S-BIOL213LA EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY LAB MEB22 1ST

SEMESTER 2025-2026 - Period 1300-1600 MTH

Module: External Anatomy and Exoskeletal Structures of Vertebrates

Lesson Proper and Learning Activity: External Anatomy and Exoskeletal Structures
of Vertebrates

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The body of vertebrates is generally divided into head, trunk, and tail along with some external features. Usually,
their body is fusiform, although some groups exhibit a rather specialized shape because of adaptations to a
particular mode of life or habitat. A neck, for instance, is peculiar to land vertebrates. The information presented
below will help you get familiarized with the external anatomy and exoskeletal structures of the different
representatives of vertebrates.

Observe that the body of the animal is fusiform or spindle-shaped. Being pointed at both ends and laterally
flattened. The body is provided with a minute scale, which can be felt as rough tiny spines if the hand is passed
over its skin. A , which is a fine, light-colored whitish horizontal stripe, will be observed to extend
along each side of the body. Underneath the Lateral Line is the that contains sensory cells. The
zigzag muscle segments or can also be detected through the skin. The body is divided into head, trunk,
and tail.

1. – the most anterior part of the body, somewhat flattened and triangular in shape.
a. – the pointed anterior end of the head.
b. – the ventral narrow and crescentic opening that is bounded by the upper and lower jaws both
bearing diagonal rows of teeth.
 c. – a pair of openings on the ventral side of the rostrum. It is provided with a little flap of skin
dividing the nostril into two passages
d. – a pair of large oval structures on each side of the head, set in deep sockets without upper and
lower eyelids.
e. – two canals that connect the ears to the surface of the head by a pair of small
pores on the mid-dorsal surface of the head just at the back level of the eyes.
2. – fusiform or spindle-shaped, being pointed at both ends and laterally flattened.
a. – openings just behind the eyes, consisting of:
1. – the first circular opening
2. – a row of five elongated gill openings
b. – arise from the median line consisting of:
1. – arise from the mid-dorsal line
c. – arise from the ventral side
a. – an anterior pair of fins found immediately behind the gill slits.
b. – a posterior pair of fins found at the junction of the trunk and tail.
In males, two stout processes directed backward, called are found on the medial
side of each pelvic fin. All fins are supported by fine flexible rays called the
or
d. – a large opening found between the bases of the pelvic fins, which if spread
apart, a projecting UROGENITAL PAPILLA would be seen.
3. – modified into a fin, located at the posterior end of the body, and considered HETEROCERCAL because it
consists of a larger dorsal and a smaller ventral lobe.

The body is covered with scales, arranged in diagonal rows, and embedded into the dermis of the skin. A lateral
line is also present.

Identify the following parts:

1. – the most anterior part of the body, somewhat oblongated in shape.

a. – the terminally situated anterior opening of the head.
b. – two pairs of openings on the anterodorsal end of the head.
c. – large structures found on each side of the head, without upper and lower eyelids.
d. – a large flap-like structure that forms the posterior and lateral margins of the
head, made up of:
– large, flat scale-like bones that support the operculum and cover the
, a wide slit in the body wall.
e. – a membrane attached to the ventral margin of the operculum and is
supported by seven bony rays called the .
f. – four curved structures within the cavity covered by the operculum, consists of:
1. – situated on the outer margin, consists of double rows of soft filaments.
2. – situated on the inner margin, a series of tooth-like processes.
2. – fusiform and compressed laterally
a. – arise from the mid-dorsal line.
 1. – arise from the median line.
The position varies in different fishes.
2. – found on the ventral region
b. – arise from the ventral side.
1. – found just behind the operculum.
2. – found nearly at the level of the pectoral fin from the level of the anus.
The fins of the fishes are supported by bony flexible jointed fin rays called lepidotrichia.
c. – a large opening on the mid-ventral line in front of the ventral fin.
d. – a small elevation that projects from a depression just behind the anal opening.
3. – modified into a fin, bilobed type.

The
typical turtle’s body is cornified and provided with scales. It is divided into head, neck, trunk, and short tail
regions.

1. – anterior-most part of the body, somewhat triangular in shape.

a. – a pair of closely placed openings situated at the tip of the head.
b. – large structure, situated at each side of the head. It is provided with upper and lower eyelids
and a third eyelid, called the , situated at the anterior corner of the eye.
c. – terminally-situated anterior opening of the head, made up of hard, horny beak that lacks
teeth.
d. – a circular membrane found behind the angle of the jaws.
2. – long and flexible structure that joins the head to the trunk region
3. – broad and flat, encased by a shell.
a. – that dorsal arched shell
b. – the ventral flat shell
Both carapace and plastron are connected by situated ventrolaterally.
c. – anterior part of the limbs consisting of the and or
d. – posterior part of the limbs consisting of the and or
Both forelimbs and hindlimbs are pentadactyl types (with 5 digits). The webbed digits terminate
into claws.
4. – the most posterior, much-reduced part of the body, both in length and in diameter.
 The
body is elongated and divided into three regions: head, trunk, and tail. The head is usually separated from the
trunk by a neck-like constriction. Its body is entirely covered with epidermal scales.

