ELECTRICAL MACHINE HANDOUT

This handout covers key topics from Weeks 1 to 15 of the Electrical Machines
course. It is structured to give students a comprehensive understanding of
electrical fundamentals, semiconductors, and transistor applications.

WEEKS 1–4: FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY AND ATOMIC

STRUCTURE

1.3 Matter and Basic Structure of Atom:

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It exists in solid,
liquid, or gaseous states. Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain
the properties of an element. Each atom
consists of a nucleus containing positively
charged protons and uncharged neutrons,
surrounded by negatively charged
electrons in orbitals. Understanding atoms is
essential to electrical theory because the
movement of electrons in atoms is the
foundation of electricity.

1.4 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electron as a Carrier of Electricity:

Electricity is the flow of electric charge, typically carried by electrons in
a conductor. An electric current is generated when electrons move through a
material, driven by a voltage (potential difference). Electrons, being negatively
charged and very light, can move easily in conductive materials, making them
ideal charge carriers in electrical circuits.

1.5 Energy Levels in Material: Valence and Conduction Bands:

In atoms, electrons occupy specific energy levels or bands. The valence
band contains the outermost electrons that can participate in bonding. The
conduction band is the energy level where electrons are free to move and
conduct electricity. In conductors, the valence and conduction bands overlap.
In semiconductors and insulators, there is a bandgap between them.
Electrons must gain energy to jump the gap and become free carriers.
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1.6 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors:
Conductors are materials that allow electric current (flow of
electrons) to pass through them easily due to the presence of free
electrons (also called conduction electrons).

🧪 Why Conductors Conduct Electricity

 In conductors, the outermost electrons (valence electrons) are loosely

bound to atoms.
 These electrons become free and move through the material when a
voltage is applied.
 This flow of electrons is what we call electric current.

Properties of Conductors:
Property Description

Low resistance Offers little opposition to current

High conductivity Allows easy flow of electrons

Shiny appearance Especially metals like copper, silver

Good heat conductor Conducts thermal energy too

Malleable & ductile Can be shaped or stretched into wires

Examples of Conductors:

 Metals: Copper, Silver, Aluminum, Gold, Iron

  Others: Graphite (non-metal), Saltwater, Human body

Applications of Conductors:

Application Description

Copper and aluminum wires carry current in homes,

Wires & Cables
electronics, and industries

Thick metal bars used for distributing power in electrical

Busbars
panels

PCB Traces Printed circuit boards use copper to connect components

Sockets and Metal contacts inside electrical plugs conduct electricity to

Plugs devices

Conductive wires carry electric pulses to deter intruders or

Electric Fences
animals

Copper – The Most Common Conductor

 Excellent conductor due to very low resistance

 Used in house wiring, motor windings, and transformers
 Flexible, durable, and relatively affordable

INSULATORS

Insulators are materials that do not allow electric current to flow easily
through them. They have very few free electrons, so electrons cannot move
freely.

Why Insulators Don't Conduct Electricity:

 In insulators, electrons are tightly bound to their atoms.

 This means there's no free movement of electrons, so current cannot
flow.
 They act as barriers to electrical flow.
Properties of Insulators:
Property Description

High resistance Strongly opposes current flow

Poor conductivity Almost no electron movement

High dielectric strength Can withstand high voltages without breaking down

Non-metallic Most are non-metals or polymers

Thermal resistance Often poor conductors of heat too

Examples of Common Insulators:

 Plastic
 Rubber
 Glass
 Ceramic
 Wood (when dry)
 Mica
 Paper (in dry condition)
 Air

Applications of Insulators:

Application Description

Wire Coating Rubber or plastic insulates electrical wires to prevent

shocks

Power Line Ceramics or glass prevent electricity from leaking into

Insulators poles or towers
 Application Description

Non-conductive materials (like fiberglass) insulate

PCB Boards
between components

Handles of pliers, screwdrivers use rubber/plastic to

Electrical Tools
protect users

Transformers & Insulating materials prevent short circuits between

Motors windings

SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between

that of conductors and insulators. Their conductivity can be controlled or
modified, making them perfect for electronic devices.

Atomic Structure of Semiconductors:

 Semiconductors have 4 valence electrons (tetravalent atoms).

 In pure form (called intrinsic), they act like weak conductors.
 Their conductivity improves when doped with other elements (extrinsic
semiconductors).

Examples of Semiconductors:
Type Examples

Elemental Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)

Compound Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Silicon

Carbide (SiC)
Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor because it's abundant, stable,
and easy to process.

