Data Communication

YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES

and Optical Fibers

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

An optical Fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent Fiber that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to
transmit light between the two ends of the Fiber. Optical fibers are widely used in Fiber-optic
communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data
rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel
along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference.

Historical Development Optical Fiber Communication

Simple systems such as signal fires, reflecting mirrors and, more recently, signaling lamps have
provided successful for communication using visible optical waves or light. Moreover, as early as
1880 Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech using a light beam. The photophone
proposed by Bell modulated sunlight with a diaphragm giving speech transmission over a distance.
Lack of sunlight source, weather conditions, need for line-of-sight arrangement limited the scope.
A renewed interest in optical communication was stimulated in the early 1960s with the invention of
the laser. However, the previously mentioned constraints of light transmission in the atmosphere
tended to restrict these systems to short-distance applications. The invention of the laser instigated a
tremendous research effort into the study of optical components to achieve reliable information
transfer using a light wave carrier. The proposals for optical communication via dielectric waveguides
or optical fiber fabricated from glass to avoid degradation of the optical signal by the atmosphere were
made almost simultaneously in 1966 by Kao and Hockham and Werts. Such systems were viewed as
a replacement for coaxial cable or carrier transmission systems.
Semiconductor optical sources (i.e., injection lasers and light-emitting diodes) and detectors (i.e.,
photodiodes and to a lesser extent phototransistors) compatible in size with optical fibers were
designed and fabricated to enable successful implementation of the optical fiber system.
High-performance, reliable optical fiber communication systems and networks are now widely
deployed within the worldwide telecommunication network and in many more localized
communication application areas.
First generation
i) The first generation of light wave systems uses GaAs semiconductor laser and operating region
was near 0.8 μm. Other specifications of this generation are as under:
ii) Bit rate: 45 Mb/s
iii) Repeater spacing: 10 km
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

i) Bit rate: 100 Mb/s to 1.7 Gb/s

ii) Repeater spacing: 50 km
iii) Operation wavelength: 1.3 μm
iv) Semiconductor: In GaAsP

Third generation
i) Bit rate: 10 Gb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 100 km
iii) Operating wavelength: 1.55 μm

WORKING PRINCIPLE

A fundamental optical parameter one should have an idea about, while studying fiber optics
is Refractive index. By definition, “The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in matter is the
index of refraction n of the material.” It is represented as −

$$n = \frac{c}{v}$$

Where,

c = the speed of light in free space = 3 × 108 m/s

v = the speed of light in di-electric or non-conducting material

Generally, for a travelling light ray, reflection takes place when n2 < n1 . The bent of light ray at the
interface is the result of difference in the speed of light in two materials that have different refractive
indices. The relationship between these angles at the interface can be termed as Snell’s law. It is
represented as −

$$n_1sin\phi _1 = n_2sin\phi _2$$

Where,

$\phi _1$ is the angle of incidence

$\phi _2$ is the refracted angle

n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of two materials

For an optically dense material, if the reflection takes place within the same material, then such a
phenomenon is called as internal reflection. The incident angle and refracted angle are shown in the
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following figure.
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

If the angle of incidence $\phi _1$ is much larger, then the refracted angle $\phi _2$ at a point becomes
Π/2 . Further refraction is not possible beyond this point. Hence, such a point is called as Critical
angle $\phi _c$. When the incident angle $\phi _1$ is greater than the critical angle, the condition
for total internal reflection is satisfied.

The following figure shows these terms clearly.

A light ray, if passed into a glass, at such condition, it is totally reflected back into the glass with no
light escaping from the surface of the glass.

Parts of a Fiber

The most commonly used optical fiber is single solid di-electric cylinder of radius a and index of
refraction n1. The following figure explains the parts of an optical fiber.
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

This cylinder is known as the Core of the fiber. A solid di-electric material surrounds the core, which
is called as Cladding. Cladding has a refractive index n2 which is less than n1.

Cladding helps in −

• Reducing scattering losses.

• Adds mechanical strength to the fiber.
• Protects the core from absorbing unwanted surface contaminants.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Depending upon the material composition of the core, there are two types of fibers used commonly.
They are −

• Step-index fiber − The refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and
undergoes an abrupt change (or step) at the cladding boundary.
• Graded-index fiber − The core refractive index is made to vary as a function of the
radial distance from the center of the fiber.

Both of these are further divided into −

• Single-mode fiber − These are excited with laser.

