PLANT TISSUES
Specifications
understand the structure and function of the polysaccharides starch and cellulose, including
the role of hydrogen bonds between the β-glucose molecules in the formation of cellulose
microfibrils.
understand how the arrangement of cellulose microfibrils and secondary thickening in plant
cell walls contributes to the physical properties of xylem vessels and sclerenchyma fibres in
plant fibres that can be exploited by humans
know the similarities and differences between the structures of, the position in the stem, and
the function of sclerenchyma fibres (support), xylem vessels (support and transport of water
and mineral ions) and phloem (translocation of organic solutes)
Starch and cellulose
Cellulose
It is a polymer of glucose. Cellulose is made up of β-glucose units.
A condensation reaction between the –OH group on the first carbon of one glucose and the –OH
on the fourth carbon of the adjacent glucose links the two glucose molecules.
A 1,4 glycosidic bond forms.
Each alternate glucose is inverted to allow the 1,4 glycosidic bond to form.
Cellulose is a long unbranched molecule.
(In cellulose, all the glycosidic bonds are 1,4; there are none of the 1,6 glycosidic bonds that occur
in starch.)
Adjacent cellulose molecules are joined together by hydrogen bond forming cellulose microfibrils.
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Cellulose microfibril
Individually, the hydrogen bonds are relatively weak compared with the glycosidic bonds, but
together the large number of hydrogen bonds in the microfibril produces a strong structure.
o It is difficult to break down cellulose due to the presence of β-1,4-glycosidic bond. So, it is
durable
o Strong supporting material due to the presence of many hydrogen bonds
o It has High tensile strength as chains of cellulose can form micro fibrils which give rigidity to
the cell wall and flexibility to plant fibres
Compare the structure of Starch and cellulose
Similarity
o Both are polymers/made of monomers;
o Both are made up of glucose
o Monomers in both starch and cellulose are joined by condensation/molecules can be
broken down by hydrolysis.
o Both have 1-4 links
o Both contain glycosidic bonds;
Difference
o Starch is made up of α glucose, cellulose is made up of β glucose
o Starch is composed of more than one type of molecule / amylose and amylopectin
o Starch is branched with1-6 bonds / Helix in starch / cellulose is straight chain
o All monomers same orientation in starch / every other one inverted in cellulose
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Plant cell wall
Plant cell wall is made up of cellulose microfibrils.
The cell wall consists of many layers- middle lamella, primary cell wall and secondary cell wall.
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Middle lamella
It is the first layer and is made when the cell divides into two new cells.
It is mostly made up of calcium pectate (pectin).
It holds the cell walls of adjacent cells together.
Primary cell wall
On to the middle lamella are then deposited layers of cellulose micro fibrils transversely in a gel
like matrix of hemi cellulose and pectin.
There is no lignin.
Cellulose microfibrils are parallel to one another in
layers for flexibility
Secondary cell wall
More layers of cellulose are normally added to the
inner surface of the wall and form secondary cell wall.
Here cellulose micro fibrils are deposited at right angles
to each other.
Additional layers of cellulose are deposited after
growth is completed.
Hemi cellulose harden it further.
Walls may become impregnated with lignin which give
more strength to the wall.
Mesh of microfibrils in secondary cell wall helps to
provide strength
The tissues that make up the stem
The stem contains many different tissues. The most
important tissues are the xylem, the phloem and the
sclerenchyma.
Position of xylem, phloem and sclerenchyma in stem
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The distribution of tissue types differs between roots, stems, and leaves
o In the roots, xylem and phloem are in
the centre to withstand stretching forces.
o Xylem is more towards the epidermis than
phloem.
o Phloem to xylem ratio is 4:1
o Vascular tissue in one area in the root
o In the stems, they are arranged in
bundles near the edge to resist
compression and bending.
o Phloem is more towards epidermis
than xylem.
o Xylem to phloem ratio is equal.
o Xylem and phloem / vascular
bundles are arranged in a circular
pattern in stem
o In leaves, the vascular bundles form the midrib
and veins and therefore usually spread from the
centre of the leaf in parallel lines.
o The phloem tissue is found on the lower side of
the vascular bundles
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Much of the stem is packing tissue which contains the most common type of plant cell,
parenchyma.
Parenchyma cells are unspecialized cells, but they can be modified in several ways so they
become suitable for storage and photosynthesis.
The outer layer of parenchyma cells in the stem may contain some chloroplasts to perform
photosynthesis.
Some of the parenchyma cells in the stem is modified into sclerenchyma and collenchyma.
Collenchyma cells
They have thick cellulose primary cell
walls, which are even thicker at their
corners.
This gives the tissue its strength. They give
plenty of support but remain living, so
they stretch as the plant grows and
provide flexibility.
Sclerenchyma
o It is a type of modified parenchyma tissue found in plant stems. It develops as the plant
grows, to support the increasing weight of the upper part of the plant. It is found around
the vascular bundles in older stems and in leaves.
o All sclerenchyma cells have strong secondary walls made up of cellulose microfibrils
positioned at right angles to each other.
