UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

NETWORKS

INSEM QUESTIONS:-

Oct-2022
Q1) a)
Match the following functions to one or more layers of OSI model.
i) Transmission of bit stream across physical medium.
ii) Defines Frames.
iii) Error correction and retransmission.
iv) Reliable Process-to-process message delivery.
v) Route selection.
vi) Provides user services such as e-mail and file transfer.

b) Define FHSS and explain how it achieves bandwidth spreading.

c) Which are the types of guided media?

OR

Q2) a) What is the difference between port address, logical address & Physical address?
b) Generate CRC code for message 1101010101. Generator polynomial is g(x) = x⁴ +
x² + 1.

Sep-2023
Q1) a)
What is Network Device? Explain Bridge and Gateway.

b) Explain the following topologies with diagram:

i) Bus
ii) Star
iii) Ring
iv) Mesh
v) Tree

c) Explain Port addressing and Other addressing.

OR

Q2) a) List and Explain following types of networks:

i) LAN
ii) MAN
iii) PAN

b) What is the difference between guided and unguided transmission media?

c) State advantages and disadvantages of ring topology.

Sep-2024

Q1) a)
Enlist different network devices, Explain difference between Switch and Router.

b) Compare OSI and TCP/IP Model? Justify how TCP/IP is better than OSI Model now a days.

c) Which are different types of topology? Explain any One.

OR

Q2) a) Define a computer network? Explain Client Server and Peer to Peer Network
Architecture?

b) Differentiate between Guided Media and Unguided Media.

c) Explain different types of addressing methods.

Topic Priorities and Coverage

Priority Topic Covered Questions (Month-Year, No. of

[Link].) Questions

Oct-2022 Q3a, Sep-2023 Q1a,

1 Network Devices 3
Sep-2024 Q1a

Oct-2022 Q1c, Sep-2023 Q2b,

2 Transmission Media 3
Sep-2024 Q2b

Oct-2022 Q2a, Sep-2023 Q1c,

3 Types of Addressing 3
Sep-2024 Q2c

4 Network Topologies Sep-2023 Q1b, Sep-2024 Q1c 2

 5 Network Architecture Oct-2022 Q5a, Sep-2024 Q2a 2

6 FHSS and CRC Oct-2022 Q1b, Sep-2024 Q3a 2

7 Types of Network Sep-2023 Q2a 1

8 Network Models Sep-2024 Q1b 1

9 Protocols & Design Issues Oct-2022 Q4b 1

Advantages/Disadvantages/S hort
10 Sep-2023 Q2c 1
Notes

Topic 1: Network Devices

Questions Covered by This Topic
This section prepares you for the following questions from previous exams:

● Oct-2022 Q3a: “Explain various networking Devices - Bridge, switch, Router, gateway &
Access Point.” (5 marks)1

● Sep-2023 Q1a: “What is Network Device? Explain Bridge and Gateway.” (6 marks)2

● Sep-2024 Q1a: “Enlist different network devices, Explain difference between Switch and
Router.” (5 marks)3
1. Introduction to Network Devices
Network devices are essential hardware components that connect computers and other
electronic devices within a network. Their main purpose is to support communication, data
transfer, and network management.

2. List of Common Network Devices

Device Basic Function Example Use

Bridge Connects & filters LAN segments at data link Dividing large LAN into
layer segments

Switch Connects devices; learns MAC addresses; Office LANs for local traffic
forwards data

Router Forwards data packets between networks; IP Connecting LAN to Internet

routing

Gateway Protocol converter; connects dissimilar Connecting enterprise to ISP

networks

Access Wireless entry for wired network Wi-Fi in homes, offices

Point

Hub Broadcasts incoming data to all ports (rare now) Simple legacy LAN
connectivity

Repeater Regenerates signals for long distances Extending network cables

Modem Modulates/demodulates analog-digital signals Home Internet connection

3. Function, Advantages, and Example of Major Devices

3.1 Bridge
● Function: Connects two LAN segments at data link layer (Layer 2); filters & forwards
frames based on MAC addresses.

● Advantage: Reduces network traffic, divides collision domains.

● Example: Connecting HR and Finance department LANs.

