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Number 12

34 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
October 2015 Timber Engineering Notebook

Timber Engineering
Notebook series
No. 12: Cross-laminated timber construction –
manufacture, detailing and erection
 Figure 1
CLT building for
Woodland Trust

This series is authored by the Structural Timber Association

The Structural Timber Association (STA) encompasses all users

of all structural timber systems and its elements and components,
providing business and technical support to the industry. Formerly
known as the UK Timber Frame Association, the body provides peer
reviewed outputs on subjects related to the timber industry such
as health and safety, fabric and technical performance, fire safety,
promotion and training. These documents and other information are
available at www.structuraltimber.co.uk

Introduction
In Timber Engineering Notebook (TEN) No. 111, a detailed introduction

B&K STRUCTURES
to the applications and use of cross-laminated timber (CLT) as a
structural timber product was provided. This article provides further
information on the manufacture, detailing and erection of CLT
constructions (Figure 1).
maximise the panels’ vertical load capacity. Likewise for CLT floor and
Manufacture of CLT roof slabs, the outer layers are orientated parallel to the principle span
Apart from some national application documents, as well as a draft of direction.
the European product standard pr EN 16351:2013 for the production Panels can be up to 20m long and 4.8m wide, but transport
of CLT, the product has not yet been included in any European design constraints normally govern panel size. Within the UK, size is generally
standards. limited by the length of an articulated lorry and by the need to notify
Typically, timber used for the individual laminates is kiln-dried to a the highway authorities. A maximum length of 13.5m and width of 3m
moisture content of 12% ±3% and stress-graded to BS EN 338:20092. is generally considered practical, but beware of limits dictated by site
Trimming and finger jointing in accordance with BS EN 385:20013 are layout and access. It is also necessary to consult all highway authorities
used to obtain laminates of the desired length and quality. on route through other countries.
Various adhesives, include polyurethane, melamine and phenolic- Some suppliers offer curved panels with a minimum radius of 8m.
based adhesives, are used to bond together the laminates and these Transportation becomes more expensive for curved panels because
must typically meet the same requirements as those used in glued fewer panels can be stacked on any single load.
laminated timber (glulam) manufacturing4. Both face gluing and edge Classification of the surface quality of the panels follows BS EN
gluing are used depending on the manufacturer. Once the adhesive is 13017-15. CLT can be supplied for visible or hidden applications:
applied to a layer, the assembly is pressed using hydraulic or vacuum
presses. This process is then repeated for each individual layer. The • Standard Grade (or non-visible quality) surfaces are suitable for lining
assembled panels are usually planed and/or sanded for a smooth and typically have top layers corresponding to Class C
surface at the end of the process. • Interior Grade (or residential visible) surfaces are suitable for exposed
Panels can be manufactured with their outer layers orientated in residential internal structure and typically have top layers corresponding
either direction relative to the production length (Figures 2 and 3). to Class AB
The laminates in the outer layers of CLT panels are normally • Interior Grade (or industrial visible) – a third grade offered by some
orientated in a direction parallel to the gravity loads for wall panels to manufacturers – surfaces are suitable for exposed industrial internal

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Thermal performance will be compromised if the construction

does not achieve adequate airtightness. Because CLT construction
would not normally include a vapour control layer, the system relies
W Figure 2
Orientation
of outer layers
entirely on the detailing of joints to achieve airtightness. A pre-
transverse to compressed foam tape or polyurethane sealant between adjacent
production length,
such as walls panels will improve airtightness.
Where site storage is limited, panels can be delivered to site and
erected using a ‘just-in-time’ approach. As panels arrive, a small
team of erectors cranes the panels into position directly from the
lorry using pre-installed lifting points (Figures 5 and 6). The lifting
points are to be designed and appropriate to the lifting capacity

W Figure 3
Orientation
of outer layers
required. These may be either strength-certified straps threaded
through holes in the CLT or screw lifting eyes tested for the loads
longitudinal to which they are required to carry.
production length,
such as floors and While installation in wet weather is inconvenient, it has no effect
tall walls
on the panels as they will dry quickly. However, it is essential that
protection is provided for panels that are left exposed to weather
after erection.