• Multi-mode fiber − These are excited with LED

In single mode, light ray propagates only through a single path and multimode allows multiple modes
of light to propagate through the core. The core of single mode fiber is much smaller but that of
multimode is comparatively large.
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

Based on the refractive index distribution of core a fiber can be of step-index or graded index
form. In a step index fiber, density of core is constant from center to edges and only differs at
the cladding. Multimode step-index fibers trap light with many different entrance angles, each
mode in a step-index multimode fiber is associated with a different entrance angle. Each mode
therefore, travels along a different path through the fiber. Different propagating modes have
different velocities. In a graded index fiber, density is highest at center of core and lowers
towards edges. The index of refraction decreases as the radial distance from the center of the
core increases. As a result, the light travels faster near the edge of the core than near the center.
Different modes therefore travel in curved paths with nearly equal travel times.

Single Mode Fiber

Single mode fibers are constructed by letting dimensions of the core diameter be a few
wavelengths and by having small index differences between core and cladding.
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

Each SM fiber has a cut-off wavelength associated with it. It is the wavelength above which a
particular fiber becomes single-mode.

The cut-off wavelength is given by :

where,
𝝀c indicates the theoretical cut-off wavelength
a is the radius of core
n1 is the refractive index of the core
Vc is the normalized frequency
Δ is the relative refractive index difference between the core and cladding
As we have discussed, modes describe the allowed direction a light wave or ray passes while
satisfying the conditions for total internal reflection. Each mode maintains the distribution of the
electromagnetic field in the x-y plane (modal-field distribution) as it propagates in the z-direction.
The Mode Field Diameter(MFD) is a parameter to predict the performance characteristic of a fiber,
based on the geometric distribution of light in the propagating mode.
It is determined from mode-field distribution of fundamental fiber mode, and is a function of
optical source wavelength, core radius and refractive index profile of fiber. MFD is used to predict
fiber properties such as splice loss, bending loss, cut-off wavelength and waveguide dispersion.
Standard technique to find MFD is using Petermann II equation :

where,
E(r) denotes field distribution of LP01 mode
r is the radius
W0 is width of electric field distribution
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS

The communication system of fiber optics is well understood by studying the parts and sections of it.
The major elements of an optical fiber communication system are shown in the following figure.

The basic components are light signal transmitter, the optical fiber, and the photo detecting receiver.
The additional elements such as fiber and cable splicers and connectors, regenerators, beam splitters,
and optical amplifiers are employed to improve the performance of the communication system.

Functional Advantages

The functional advantages of optical fibers are −

• The transmission bandwidth of the fiber optic cables is higher than the metal cables.
• The amount of data transmission is higher in fiber optic cables.
• The power loss is very low and hence helpful in long-distance transmissions.
• Fiber optic cables provide high security and cannot be tapped.
• Fiber optic cables are the most secure way for data transmission.
• Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.
• These are not affected by electrical noise.
Physical Advantages

The physical advantages of fiber optic cables are −

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• The capacity of these cables is much higher than copper wire cables.
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

• Though the capacity is higher, the size of the cable doesn’t increase like it does in copper
wire cabling system.
• The space occupied by these cables is much less.
• The weight of these FOC cables is much lighter than the copper ones.
• Since these cables are di-electric, no spark hazards are present.
• These cables are more corrosion resistant than copper cables, as they are bent easily and
are flexible.
• The raw material for the manufacture of fiber optic cables is glass, which is cheaper
than copper.
• Fiber optic cables last longer than copper cables.
Disadvantages

Although fiber optics offer many advantages, they have the following drawbacks −

• Though fiber optic cables last longer, the installation cost is high.
• The number of repeaters are to be increased with distance.
• They are fragile if not enclosed in a plastic sheath. Hence, more protection is needed
than copper ones.
Applications of Fiber Optics

The optical fibers have many applications. Some of them are as follows −

• Used in telephone systems

• Used in sub-marine cable networks
• Used in data link for computer networks, CATV Systems
• Used in CCTV surveillance cameras
• Used for connecting fire, police, and other emergency services.
• Used in hospitals, schools, and traffic management systems.
• They have many industrial uses and also used for in heavy duty constructions.

OPTICAL SOURCES AND DETECTORS

The optical source is often considered to be the active component in an optical fiber communication
system. Its fundamental function is to convert electrical energy in the form of a current into optical
energy (light) in an efficient manner which allows the light output to be effectively launched or
coupled into the optical fiber.
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Light emitters are a key element in any fiber optic system. This component converts the electrical
signal into a corresponding light signal that can be injected into the fiber. The light emitter is an
important element because it is often the most costly element in the system, and its characteristics
often strongly influence the final performance limits of a given link.