3.2 Switch
● Function: Connects multiple devices, uses MAC table to send data to target port only;
operates at Layer 2.

● Advantage: Reduces network congestion; increases efficiency.

● Example: Interconnecting dozens of computers in a company office.

3.3 Router
● Function: Forwards packets between different networks using IP addresses (Layer 3).

● Advantage: Enables Internet connectivity; allows different networks to communicate.

● Example: Your Wi-Fi router connecting home devices to ISP.

3.4 Gateway
● Function: Acts as a protocol translator between dissimilar networks/applications.

● Advantage: Essential for connecting networks with different architectures or protocols.

● Example: Email gateway between internal mail and the Internet.

3.5 Access Point

● Function: Provides wireless access to a wired network segment; acts as a bridge for
Wi-Fi devices.

● Advantage: Flexibility; supports mobile device connectivity.

● Example: Wi-Fi hotspot at a cafe or home.

4. Comparison Table: Switch vs. Router

Aspect Switch Router
OSI Layer Data Link (Layer 2) Network (Layer 3)

Function Forwards frames within same Routes data between networks

network

Address Used MAC addresses IP addresses

Traffic Handling Local (within LAN) traffic Internetwork & Internet traffic

Speed Fast for LAN traffic May be a bottleneck for large data
transfers

5. Example: Practical Placement of Devices

● Switches are typically used within office or building networks (LANs)

● Routers are used at network boundaries, like connecting an office LAN to the Internet

● Access Points are installed in areas where Wi-Fi is required

● Bridges connect separate LAN segments, for instance, across floors in a building

● Gateways connect an organization's network to an external network with a different

protocol

6. Diagrams for Visual Understanding

Topic 2: Transmission Media (Guided and
Unguided)
Reflection: Questions Covered by This Topic
This topic provides you with answers relevant to these exact in-sem exam questions:

● Oct-2022 Q1c: "Which are the types of guided media?" (2 marks)1

● Sep-2023 Q2b: "What is the difference between guided and unguided transmission
media?" (5 marks)2

● Sep-2024 Q2b: "Differentiate between Guided Media and Unguided Media." (5 marks)3

1. Introduction to Transmission Media

Transmission media refers to the physical path or channel over which data is transmitted from
sender to receiver in a network. It plays a crucial role in determining speed, security, and
reliability of network communication.

There are two broad types:

● Guided Media (Wired): Data signals travel through a physical conductor (cable).

● Unguided Media (Wireless): Data is transmitted via waves through air, without cables.

2. Guided Media (Wired) — [Relevant for Oct-2022 Q1c]

Guided transmission media require a physical connection. Types include:

Type Construction & Typical Uses

Example

Twisted Two insulated copper LAN cables (Ethernet), telephones

Pair wires twisted.
Coaxial Central copper core, Cable TV, broadband, CCTV
Cable insulation, shielding

Fiber Optic Glass fibers transmit Internet backbone, ISPs,

light signals. long-distance high-speed data

● Twisted Pair: UTP and STP (CAT5, CAT6).

● Coaxial: RG-6 (modern cable), RG-59 (older).

● Fiber Optic: Uses light; immune to electrical noise, very high speed.

3. Unguided Media (Wireless) — [Needed for comparison in

Sep-2023 Q2b, Sep-2024 Q2b]

Unguided media transmits data through the air using

electromagnetic waves.

Type Features Typical Uses

Radio Omnidirectional, Wi-Fi, radio,

Waves penetrates walls. Bluetooth

Microwaves Unidirectional, Satellite, mobile,

line-of-sight. TV

Infrared Very short distance, TV remotes, IR

line-of-sight data xfer
4. Comparison Table: Guided vs. Unguided Media (For
"Differentiate..." Questions)

Feature Guided Media Unguided Media

Medium Physical cables (twisted Air, vacuum (no cables)

pair, coax, fiber)

Installation Requires laying cables Easier; just need transceivers

Bandwidth Generally higher (esp. fiber) Can be lower, shared among

users

Security More secure, hard to tap Easily intercepted, less secure

Interferenc Less prone (esp. fiber) More susceptible,

e weather-dependent

Cost Higher (cables + installation) Lower (minimal infrastructure)