structure and typically have top layers corresponding to Class BC Durability of CLT
The durability of CLT panels will depend on the timber species used
The density of the CLT depends on the timber species used for the for their manufacture and the level of exposure to the weather. TEN
individual laminates, but is typically in the range of 470kg/m3 (spruce) to No. 17 provides general information on the durability performance of
590kg/m3 (larch) at 12% moisture content. timber.
Since sapwood is present in CLT, panels will be liable to decay if
Machining their moisture content exceeds 20% for an extended period of time.
Wall, floor and roof elements can be pre-cut in the factory to any Therefore, it is important that CLT is not exposed to continuous
dimension and shape, including openings for doors, windows, stairs, and wetting.
service channels and ducts (Figure 4). Panel rebates and openings are Typically, CLT structures will have insulation on the outer side of
cut by computer numerical controlled (CNC) routers which allow for the structure which protects the CLT and keeps the timber on the
high precision. Manufacturers can incorporate cut-outs for windows, warm side of the wall or roof build-up, thereby giving service class 1
doors, ducts and chases in the factory. conditions to Eurocode 58. Service class 1 conditions are for timbers
The manufacturers have different methods of joining adjacent wall within the building envelope which are not exposed to external
and floor panels on site6, including rebates, notches and half-lapped humidity and temperatures, but generally heated to keep the timber
joints in the edges of the panels. in a dry condition at 12% moisture content or lower. Service class 2
As with all prefabricated methods of construction, a design freeze is applications are those where timber can be in contact with external
essential in order to ensure that all openings are correctly incorporated humidity and temperature gradients, but not exposed to direct
into the panels, and late modifications to openings should be avoided. wetting, such as a cavity behind rainscreen cladding or a porch
Modification of CLT panels on site can be costly and time-consuming structure away from direct rain exposure.
and may also affect their structural integrity. CLT can be used in service class 2 applications as long as
the design is adequate to ensure that no moisture build-up can
Erection of CLT occur. Consideration must be given to the detailing for openings to
Connections between CLT elements are typically made with self-drilling disperse external water away from the CLT and to ensure that, in
woodscrews of up to 400mm in length, together with proprietary mild the event of poor construction, any defect of the waterproofing will
steel angle plates. Various European manufacturers are able to supply allow water to pass down the ventilated and drained cavity, and not
large-diameter woodscrews and large angle brackets. between the CLT and insulation layer.
The types of fixings and their capacity to resist the applied loads
requires careful consideration. For multistorey buildings, where the
ground-floor wall panels are subject to large in-plane shear forces, the
connections between adjacent wall panels and between the wall panels
and the floors are critical. S Figure 4
CLT wall and floor panels
The buildability aspects of the different types of screw are also
important. Partially threaded screws are good for bringing two parts
together and closing the gaps between adjacent panels. A large-
diameter screw head or washer also helps.
Partially threaded screws have about the same resistance to shear
forces as fully threaded screws (where the force is perpendicular to the
shaft), but they have less resistance to tension and compression forces
(where the force is parallel to the shaft). Fully threaded screws are
better for resisting large tension and compression forces because the
thread exists in both connected parts.
For more information on the common types of connection detailing
for CLT construction reference should be made to TRADA Wood
Information Sheet (WIS) 2/3-626.

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Number 12

36 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
October 2015 Timber Engineering Notebook

 Figure 7
CLT wall panel located on soleplate

N Figure 5
Erecting wall panels
using diagonal raking props

W Figure 6
Panel with certified
lifting points
 Figure 8
CLT wall panel with temporary packing
to level with grout infill (or directly onto DPM)

The principles in any design should be that the CLT should remain
totally dry so that, consequently, there is negligible risk of decay or
insect attack.
As for all timber construction, a concrete or masonry substructure
should be provided below external ground level. All timber and CLT
components should be located on a damp-proof membrane (DPM) at
a minimum of 150mm above finished ground level; a reduction to this
may be permissible subject to project-specific detailing and assessment
such as adequate perimeter drainage and splash protection at the base
of the wall panels. CLT panels should not be located in pockets or steps
where water can collect during the construction process. CLT walls
should be either located on a pressure-treated timber soleplate
(Figure 7) or levelled using temporary packs with non-shrinkable grout
used to fill the gap between the packs to give full bearing to the panels
(Figure 8). The CLT wall panel has an approved timber end grain seal
paint applied to the bottom section as a temporary barrier against  Figure 9
Minimal shrinkage movement perpendicular
and parallel to grain direction for CLT floor and wall
moisture uptake from the wet grout. elements
CLT should not be used as an external floor, such as a cantilevered
balcony, unless approved detailing and water protection can be certified
in both the design and construction process. Directly applied roofing of 2.8% per mm of cross-grain timber for softwood installed at 20%
membranes and cold roof structures which rely on cross-ventilation of moisture content and 1.2% per mm of cross-grain timber for engineered
the CLT structure are not recommended. timber installed at 14% moisture content or below. This is equivalent to
0.27% per mm of cross-grain timber per 1% change in moisture content.
Allowance for CLT shrinkage In comparison, CLT manufacturers provide figures of 0.2% per mm
Due to the restraint provided by the cross-grain layers, CLT has high of cross-grain timber per 1% change in moisture content and 0.01%
dimensional stability, similar to plywood, and does not need movement per mm of timber parallel to the grain excluding the effects of elastic
joints. shortening and creep.
Long-term shortening occurs due to a combination of moisture Reference should be made to TRADA Guidance Document 1012 for a
content reduction (Figure 9), joint tightening and elastic load effects7. comparative shrinkage estimate to demonstrate the relevant shrinkage
BS 5268-6.19 and 5268-6.210 and the BRE’s Multi-storey timber frame characteristics for a 3m storey of CLT and softwood platform timber-
buildings – a design guide11 give an allowance for overall movement frame construction.

