largely explained by heat losses, friction in the piston
mechanism, and deviations from ideal gas behavior—especially during rapid temperature changes. The
small scale of the apparatus also made it highly susceptible to measurement inaccuracies and thermal
leakage.
To improve accuracy and performance, we suggest increasing the size of the piston and thermal
chamber, reducing tubing length, and insulating both the piston and tubing to minimize heat loss.
Despite its limitations, the setup clearly demonstrated energy conversion in a thermodynamic cycle and
emphasized the real-world difficulties of achieving high efficiency in heat engines.
References
[1] Heat Engine and Gas Law Apparatus - TD-8572 - Products | PASCO
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