Example Office LAN wiring Campus Wi-Fi, IR remotes

5. Diagram Section:-

Topic 3: Types of Addressing (Physical,

Logical, Port, Others)

Questions Covered by This Topic

This topic is designed to fully prepare you for:

● Oct-2022 Q2a: "What is the difference between port address, logical address & Physical
address?" (4 marks)

● Sep-2023 Q1c: "Explain Port addressing and Other addressing." (4 marks)

● Sep-2024 Q2c: "Explain different types of addressing methods." (5 marks)

1. Introduction to Addressing in Computer Networks

Addressing refers to the unique identification mechanisms used for communicating data across
networks. Proper addressing ensures that data reaches the correct device, application, or
service. Major types include: Physical, Logical, Port, and Other forms of addressing.

2. Types of Addressing
A. Physical Addressing (MAC Address)
● Definition: Hardware-specific unique identifier assigned to each network interface card
(NIC) at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2).

● Format: 48-bit hexadecimal, e.g., [Link]

● Purpose: Identifies devices on a local network segment.

● Example: Sending data between two computers in the same LAN using Ethernet.

B. Logical Addressing (IP Address)

● Definition: Software-assigned address at the Network Layer (Layer 3), used for uniquely
identifying devices across different networks.

● Types: IPv4 (e.g., [Link]), IPv6 (e.g., [Link])

● Purpose: Required for data transmission across networks (e.g., over the Internet).

● Example: Data packets leaving your home network for a server on the Internet.

C. Port Addressing
● Definition: Identifies specific processes/applications on a host. Used in the Transport
Layer.

● Format: 16-bit number (0-65535), e.g., 80 (HTTP), 443 (HTTPS)

● Purpose: Allows multiple network services to run on the same device.

● Example: Web server (port 80), email server (port 25) on the same PC.

D. Other Addressing Methods

● Service Addressing: Used for specific services (e.g., ARP uses service semantics).
 ● Multicast/Broadcast Addressing: Target packets to multiple devices (broadcast to all,
multicast to a group).

● URL/Domain Addresses: Translate human-readable web addresses into IP addresses.

3. Comparison Table: Physical, Logical, and Port

Address

Aspect Physical Logical Address Port Address

Address (IP)
(MAC)

Layer Data Link Network (Layer 3) Transport (Layer

(Layer 2) 4)

Format 02-0A-95-9D-6 [Link] (IPv4) 80, 443, 21

Exampl 8-16
e

Scope Local network Global (across Single device,

(LAN) networks) apps/services

Uniquen Device unique Unique within a Unique per

ess (globally) network host-process pair

Assigne Manufacturer Network admin OS, assigned to

d by (static or DHCP) applications

Exampl Ethernet frame Routing across HTTP server on

e Use addressing Internet port 80
4. Diagrams

5. Quick Review Points

● Physical addressing is hardware-based and stable.

● Logical addressing supports routing between networks.

● Port addressing is used for individual applications/services.

Topic 4: Network Topologies

Questions Covered by This Topic

This topic covers questions:

● Sep-2023 Q1b: "Explain the following topologies with diagram: Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh,
Tree." (5 marks)

● Sep-2024 Q1c: "Which are different types of topology? Explain any One." (5 marks)

1. What is a Network Topology?

Network topology is the arrangement or layout of network devices (nodes) and the physical
and logical connections between them. It determines data flow, scalability, and fault tolerance of
a network.

2. Types of Network Topologies

2.1 Bus Topology
● Structure: All devices connected to a single backbone cable.

● How It Works: Data sent from a node travels in both directions until it finds the intended
device.

● Example: Early Ethernet LANs used bus topology with a coaxial backbone.

● Advantages: Simple, cost-effective for small networks.

● Disadvantages: Backbone failure brings down entire network; difficult to troubleshoot.

● Use-case: Small office or temporary networks.

2.2 Star Topology

● Structure: All devices connect to a central device, usually a switch or hub.

● How It Works: Data is routed through the central hub to its destination.

● Example: Modern Ethernet LANs mostly use star topology with switches.

● Advantages: Easy to manage; failure of a single cable/device only affects that node.

● Disadvantages: Central device failure affects whole network.

● Use-case: Office buildings, school labs.