1. – is the most anterior part of the body, which is well developed, consisting of the following structures:
a. – located at each side of the head, provided with movable eyelids.
b. – situated at the rostral end which is dilatable because the bones of the jaws and palate are
united by elastic ligaments.
c. – a pair of closely placed openings situated at the tip of the head.
2. – posterior to the head. Observe the there is no clear distinction between the thorax and abdomen
3. – is the part posterior to the event or anus.

The are absent. But in some species, the hindlimbs are represented by mere spurs beside the vent.

The body is divided into four regions:

head, neck, trunk, and stump tail. The body is almost entirely covered with feathers.

1. – is the most anterior part of the body, which is well-developed, bearing the following structures:
a. – situated at each side of the head, generally are and provided with upper and lower .
the third eyelid or can be drawn across the eye from the anterior corner.
b. – observed only in a plucked bird and is situated posterior and below the eyes.
c. – the most anterior elongated structure of the head and is made up of upper and that
are encased in horny sheaths. Notice the absence of teeth.
d. – slit-like openings situated under the anterior margins of the cere.
e. – a cushion-like protuberance on the base of the upper beak. This occurs only in some families of
birds.
2. – long, flexible part, situated immediately posterior to the head.
 3. – the shorter, firmer, and non-flexible part of the body due to the fusion of the bones of the back. The
trunk also has two pairs of limbs, namely:
a. – an anterior pair of limbs modified into wings or organs of flight. It consists of a short
that is directed posteriorly, a longer forearm that is directed forward, and the fused hand and wrist
which are elongated and directed caudad. The big flight feathers of the wings are termed ;
those of the hand are termed ; of the forearm ; of the upper arm as tertiaries or
.
b. – the posterior pair of limbs that are partially covered with feathers and partly with horny
scales like those in reptiles.
There are only four digits that terminate into claws, the fifth digit being absent. Observe that the
entire limb is directed ventrally so as to raise that animal above the ground.
4. – represented as a stump, the , with a half-circle of large flight feathers, the .
a. – a transverse slit or opening with protruding lips situated under the base of
the tail.
b. – a gland of which the opening is represented by a prominent , situated
dorsally but anterior to the base of the tail stump of a plucked chicken.

The body is
covered by hairs called FUR. The body is divided into four regions: head, neck, trunk, and tail.

1. – large, most anterior part of the body bearing the following structures:
a. – the largest part of the head, housing the brain.
1. – situated at the anterolateral part of the cranium, consisting of:
– long and flexible external fold of the ear.
– a passageway that descends deeply into the skull.
b. – anterior part of the head containing the following structures:
1. – situated at each side of the face, provided with upper and lower eyelids and a third eyelid
(nictitating membrane). The third eyelid could be grasped and drawn over the eyeball.
2. – elongated and overhung by the nose.
3. – especially long and stout hairs surrounding the nose and mouth.
4. – well developed and fleshy. Notice the cleft at the cent of the upper lip.
2. – the region of the body that is immediately posterior to the head.
3. – the region immediately posterior to the neck and is dived into:
 a. – the anterior part of the trunk that is supported by the ribs.
b. – the posterior part of the trunk, containing the following:
1. – four or five pairs in number on the ventral part of the trunk.
2. – the anterior pair of the limbs that consist of the upper arm, forearm, and manus or
hand.
3. – the posterior pair of limbs that consist of the thigh, shank, and pes or foot.
The limbs’ digits terminate in claws; five in front and four behind since the first hind tow is
absent. The claws of the cat and the rest of its family are retractile. The cat walks on its
digits (digitigrade) and the rest of the hand and foot are elevated.
4. – the most posterior part of the body.

The scales of fishes are derived from the dermis and are therefore mesoderm in origin.

1. – the dermal embedded, flat, bony base of the scale.

2. – a shiny curved dermal outgrowth directed caudad and erupts from the epidermis.
i. Consists of Dentine that is covered with a hard layer of vitrodentine. (Both are of mesodermal origin).
3. – cavity found at the center of the basal plate and spine.

The scale is roughly circular, fluted, thin, and flexible. Note that the scale is made up of concentric ridges.
The expected free half is smooth and cleft. The embedded portion of the scale constitutes the other half if
fluted.

Like the cycloid scale, the ctenoid scale is also thin and with ridges. The is
scalloped. The free edge, on the other hand, hears numerous comb-like or tooth-like projections called
or . Both cycloid and ctenoid scales consist of a thin layer of cellular lamellar bone.

The scale is rhomboidal in shape and covered by a hard, shiny, translucent material called , which is
mesodermal in origin. The edges are darkly stained due to the presence of ganoin.
Examine the large, thin horny, epidermal scutes covering the surface of the carapace. Its boundaries are marked
by grooves. The scutes are arranged in three groups:

1. – a median row of five scutes.