Types of Semiconductors:

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors:

- Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconducting materials without
impurities.
- Extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities to improve conductivity.
N-type semiconductors have extra electrons (donors), while P-type have
holes (acceptors).

Semi-Condcutor are armorphous or crystalline solids that have a

conductivity between the conductor and insulator. They are
classified as :

- Intrinsic Semi-
conductors and

- Extrinsic Semi-
conductors

Intrinsic Semi-conductors: Intrinsic Semi-conductors have the

conductivity that depends on the surrounding temperature.
 Intrinsic semiconductors exhibits a low conductivity at room
temperatures and this low conductivity makes them unsuitable for
use in electronic devices as a result, extrinsic semi-conductors are
manufactured.

Extrinsic Semi-conductors: these are semi-conductors that are

doped with specific impurities, these impurities modifies their
electrical properties and makes them more suitable for use in
electronic devices such as diodes and transistor.

Doping is the process by which a regulated amount of impurities

are added to pure materials to increase their conductivity
(electrical).

The atoms that are used as impurity are known as dopants

The two main impurities used for doping are Pentavalent atom (like
phosphorus, arsenum and antimony) and trivalent atoms (like
boron, aluminium and indium), tetravalent atoms gives N-type
(Negative-charged carries) while trivalent atoms produce p-type
(positive charge carriers)

Two types of doping:

Type Doping Element Charge Carrier Name

Phosphorus (5 valence
N-type Electrons Negative-type
electrons)

Boron (3 valence Holes (positive

P-type Positive-type
electrons) carriers)
Key Properties of Semiconductors:

Property Description

Moderate conductivity Between conductors and insulators

Temperature-sensitive Conductivity increases with heat

Can be doped To control electrical behavior

Forms p-n junctions Essential for diodes and transistors

Used in switching Foundational for digital logic and computing

Uses of Semiconductors:
Component Description Use

Allows current in one direction Rectifiers, protection

Diode
circuits

Computers, phones,
Transistor Acts as a switch or amplifier
amplifiers

Integrated Circuit Microprocessors,

Many transistors in one chip
(IC) memory chips

Photovoltaic cell Converts light into electricity Solar panels

LED Emits light when current flows Indicators, displays

Detects physical input (light, Touchscreens,

Sensor
heat, etc.) thermometers
Why Semiconductors Are So Important:

 Every electronic device you use (phones, TVs, laptops, calculators)

has semiconductor components.
 They allow circuits to be small, fast, efficient, and programmable.
 Modern computers, smart devices, and digital tech wouldn’t exist
without them.

The Band Gap:

 The band gap is the energy gap between the valence band (electrons
bound to atoms) and conduction band (free to move).
 Semiconductors have a small band gap, which allows control over
when and how electrons move.

Good Conductor vs. Insulator vs. Semiconductor

Property Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Free electrons Many Very few or none Moderate (controlled)

Conductivity High Low Medium (can be changed)

Examples Copper, silver Rubber, glass Silicon, germanium

-Insulators (e.g., rubber, glass) have tightly
bound electrons that do not move freely, thus preventing current flow.
- Semiconductors (e.g., silicon, germanium) have conductivity between
conductors and insulators. Their electrical properties can be modified by
adding impurities (doping).
Conduction in Metals and Gases:

Conduction in Metals:

 Metals have many free electrons in their outer shells.

 When a voltage is applied, these electrons move freely through the
metal, creating electric current.
 The metal atoms don’t move—only the electrons do.
 Example metals: Copper, Aluminum, Silver.

Conduction in Gases:

 Gases are normally insulators, but under high voltage or ionizing

conditions, they can conduct.
 High energy removes electrons from gas atoms, forming positive
ions and free electrons.
 These charged particles move and create a temporary current.
 Example: Neon lights, gas discharge tubes, lightning.

VALANCE AND CONDUCTION BANDS

Valence occurs in a solid material, the valence band represent the highest
energy level where electrons are typically found. When given enough energy,
these valence electrons becomes free electron and travel to the conduction
band, resulting in conductivity. It is the most-occupied band, it may be
completely filled or partially filled with electrons.