2.3 Ring Topology
● Structure: Each device connects to exactly two other devices, forming a ring.

● How It Works: Data passes through each device until it reaches its destination.

● Example: Used in token ring networks; sometimes for specific MANs.

● Advantages: Equal access for all nodes; predictable performance under load.

● Disadvantages: Failure of a single device can break the network unless a dual ring is
used.

● Use-case: Networks needing predictable timing, e.g., industrial factory controls.

2.4 Mesh Topology
● Structure: Every device connects directly to every other device.

● How It Works: Provides multiple paths; if one path fails, data takes another.

● Example: Internet backbone and some MAN/WAN implementations.

● Advantages: Very robust; high reliability and redundancy.

● Disadvantages: High cabling cost; complex installation.

● Use-case: Military, banking networks, backbone networks where reliability is critical.

2.5 Tree Topology

● Structure: Hybrid of star and bus. Groups of star-configured networks connect to a bus
backbone.

● How It Works: Hierarchical; easier expansion than pure bus or star.

● Example: Corporate headquarters connecting several departments via a backbone.

● Advantages: Scalable; easier fault isolation.

 ● Disadvantages: Backbone failure can cripple the network.

● Use-case: Large organizations with branch offices or departments.

2.6 Hybrid Topology

● Structure: Combination of two or more topologies (e.g., star-bus, star-ring).

● How It Works: Blends strengths of the combined topologies.

● Example: Large campus networks often use hybrid layouts.

● Advantages: Flexible and scalable for complex requirements.

● Disadvantages: Design and management can be complex.

3. Comparison Table: Network Topologies

Topology Structure Cost Reliability Scalability Example Use

Bus Single Low Low Low Small office

backbone

Star Central device Medium Medium High School, office

Ring Closed loop Medium Low (single Low Factory, control net
ring)

Mesh Full connections High Very High Low-Mediu Internet backbone

m

Tree Stars on Medium Medium High Corporate WAN

backbone

Hybrid Mixed High High Very High Campus, large

networks

4. Key Points & Learning Tips

● Use diagrams to quickly differentiate topologies in exams.

● Remember simple associations: bus = line, star = central point, ring = closed loop,
mesh = many-to-many, tree = hierarchy.

● Hybrid and tree are usually used in larger, scalable environments.

Topic 5: Network Architecture (Client-Server,
Peer-to-Peer, Hybrid)

Reflection: Questions Covered by This Topic

This topic will address these exam questions:

● Sep-2024 Q2a: "Define a computer network? Explain Client Server and Peer to Peer
Network Architecture?" (5 marks)

● Oct-2022 Q5a: "Explain peer to peer network architecture with diagram." (5 marks)

1. What is Network Architecture?

Network architecture is the design, structure, and organization of a computer network. It
describes how devices interact, share resources, and communicate. The main models are:

● Client-Server

● Peer-to-Peer (P2P)

● Hybrid

2. Client-Server Architecture

Description
A client-server network has one or more central servers that provide services (like files, web,
database) to multiple client devices (computers, phones, etc.). Clients send requests to the
server; the server processes and sends back the response.

Example
● Web browsing: You (client) request a webpage from the website's server; the server
responds with the page.

● Corporate networks: File servers, email servers, printer servers.

Advantages
● Centralized control, easier management and backup

● Security and access control can be effectively implemented

Disadvantages
● If the main server fails, network services may stop

● Can be expensive (need for robust servers and maintenance)

3. Peer-to-Peer Architecture

Description
A peer-to-peer network allows each device (peer) to act both as a client and a server. Devices
share resources directly, with no dedicated central server.

Example
● File sharing: Devices on a small office or home network share files directly.

● Popular software: BitTorrent, Skype, early LAN gaming.

Advantages
● No need for powerful/expensive servers

● Simple to set up for small groups

Disadvantages
● Less security and harder to manage as network grows

● Data may be scattered and uncoordinated

4. Hybrid Architecture

Description
A hybrid architecture combines aspects of both client-server and peer-to-peer models.
Common in modern enterprise and campus networks.

Example
● Office network: Central file/printer/email servers (client-server) + direct file sharing for
quick collaboration between devices (peer-to-peer).