2. – a lateral row of four pairs of scutes.
3. – a circular row of 25 scutes consisting of
4. – an anterior, smaller, median unpaired scutes.
5. – two median posterior scutes.

Observe that the scutes can be removed from the carapace but its boundaries are not the same as that of the
underlying plates. Scutes are epidermal, therefore ectodermal in embryonic origin.

Observe the continuation or extension of the marginal scutes covering the margin of the underside, called
. The ventral surface is made up of heavy bony plates, which are dermal or mesodermal in
origin. The plates are fused to the vertebrae or ribs and are bounded by jagged sutures.

1. – a circle or marginal row of 24 plates.

2. – an anterior, large, unpaired median plate.
3. – a total of eleven paired marginal plates.
4. – an unpaired median posterior plate.

Like in the carapace, the plastron is also made up of bony dermal plates covered by horny epidermal scutes
bounded by sutures. Turn the plastron dorsal (inner) side up and study the following parts:

1. – the most anterior small pair of plates.

2. – an unpaired median plate posterior to the epiplastra and provided with a posteriorly
projecting point.
3. – a pair of squarish plates immediately posterior to the entoplastron.
4. – a pair of squarish plates immediately posterior to the hyoplastra.
5. – a pair of squarish plates immediately posterior to the hypoplastra.

Observe the irregular inframarginal scutes that cover the bridges.

 1. – the most anterior and smallest pair of scutes.
2. – a pair of squarish scutes immediately posterior to the gular scutes.
3. – a pair of squarish scutes immediately posterior to the humeral.
4. – a pair of squarish scutes immediately posterior to the pectoral.
5. – a pair of squarish scutes immediately posterior to the abdominal.
6. – a pair of small scutes immediately posterior to the femoral.

1. – covered with epidermal scales, namely:

a. – central and unpaired
b. – two large plates posterior to the frontal
c. – paired plates, somewhat oblongated and situated between the frontal plates and
eyes.
d. – paired plates anterior to the frontal.
e. – paired, anterior to the prefrontals and between the nasals.
In some species, this is separated by a small median plate known as .
f. – unpaired plate, covering the extremity of the snout.
g. – plates surrounding the paired nostrils.
h. – small plates surrounding each eye. The number depends on the kind of species.
i. – situated on the edge of the upper and lower lips, respectively.
j. – situated posterior to the orbitals and above the superior labials.
2. – are entirely covered with epidermal scales.

The scales of the ventral surface of the body are short and wide slightly overlapping and called ,
while those of the tail are in two rows, more or less united, and are called . The last Gastrostegite is
called the . The scales of the dorsal upper of the body and tail are smaller, oblongated, and keeled
with a longitudinal median ridge and are slightly overlapped. The scales are usually arranged in rows.

The body of birds is almost covered entirely with feathers. The hindlimbs are covered with epidermal scales and
provided with claws. The mouth is modified into horny beaks. Feathers are found in areas of the skin called
or , while the featherless areas found in between are called .
There are there general types of feathers:

1. – fine hair that can only be seen in the young and plucked bird.
a. – a long slender shaft that is embedded in the skin and surrounded at its base by the
or
b. – soft rays that are borne at the distal end of the main axis. It is also provided with
side rays called , without hooklets.
2. – fluffy covering found in young birds between the bases of the contour feather in
adult birds, consisting of:
a. – a basal, short, hollow stem, which is embedded in the integument.
b. – the numerous soft rays that arise in a circle from the free end of the quill.
c. – minute or tiny side rays arising from each side of the barbs.
3. – covers and gives an outline to the body. Arises from the feather tracts or pterylae.
Classified into two specific types, namely:
a. – primarily used for flying.
1. – the central axis which bears on each side a web-like, flat expansion called the .
2. – the lower bare and hollow part of the quill.
3. – the opening on the proximal end of the quill and is inserted into the feather
follicle.
4. – a ventral opening at the beginning of the vane and serves as a point where
the , a less-developed tuft of accessory feather arises.
b. – the solid part of the quill that supports the vane
c. – expanded portion of the quill which is divided into an:
1. – narrower side of the feather
2. – wider side of the feather.
3. – parallel, obliquely placed rays that adhere to each other and arise from the rachis.
4. – side rays originating from each side of the barb.
5. – tiny hooks situated on the lower part of each distal barbules, resulting in
the barbs being hooked together.
6. – a median ventral groove that extends from the superior umbilicus to the tip of
the rachis.
4. – primarily used to cover the body.
 The body of mammals is almost entirely covered with
. The exposed part of the hair is called the . The embedded part is called the .

1. – forms the surface layer of the hair.

2. – the median innermost layer of the hair. The medulla is often absent, especially in smaller hairs.
3. – between the cuticle and medulla.