CONDUCTION BAND

Conduction band is the area that contains the electrons that are free to move,
these electrons are responsible for electrical conductivity and have high
mobility, the conduction band vary either be empty or partially filled with
electrons. An electron in the conduction band move rapidly thus it can jump
back to the valence band where it came earlier.
Fermi Level: The Fermi-level lies within the conduction band, in semi-
conductors, the Fermi level lies between the valence and conduction band
also in insulator s but the gap in insulator is much longer, but in metals, the
Fermi level les within the conduction band, making them good conductors.

Conductors:
In metals/ conductors : the valencey and conduction band overlaps,
creating a “sec” of free electrons that can easily move and conduct electricity.
Semi conductors: the semi-conductor materials have smaller energy
gap (band gap) in-between the conduction and valence band compared to
insulators, which means that electrons in the valence bond need a certain
amount of energy to jump into the conduction band and participate in the
conduction
Insulators: In insulators, the energy gap (band gap) between the
valence and conduction band is bigger compared to that in semi-conductors,
the Fermi level is within the valence bond, meaning electrons require a very
large amount of energy to move to the conduction band to conduct electricity.
1.9 Avalanche Breakdown:
- Avalanche breakdown occurs in

semiconductors
when reverse voltage
exceeds a certain threshold.
This causes electrons
Electrical Force and Potential:
- Electrical force is the attraction or repulsion between charged particles. It is
governed by Coulomb’s law.
- Electrical potential (voltage) is the work done to move a unit charge from
one point to another. It's the driving force behind the movement of electrons.
1.11 A Diode:
- A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that allows current to flow in
one direction only. It has a P-N junction, with current flowing when the P side
is connected to the positive terminal of a voltage source (forward bias).

A DIODE

WEEKS 5–7: DIODES AND TRANSISTORS

2.1 Zener Diodes and Their Use
Zener diodes are designed to allow current to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage exceeds a certain value called the Zener breakdown
voltage. They are used in voltage regulation to maintain a constant output
voltage.
2.2 Applications of Semiconductor Diode:
- Diodes are used in rectifiers (to convert AC to DC), voltage regulators,
- They are used as signal demodulators in Radios and Communicati on
devices
- They are used to regulates voltages as in Zener Diodes
-They are used in logic gates and switching especially in microcontrollers and
digital logic.
-They are used in power supplies toensure that current flows in the correct
direction.

2.3 Voltage Stabilization and Reference:

- A stabilized voltage is crucial in sensitive electronics. Zener diodes maintain
a constant reference voltage, protecting devices from voltage spikes and
ensuring consistent performance.

2.4 Voltage Shifting:

- Voltage shifting involves changing the voltage level of a signal. Diodes can
be used in circuits to move the DC level of a waveform without altering its
shape, which is essential in interfacing different components.

2.5 The Transistor:

- A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device used to amplify or
switch electronic signals. It controls current flow between two terminals
(collector and emitter) using a small input current at the third terminal
(base).

2.6 The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):

- BJTs are composed of three regions: emitter, base, and collector. They are
classified as NPN or PNP based on the arrangement of these regions.
Current injected into the base controls a larger current flowing from the
collector to the emitter.

2.7 The Junction Transistor:

- The junction transistor refers to the BJT, where two P-N junctions form the
basis of its function. It operates in active, cutoff, and saturation regions
depending on the applied voltages.

BJT Biasing (DC Analysis)

Biasing a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is needed to operate it in the
active region.

The Junction Transistor:

WEEKS 8–11: TRANSISTOR TESTING ND FETS

3.1 Testing of a Bipolar Junction Transistor:

- Transistor testing can be done using a digital multimeter. In diode mode, a
good NPN transistor shows a voltage drop (~0.6V) from base to emitter and
base to collector. Reverse readings indicate an open or faulty junction.
3.2 Testing with Multimeter:
- Use the multimeter’s diode function. Identify base, emitter, and collector by
checking continuity and voltage drop. A good transistor conducts in one
direction between base-emitter and base-collector, but not from collector to
emitter directly.

3.3 Field Effect Transistor (FET):

- FETs use an electric field to control the flow of current. They have three
terminals: source, gate, and drain. Unlike BJTs, FETs are voltage-controlled
devices and have high input impedance, making them suitable for signal
amplification and switching.