5. Comparison Table: Client-Server vs. Peer-to-Peer

Aspect Client-Server Peer-to-Peer

Control Centralized (server-based) Decentralized (all peers

equal)

Cost Higher (needs dedicated servers) Lower (uses existing PCs)

Scalability Scales well with more clients Scales poorly (limited

users)

Example Web server, Email LAN file sharing, BitTorrent

Security Stronger (centralized control) Weaker, more open

6. Diagram:-

7. Extra Examples
● Client-Server: Gmail (Google’s email servers serve content to millions of client devices)

● Peer-to-Peer: Sharing music or documents directly between two laptops connected via
Wi-Fi at home

Topic 6: Network Models (OSI and TCP/IP

Models)
Reflection: Questions Covered by This Topic
This topic prepares you to answer:

● Sep-2024 Q1b: "Compare OSI and TCP/IP Model? Justify how TCP/IP is better than
OSI Model now a days." (5 marks)

1. Introduction to Network Models

Network models provide standard frameworks for communications between computers and
other networked devices. They help in defining how different networking protocols and services
interact, ensuring interoperability.

The two main reference models are:

● OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model

● TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model

2. OSI Model
The OSI model is a 7-layer conceptual model developed by ISO, illustrating the sequence of
steps involved in network communications.

Layer Layer Number Function & Example

Application 7 End-user apps (HTTP, FTP, Email)

Presentation 6 Data translation, encryption/decryption (JPEG,

ASCII)

Session 5 Manages sessions & dialogs (NetBIOS, RPC)

Transport 4 End-to-end delivery, error recovery (TCP, UDP)

Network 3 Routing of packets (IP, ICMP)

Data Link 2 Error detection, MAC addresses (Ethernet, PPP)

Physical 1 Raw bits to signals (Cables, switches)

 ● Example: When you send an email, each layer adds or processes headers and trailers
as necessary, from encryption details (Layer 6) down to physical signaling (Layer 1).

3. TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model (also called the Internet Protocol Suite) is the practical standard used for
the Internet.

Layer Name Comparable OSI Layers Examples

Application Application, Presentation, Session HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP

(7-5)

Transport Transport (4) TCP, UDP

Internet Network (3) IP, ICMP, ARP

Network Interface Data Link + Physical (2+1) Ethernet, Wi-Fi

● Example: Accessing a website works through TCP/IP—your browser makes an HTTP

request (Application), the request is sent via TCP (Transport), routed via IP (Internet),
and moves through your computer and router hardware (Network Interface).
4. OSI vs TCP/IP Model: Comparison Table

Aspect OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Number of Layers 7 4

Layer Separation Strict (distinct) Flexible (merged

layers)

Development Theoretical (reference) Practical (real use)

Protocols Defined No (just reference) Yes (protocol suite)

Usage Rare (academic) Widespread (Internet)

Example Protocols FTAM, X.400, X.500 HTTP, TCP, IP, SMTP

Why is TCP/IP preferred over OSI today?

● Simplicity: Fewer layers, less overhead for implementation.

● Real-world protocols: TCP/IP is the foundation of the Internet.

● Flexibility: Handles changing technologies and protocols easily.

● Adoption: Used by virtually all modern network devices and applications.

Example: Your smartphone and a web server both use TCP/IP for communication, making
them compatible regardless of hardware or operating system.
5. Diagram

6. Extra Examples and Explanations

● Example Protocol (Application Layer): When you use WhatsApp (application), it
depends on TCP/IP protocols to reliably transmit data to your friend’s device.

● Real Life: Nearly all web communications, emails, file transfers, and voice chats rely on
TCP/IP, not OSI, reflecting its practical dominance.
Topic 7: Types of Network (LAN, MAN, WAN,
PAN, Ad-Hoc)
Reflection: Questions Covered by This Topic
This section directly addresses:

● Sep-2023 Q2a: "List and Explain following types of networks: i) LAN ii) MAN iii) PAN" (6
marks)

1. What are the Different Types of Computer Networks?

Computer networks can be categorized based on their size, coverage area, and purpose. The
main network types are:

1.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

● Definition: Connects computers and devices within a limited area like a home, office, or
campus (up to a few kilometers).