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6) TRADA Technology Ltd (2011) Wood Information Sheet (WIS) 2/3-

Relevant codes of practice 62 Cross-laminated timber: structural principles, High Wycombe, UK:
TRADA
BS EN 338:2009 Structural timber. Strength classes
7) Structural Timber Association (2013) ‘Timber Engineering
pr EN 16351:2013 Timber structures. Cross laminated timber. Notebook No. 1: ‘Timber as a structural material – an introduction’,
Requirements The Structural Engineer, 91 (3), pp. 33–38

BS EN 1990:2002 Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design 8) British Standards Institution (1995) BS EN 1995-1-1 Eurocode 5:
Design of Timber Structures – Part 1-1: General – Common rules and
NA to BS EN 1990:2002 UK National Annex to Eurocode 0: Basis rules for buildings, London, UK: BSI
of structural design
9) British Standards Institution (1996) BS 5268-6.1:1996 Structural
BS EN 1995-1-1:2004 Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures. use of timber. Code of practice for timber frame walls. Dwellings not
General. Common rules and rules for buildings exceeding seven storeys (withdrawn), London, UK: BSI

NA to BS EN 1995-1-1:2005 UK National Annex to Eurocode 5: 10) British Standards Institution (2001) BS 5268-6.2:2001 Structural
Design of Timber Structures. General. Common rules and rules for use of timber. Code of practice for timber frame walls. Buildings other
buildings than dwellings not exceeding four storeys (withdrawn), London, UK:
BSI
PD6693-1:2012 Recommendations for the design of timber
structures to Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures. General. 11) Grantham R., Enjily V., Milner M., Bullock M. and Pitts G. (2003)
Common rules and rules for buildings (UK Non-Contradictory BRE Report 454: Multi-storey timber frame buildings – a design guide,
Complementary Information (NCCI) to Eurocode 5) London, UK: BREPress

12) TRADA Technology Ltd (2009) Guidance Document 10 (GD10):

Cross-laminated timber (Eurocode 5) – Design guide for project
Definitions feasibility, High Wycombe, UK: TRADA

CLT – cross-laminated timber (CLT) is an engineered wood Further reading

product made up of at least three cross-bonded layers of timber TRADA Wood Information Sheets available at: www.trada.co.uk/
bookshop
Platform-frame construction – a method of construction where TRADA Technology Ltd (2012) WIS 1-6 Glued laminated timber – an
the floor structure is supported on loadbearing walls and acts as introduction, High Wycombe, UK: TRADA
a ‘platform’ for the next level of construction TRADA Technology Ltd (2011) WIS 2/3-61 Cross-laminated timber:
introduction for specifiers, High Wycombe, UK: TRADA
Balloon-frame construction – an alternative method to platform- TRADA Technology Ltd (2011) WIS 2/3-62 Cross-laminated timber:
frame construction where the floors are supported off the structural principles, High Wycombe, UK: TRADA
inside face of walls which are continuous for one or more storey
heights Porteus J. and Kermani A. (2007) Structural Timber Design to
Eurocode 5, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing

References and further reading The Institution of Structural Engineers/TRADA (2007) Manual for the
design of timber building structures to Eurocode 5, London, UK: The
Institution of Structural Engineers
1) Structural Timber Association (2015) ‘Timber Engineering
Notebook No. 11: Cross-laminated timber construction – an British Standards Institution (2011) Concise Eurocodes: Design of
introduction’, The Structural Engineer, 93 (9), pp. 44–50 Timber Structures (BS EN 1995: Eurocode 5), London, UK: BSI

2) British Standards Institution (2010) BS EN 338:2009 Grantham R., Enjily V., Milner M., Bullock M. and Pitts G. (2003) BRE
Structural timber. Strength classes, London, UK: BSI Report 454: Multi-storey timber frame buildings – a design guide,
London, UK: BREPress
3) British Standards Institution (2002) BS EN 385:2001 Finger
jointed structural timber. Performance requirements and
minimum production requirements (withdrawn), London, UK: Corrigendum
BSI In the final article of the Concrete Design Guide series published in the August issue
(‘No. 8: Deflection – the span-to-effective-depth method and EC2’, The Structural
4) Structural Timber Association (2013) ‘Timber Engineering Engineer, 93 (8), pp. 30–34), there were two errors on page 30.
Notebook No. 8: Glued laminated timber structures’, The Equation 2a was incorrectly introduced by the condition, if p0 ≤ p. This should have
Structural Engineer, 91 (10), pp. 49–54 read, if p0 ≥ p.
Equation 2b was incorrectly introduced by the condition, if p0 > p. This should have
read, if p0 < p.
5) British Standards Institution (2001) BS EN 13017-1:2001
A corrected version of the article is available at www.thestructuralengineer.org
Solid wood panels. Classification by surface appearance.
Softwood, London, UK: BSI

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