LEDs are complex semiconductors that convert an electrical current into light. The conversion process
is fairly efficient in that it generates little heat compared to incandescent lights. LEDs are of interest
for fiber optics because of five inherent characteristics:
1. They are small.
2. They possess high radiance (i.e., They emit lots of light in a small area).
3. The emitting area is small, comparable to the dimensions of optical fibers.
4. They have a very long life, offering high reliability.
5. They can be modulated (turned off and on) at high speeds.

Characteristics

Several key characteristics of LEDs determine their usefulness in a given application. These are:
Peak Wavelength: This is the wavelength at which the source emits the most power. It should be
matched to the wavelengths that are transmitted with the least attenuation through optical fiber. The
most common peak wavelength are 780, 850, and 1310 nm.
Spectral Width: Ideally, all the light emitted from an LED would be at the peak wavelength, but in
practice the light is emitted in a range of wavelengths centered at the peak wavelength. This range is
called the spectral width of the source.
Emission Pattern: The pattern of emitted light affects the amount of light that can be coupled into the
optical fiber. The size of the emitting region should be similar to the diameter of the fiber core.
Power: The best results are usually achieved by coupling as much of a source’s power into the fiber
as possible. The key requirement is that the output power of the source be strong enough to provide
sufficient power to the detector at the receiving end, considering fiber attenuation, coupling losses and
other system constraints. In general, LEDs are less powerful than lasers.
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

Speed: A source should turn on and off fast enough to meet the bandwidth limits of the system. The
speed is given according to a source’s Rise or fall time, the time required to go from 10% to 90% of
peak power. LEDs have slower rise and fall times than lasers.
LED Types
There are two basic types of LED structures: edge emitters and surface emitters.

LED Structures

Edge emitters are more complex and expensive devices, but offer high output power levels and high
speed performance. The output power is high because the emitting spot is very small, typically 30-50
µm, allowing good coupling efficiency to similarly sized optical fibers. Edge emitters also have
relatively narrow emission spectra. The full-width, half-maximum (FWHM) is typically about 7% of
the central wavelength. Another variant of the edge emitter is the superradiant LED. These devices are
a cross between a conventional LED and a laser. They usually have a very high power density and
possess some internal optical gain like a laser, but the optical output is still incoherent, unlike a laser.
Superradiant LEDs have very narrow emission spectra, typically 1-2% of the central wavelength and
offer power levels rivaling a laser diode. These devices are popular for fiber optic gyroscope
applications.

The second type of LED is the surface emitter. Surface emitters have a comparatively simple structure,
are relatively inexpensive, offer low-to-moderate output power levels, and are capable of low-to-
moderate operating speeds. The total LED chip optical output power is as high or higher than the edge-
emitting LED, but the emitting area is large, causing poor coupling efficiency to the optical fiber.
Adding to the coupling efficiency deficit is the fact that surface-emitting LEDs are almost perfect
Lambertian emitters. This means that they emit light in all directions. Thus very little of the total light
goes in the required direction for injection into an optical fiber.
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YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES
and Optical Fibers

LASER DIODE
The terms stand for LASER full form Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It
can produce coherent radiation in the visible or in an infrared spectrum when current passes through
it. It can be used in optical fiber systems, compact disk players and also some remote-control devices.
Here this post gives information about the advantages and disadvantages of LASER diode to know
more about it.

Advantages of LASER diode:

• Simple economic design
• It has low power as compared to other types of laser diodes
• Better modulation capability
• The laser diode has a high coupling efficiency
• It can be used at high temperatures
• It gives high optical power and In this diode cheaper device to produce laser output
• It has a smaller size as compared to other types of laser diodes
• Production of light can be precisely controlled
• Laser diode to transmit optical output powers between the range of about 5 and 10 mW
• Low spectral width (3.5 nm)
• Compact and it is easily manufactured in arrays and the delivered system not as
expensive as hard tissue laser diode
• Ability to maintain the intrinsic layer characteristics over long time periods
Disadvantages of LASER diode:
• It produces a more divergent laser beam and
• They require big and costly optics for a large source of size
• It has a critical heating problem and Hight drive current to drive the large laser for
pellets
• A speckle pattern appears as two coherent types of light beams to added or subtracts
their electric field depending upon their relative phases at the end of the fiber optic
device
• Poorly absorb in hard tissue and hydroxyapatite and Current
produces unfavorable thermal characteristics.
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• Necessitates the use of cooling and power stabilization.

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