Field Effect Transistor (FET)

WEEKS 12–15: BRIDGE CIRCUITS AND NULL DETECTORS

5.1 Various Types of Bridge Circuits:

 🔹 1. Wheatstone Bridge

Definition

The Wheatstone Bridge is a circuit used to precisely

measure an unknown resistance by balancing two legs
of a bridge circuit.V

Construction

 Four resistors form a diamond shape:

o Arms: R1,R2,R3,Rx

 A galvanometer connects between the midpoints

 A DC source is applied across the opposite diagonal

Balance Condition

When the galvanometer reads zero (null condition)

Applications

 Accurate measurement of unknown resistances

 Calibration of measuring instruments
 Used in strain gauge sensors

🔹 2. Inductance Bridges

Inductance bridges are designed to measure inductance (L) using a

balanced bridge circuit, especially when high accuracy is required.
Types of Inductance Bridges

2.1 Maxwell’s Bridge

Used for measuring medium inductance with low Q factor.

Components:

 1 arm: unknown inductance Lx in series with resistance Rx

 Other arms: known resistors, and one known capacitor

Balance Condition:

Note: This bridge requires a standard capacitor (easier to obtain than a

standard inductor).

2.2 Hay’s Bridge

Modified version of Maxwell’s Bridge for high-Q inductors.

Balance Condition:

Advantage: More accurate at higher frequencies due to better phase

compensation.
2.3 Anderson’s Bridge

Used to measure self-inductance accurately over a wide range.

 More complex but very precise

 Includes an additional arm with a capacitor and resistor in parallel

Balance Condition:
Involves complex equations, but simplifies to forms like Maxwell’s bridge
under special conditions.

🔹 3. Resistance Bridges

Resistance bridges measure unknown resistances and work on the same

principle as Wheatstone but with variations for different resistance ranges or
configurations.

Types of Resistance Bridges

3.1 Kelvin Double Bridge

Used for low resistance measurements (<1 Ω), where contact resistance
and lead resistance become significant.

Construction:

 An improved Wheatstone bridge

 Includes additional ratio arms and shunt paths to eliminate errors
due to lead/contact resistance

Balance Equation:
Applications:

 Cable resistance
 Busbar and transformer winding resistances

3.2 Slide Wire Bridge

Also called a Meter Bridge, it uses a wire of known uniform resistance and a
sliding contact to adjust the balance point.

Formula:

Advant
age: Visual and hands-on; often used in labs.

Summary Comparison
Measured
Bridge Type Accuracy Special Use
Quantity

Wheatstone General resistance

Resistance High
Bridge measurement

Maxwell Bridge Inductance Medium– Uses standard capacitor

 Measured
Bridge Type Accuracy Special Use
Quantity

(Low Q) High

Inductance
Hay’s Bridge High For RF coils
(High Q)

Inductance
Anderson Bridge Very High Accurate lab measurement
(General)

Kelvin Double Precision, eliminates lead

Low resistance Very High
Bridge resistance

Slide Wire Bridge Resistance Medium Educational use

Inductance Bridge Capacitance Bridge Wheatstone Bridge

5.2 Industrial Applications of Bridge Circuits:

- Wheatstone Bridge: Widely used in strain gauges and temperature sensors.
- Capacitance Bridge: Used in testing dielectric materials and capacitor
quality.
- Inductance Bridge: Applied in coil testing and tuning of electronic circuits.

5.3 The Operation of the Bridge Circuits:

- Bridge circuits operate on the principle of null deflection. When the bridge is
balanced, no current flows through the null detector. Adjustments are made
until balance is achieved, allowing precise measurement.

5.4 The Operation of a Null Detector:

- A null detector is a sensitive device used to detect zero current or voltage in
the bridge circuit. When the detector shows zero, it indicates that the bridge is
balanced, meaning the measured and reference values are equal.

3.4 Basic Transistor Operation

A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device:

 Emitter (E): emits charge carriers

 Base (B): thin control region
 Collector (C): collects carriers

In active mode (NPN):

 The base-emitter junction is forward-biased

 The collector-base junction is reverse-biased
 A small base current IB controls a much larger collector current IC

Current Relationship:

IE = IB + IC

3.5 Semiconductor Diodes

A diode allows current to flow in only one direction (from anode to cathode
when forward biased).
It is made by joining P-type and N-type materials to form a PN junction.
Ideal diode equation:

Where: n= ideality factor (1 to 2)

3.6 PN Junction and Its Electric Field:

When P-type and N-type materials are joined:

 Electrons from N diffuse into P, and holes from P into N

 This creates a depletion region with immobile ions
 An internal electric field forms, opposing further diffusion
 The built-in potential (~0.7 V for silicon) must be overcome for current to
flow

3.7 Forward and Reverse Bias

 Forward Bias: P-side connected to +ve terminal, N-side to –ve.