● Example: Office building where all PCs and printers are networked; home Wi-Fi
network.

● Characteristics: High data transfer speed (typically 100Mbps or more), low latency,
usually privately owned.

● Common Technologies: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.

1.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

● Definition: Spans a city or a large campus, connecting multiple LANs within the same
geographic area.

● Example: Network spanning across university campuses in a city; municipal Wi-Fi

covering downtown streets.
 ● Characteristics: Moderate coverage (few kms to tens of kms), connects several LANs,
higher speed than WAN but lower than typical LAN.

1.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

● Definition: Covers large geographic areas, often a country or continent, connecting
multiple LANs and MANs.

● Example: The Internet (largest WAN), company offices in different countries connected
via leased lines.

● Characteristics: Low to medium data transmission speed, uses public or leased

communication links, may combine different technologies (satellite, fiber, MPLS).

1.4 Personal Area Network (PAN)

● Definition: Very small network for connecting devices within an individual's workspace
(a few meters).

● Example: Connecting a laptop, smartphone, and wireless headphones via Bluetooth.

● Characteristics: Short-range (up to 10 meters), designed for personal devices, wireless

(mainly Bluetooth, sometimes USB).

1.5 Ad-Hoc Network

● Definition: Temporary and decentralized network, created ‘on the fly’ without
pre-existing infrastructure.

● Example: Laptops connected directly via Wi-Fi to share files during meetings, sensor
networks during disaster recovery.

● Characteristics: Flexible, self-organizing, used when traditional networks are

unavailable or impractical.
2. Summary Table: Types of Networks

Network Type Coverage Area Typical Speed Common Use/Example

LAN Building/Campus High Office, home

MAN City, campus Medium-High University, city-wide internet

WAN Country/World Low-Medium Internet, multinational

companies

PAN Few meters Medium Bluetooth devices, personal

area

Ad-Hoc Variable Variable Temporary & emergency

networks

3. Examples for Better Understanding

● LAN Example: All PCs in your school computer lab share a printer and files over
Ethernet.

● MAN Example: Multiple buildings in a university campus share internet resources using
fiber links.

● WAN Example: A global company connects its US, India, and Germany offices using
leased satellite links.

● PAN Example: Transferring photos from a phone to a laptop via Bluetooth.

● Ad-Hoc Example: Smartphones automatically connecting in a conference room to

transfer documents without a wireless router.
4. Diagram:-

5. Key Details to Remember

● LAN has the highest speed and is confined to a limited area.

● MAN covers a city and is intermediate in speed and coverage.

● WAN is global; slower but connects distant locations.

● PAN is for an individual’s devices, often using Bluetooth.

● Ad-Hoc networks are temporary and infrastructure-less, suitable for quick deployments.

Topic 8: FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum) and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)

Reflection: Questions Covered by This Topic

● Oct-2022 Q1b: "Define FHSS and explain how it achieves bandwidth spreading." (5
marks)

● Sep-2024 Q3a: "Explain in brief FHSS and DSSS?" (5 marks)

1. FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

What is FHSS?
FHSS is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among many
frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver.

How does FHSS work?

● The available frequency band is split into multiple smaller channels.

● The transmitter "hops" from one frequency to another at set time intervals, following a
specific sequence.

● The receiver, tuned with the same hopping pattern, collects the data in the correct order.

Why use FHSS?

● Reduces likelihood of interference (since the transmission moves frequencies).

● Provides security—eavesdroppers must know the hopping pattern to intercept.

● Resistant to jamming, as a jammer must block all frequencies at once.

Example:
● Bluetooth uses FHSS in its communication.

● Cordless phones and some military radios use FHSS for secure, interference-free
connections.

How does it achieve bandwidth spreading?

● By hopping the carrier across many frequencies, FHSS spreads the signal’s energy over
a larger bandwidth than the original message.
 ● Even if a particular frequency is interfered with, most of the data transmits uninterrupted
on other frequencies.

Illustration :

2. DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) [from

Sep-2024 Syllabus]
● DSSS is another spread spectrum technique where the original data signal is multiplied
by a high-rate pseudo-random noise code.

● The result is a signal with a much wider bandwidth.

● Used in Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11b), GPS, and some cordless phones.