Sclerenchyma fibres
o Very long sclerenchyma cells found
in bundles or cylinders around the
outside of a stem or root.
o Lignin is deposited on the cell walls
of these fibres in a spiral or a ring
pattern and this makes the fibres strong but also flexible. The strength of these fibres
depends on their length and the amount of lignification.
o Due to lignification the cell contents die because water cannot pass through lignin. So the
fibres become hollow tubes.
Explain how the structure of the cell walls in sclerenchyma enables it to be strong and flexible.
o Cell wall is made up of cellulose microfibrils which are embedded in pectin.
o Cellulose microfibrils are parallel to one another in layers for flexibility
o Mesh of microfibrils in secondary cell wall for strength
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How the structure of sclerenchyma fibres make them useful for making rope?
o Lignin present on the walls for strength
o Lignin making fibres waterproof
o Because of flexibility fibres do not break easily
o Fibres are light because they are hollow.
Xylem
The xylem starts off as living tissue. The first xylem the plant makes is called the protoxylem,
which can stretch and grow as the walls are not fully lignified.
The cellulose microfibrils in the walls of the xylem vessels are arranged vertically in the stem. This
increases the strength and allows it to resist the compression forces from the weight of the plant.
As the cell ages the amount of lignification increases and the cells become impermeable to water
and other substances and the cells die. The tissue (metaxylem) become stronger and more
supportive.
The end walls of the cells mostly break down so the xylem forms hollow tubes.
Water and mineral ions are transported from the roots to the leaves and shoots in the
transpiration stream.
Pits are present on the walls of the xylem vessels which allow the movement of water out of the
xylem into the surrounding cells.
Structure of the cell wall of a xylem vessel
o Cellulose molecules in bundles are held together by hydrogen bonds.
o Layers of microfibrils (in the primary cell wall) / mesh of microfibrils in secondary cell wall
o Presence of lignin in the cell wall.
o Lignin is deposited as spirals.
o Bordered pits are present on the wall.
o Pectin and hemicellulose are also present in the cell wall to provide strength.
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How secondary thickening in the cell wall contributes to the physical properties of xylem vessels
o secondary thickening provides greater tensile strength
o Secondary thickening provides extra rigidity and reduced flexibility.
o Lignin provides waterproofing.
o Pits present for movement of water into and out of xylem.
Xylem- structure related to function
Water transport:
o No living contents and end walls broken down. So it is a hollow tube.
o This allows movement of water as a continuous column.
o Waterproof material, lignin is present. This reduce water loss.
o Pores present on the walls allow sideways movement of water
Support:
o Lignin on the wall for strength
o Lignin deposited as rings / spirals for strength and flexibility
Functions of xylem
o Support to the plant
o Transport of water
o Transport of minerals (from the roots to the leaves and shoots in the transpiration stream)
Compare the functions of xylem vessels with the functions of sclerenchyma fibres.
o Both are used for structural support
o Only xylem vessel transport water.
o Only xylem vessel transport mineral ions.
Compare the Structure of sclerenchyma fibre and xylem vessel
Sclerenchyma fibre Xylem vessel
Short with tapering ends Long cylinders
End closed Ends open
Lignin present in the walls Lignin present in the walls
Phloem
o Mature phloem is a living tissue that transport food in the form of
organic solutes from the leaves to the tissues where they are needed.
o Materials can be transported both up and down the stem in an active
process called translocation.
o The phloem consists of many cells joined to make very long tubes.
o Phloem cells do not become lignified and so the contents remain living.
o The walls between the cells become perforated creating sieve plates.
o Phloem sap flows through the holes in these plates.
o As the gaps in the sieve plate are made, the nucleus, tonoplast and some
of the organelles break down.
o The phloem sieve tubes contain phloem sap and mature phloem cells
have no nucleus.
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o They survive because they are closely associated with companion cells.
o The companion cells are very active and have all the organelles.
o They are linked to the sieve tube by many plasmodesmata.
The cell membranes of companion cells have many infoldings that increase the surface area for the
transport of sucrose into the cell cytoplasm.
They also have many mitochondria to supply ATP by aerobic respiration needed for active transport.
(b) How do the following differ in xylem and phloem tissue?
(i) The type of cells present
xylem contains xylem vessels (tracheids / fibres), phloem contains sieve tube (elements) and
companion cells
(ii) The composition of the cell walls in the cells present.
xylem has cellulose and lignin, phloem has cellulose
Phloem –structure related to function
o Sieve tube elements are elongated and arranged end to end to form a continuous tube.
o The nucleus and many of the organelles are located in the companion cells, leaving the lumen of
the sieve tube elements more open so reducing resistance to the flow of liquid.
o Sieve plates are perforated with sieve pores, reducing resistance to liquid flow.
o Sieve plates hold the walls of sieve tube elements together and prevent them from bursting.
o The walls are thin to allow easy entry of water at the source which helps to build up pressure.
o Companion cells have many mitochondria to release the ATP needed for translocation of organic
materials
o Plasmodesmata in the areas of loading and unloading allow easy movement of substances to and
from companion cells.
o The walls contain cellulose microfibrils that run around the cells, giving strength and preventing
the tubes bursting under pressure.
o Phloem proteins are a variety of different proteins that are thought to have a role in defence
against pathogens and in sealing wounds.