Decreases the depletion width, allowing current.
 Reverse Bias: P-side to –ve, N-side to +ve. Increases the depletion
width, preventing current.
3.8 Transistor Current and Voltage

Equations:

3.9Collector Characteristics, Cut-off, Saturation, Load Line

 Cut-off Region: IB = 0; transistor OFF

 Active Region: Amplification mode
 Saturation: Both junctions forward-biased; transistor fully ON

DC Load Line Equation:

3.10 Maximum Transistor Ratings

Key ratings include:

3.11 Waveform Distortion

Types of distortion:

 Clipping: Input exceeds supply/bias limits

 Crossover: Occurs at zero crossing in push-pull stages
 Nonlinear: Caused by improper Q-point or overdrive

Proper biasing and signal limiting help prevent distortion.

3.12 Input Resistance at Transistor Base

The input resistance of the base terminal depends on transistor gain and
emitter current:

3.13 Base Bias, Emitter Bias, Collector Feedback Bias

 Base Bias:
Simple method using a resistor from base to Vcc

Not stable with temperature or β\betaβ variation

  Emitter Bias:
Uses emitter resistor RE to stabilize current
 Collector Feedback Bias:
Resistor from collector to base provides negative feedback to stabilize
IB

3.14 Q-Point Stability over Temperature

The Q-point is the DC operating point of a transistor (defined by VCE and IC).
Temperature changes affect VBE and IC, which may lead to thermal
runaway.

Solutions:

 Use of emitter resistor

 Voltage-divider bias
 Collector feedback bias

FINAL PRACTICE QUESTIONS

EEC 123 – Final Questions

SECTION A: CALCULATION QUESTIONS (20 Marks)

1. A 10 Ω resistor is connected to a 12 V battery. Calculate the current and

power dissipated.
2. Find the time constant of a 2200 µF capacitor in series with a 1 kΩ
resistor.
3. Calculate the DC output voltage of a full-wave rectifier with 15 V RMS
input.
4. In a BJT circuit, Vcc = 12 V, Rc = 2 kΩ, β = 100, and Ib = 40 µA. Find Ic
and Vce.
5. Two charges +3 µC and -5 µC are placed 2 cm apart. Calculate the
electric force between them.
6. Determine the voltage drop across a 4.7 kΩ resistor carrying 2 mA
current.
7. A diode has a forward current of 10 mA at 0.7 V. Estimate its dynamic
resistance.
8. Find the ripple voltage in a full-wave rectifier with C = 1000 µF, Iload =
100 mA, and f = 50 Hz.
9. A transistor has β = 120. If Ib = 30 µA, calculate Ic and Ie.

10. An SCR has Vbo = 100 V. What current flows if triggered at 110 V with
a 50 Ω load?

11. For a PN junction diode, sketch the IV characteristic and estimate

current at 0.6 V forward bias.

12. Determine the Q-point for a CE amplifier with Vcc = 10 V, Rc = 1 kΩ,

Re = 500 Ω, and Ic = 5 mA.

13. The inductance in a Maxwell bridge where R2 = 2 kΩ, R3 = 1 kΩ, C =

0.1 µF.

14. A Kelvin bridge is used to measure a 0.01 Ω resistor. If the voltage drop
is 1 mV and current is 1 A, calculate the resistance.
15. Calculate the collector efficiency if Pout = 150 mW and DC input power
is 500 mW.
16. A waveform clipped at 8 V on both ends is passed through a diode
clipper. Sketch and explain.
17. Calculate the holding current for a thyristor that turns off at 15 mA.
 18. In an RC timing circuit, how long will it take to reach 90% charge with a
time constant τ = 2 s?
19. An SCR in a lighting system turns on at 30 V and handles 0.5 A.
Calculate the power dissipated.
20. Calculate the input resistance of a transistor base where β = 150 and Ie
= 2 mA.

SECTION B: THEORY QUESTIONS (10 Marks)

1. Explain the working principle of a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR).

2. Describe the construction and operation of a PN junction diode.
3. Differentiate between forward bias and reverse bias with illustrations.
4. What is a DC load line, and how is the Q-point determined?
5. State and explain Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws.
6. Compare Maxwell’s bridge and Hay’s bridge for measuring inductance.
7. Describe the structure and function of a DIAC.
8. Explain the causes of waveform distortion in transistor amplifiers.
9. Discuss the importance of thermal stability in transistor biasing.
10. Describe the working and application of a Wheatstone bridge.