● In DSSS, the receiver uses the same code to extract the original data.

Feature FHSS DSSS

Technique Changes carrier frequency in pattern Spreads signal using long code

Example Bluetooth, older Wi-Fi Wi-Fi 802.11b, GPS

 Benefits Better against narrowband interference High data rates, strong against
interference

3. CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) [See Oct-2022 Q2b]

What is CRC?
● CRC is an error-detection method used to check data for accidental changes.

● Sender computes a value (CRC code) using polynomial division, appends it to data, and
receiver verifies integrity with the same division.

How does it work? (Summary)

1. Message bits are treated as a large binary number.

2. This number is divided by a fixed generator polynomial.

3. The remainder becomes the CRC value, added to the message.

4. The receiver divides the received message (with CRC) by the generator; if remainder is
0, data is intact.

Example (Practical):
Suppose you are sending 1101010101 and using generator g(x)=x⁴ + x² + 1:

● Convert polynomial to binary: 100101.

● Do binary division; append remainder to the original.

● Receiver checks division outcome for error detection.

Diagram:

4. Key Details and Examples

● FHSS spreads the signal by switching channels, making it robust and secure.

● DSSS uses a code to widen the frequency band, good for high data rates.

● CRC ensures data integrity over unreliable networks and detects transmission errors
efficiently.
Topic 9: Protocols and Design Issues in
Computer Networks
Reflection: Questions Covered by This Topic
This topic helps address:

● Oct-2022 Q4b: "What are various design issues of data link layer?" (5 marks)

1. What are Protocols?

A protocol is a set of standardized rules, formats, and procedures that enable devices in a
network to communicate effectively. Protocols ensure that data is sent, received, interpreted,
and acted upon in a predictable way.

Examples:

● HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Governs web communication.

● TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable data transfer.

● Ethernet: Specifies wiring and signaling for local area networks.

2. Design Issues for Network Layers (Emphasis: Data

Link Layer)
Design issues are fundamental challenges that must be addressed to create reliable, robust,
and efficient communication within each layer of a network.

A. Addressing
● Ensures that each device or node in the network can be uniquely identified for delivering
data frames.

● Example: MAC addresses used to deliver Ethernet frames to the correct device.

B. Error Control
 ● Detects and corrects errors that may occur during data transmission, caused by noise or
interference.

● Example: Use of parity bits or CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) for detecting errors;
automatic repeat requests (ARQ) for correction.

C. Flow Control
● Prevents fast-sending devices from overwhelming slower receivers with too much data
at once.

● Example: Stop-and-wait, sliding window protocols to ensure receivers acknowledge data

before more is sent.

D. Framing
● Data is broken down into manageable units called frames.

● Start and end of each frame is clearly marked to prevent data corruption or loss.

● Example: In HDLC protocol, frames are marked by special bit patterns.

E. Access Control (in Shared Media)

● Determines which device can use the communication medium at a given time,
particularly in networks where multiple devices share the channel.

● Example: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) used in
Ethernet to manage access to cables and prevent data collisions.

3. Additional Design Issues in Other Layers

● Multiplexing: Allows multiple signals to share a single transmission medium.

● Reliability: Mechanisms to ensure data reaches its destination, even if some packets
are lost or corrupted.
 ● Synchronization: Necessary for some applications (e.g., real-time voice/video) to
coordinate data timing.

4. Table: Common Data Link Layer Design Issues

Issue Purpose Example Mechanism

Addressing Identifies source and destination MAC Address

Error Control Detects/corrects transmission errors CRC, ARQ

Flow Control Matches transmission/receive speeds Sliding Window

Framing Marks data boundaries Frame delimiters

Access Control Mediates shared channel usage CSMA/CD, Token

Passing

5. Real-world Examples
● Error Control: When you download a file, error checking ensures the file isn’t corrupted,
and retransmission occurs if needed.

● Flow Control: During online video streaming, flow control prevents buffer underflow or
overflow.
6. Diagram

7. Key Takeaways
● Protocols and design issues form the backbone of reliable networking.

● Addressing, error control, flow control, framing, and access control are non-negotiable in
modern network communication.

● Understanding these concepts equips you to explain and troubleshoot network

communication problems effectively.