UNIT – III

IMAGE RESTORATION
PART – A:

1. What is meant by Image Restoration?

Restoration attempts to reconstruct or recover an image that has been degraded by
using a clear knowledge of the degrading phenomenon.

2. How a degradation process is modeled?

A system operator H, which together with an additive white noise term η(x,y)
operates on an input image f(x,y) to produce a degraded image g(x,y).

3. What are the three methods of estimating the degradation function?

1. Observation
2. Experimentation
3. Mathematical modeling.

4. What are the types of noise models?

 Guassian noise
 Rayleigh noise
 Erlang noise
 Exponential noisUniform noise
 Impulse noise

5. Give the difference between Enhancement and Restoration

S.No Image Enhancement Image Restoration

1. Enhancement technique is based The removal of image blur by applying a

primarily on the pleasing aspects it deblurrings function is considered a
might present to the viewer. For restoration technique.
example: Contrast Stretching.
2. Enhancement is subjective in nature. Restoration is objective in nature.
6. What is Median Filtering?
The median filter replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the gray levels in the
neighborhood of that pixel.
^
(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛{𝑔(𝑠, 𝑡)}
∫
(s,t)∈sxy
Median filters are useful for removing isolated lines or points (pixels) while
preserving spatial resolutions. They perform very well on images containing binary
(salt and pepper) noise but perform poorly when the noise is Gaussian.

7. What is meant by arithmetic filer?

Compute the average value of the corrupted image g(x,y) in the area defined
The value of the restored image at any point (x,y)
^
1
∫(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∑ 𝑔(𝑠, 𝑡)
𝑚𝑛
(𝑠,𝑡)∈𝑆𝑥𝑦
Note: Using a convolution mask in which all coefficients have value 1/mn. Noise is
reduced as a result of blurring.

8. What is meant by geometric mean filer?

Geometric mean filter is given by the expression
1
^ 𝑚𝑛

∫(𝑥, 𝑦) = [ ∏ 𝑔(𝑠, 𝑡)]

(𝑠,𝑡)∈𝑠𝑥𝑦

9. What is meant by harmonic mean filer?

The harmonic mean filter operation is given by the expression
^
𝑚𝑛
∫(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1
∑(𝑠,𝑡)∈𝑠𝑥𝑦
𝑔(𝑠,𝑡)

10. What is meant by contra harmonic mean filer?

The contra harmonic mean filter operation is given by the expression
^
∑(𝑠,𝑡)∈𝑆𝑥𝑦 𝑔(𝑠, 𝑡)𝑄+1
∫(𝑥, 𝑦) =
∑(𝑠,𝑡)∈𝑆𝑥𝑦 𝑔(𝑠, 𝑡)𝑄
Where Q is called the order of the filter. This filter is well suited for reducing or virtually
eliminating the effects of salt-and-paper noise.

11. Define blind deconvolution.

The process of restoring an image by using a degradation function that has been
estimated in some way sometimes is called blind deconvolution.

12. Define inverse filtering.

Inverse filtering is the process of recovering the input of a system from its output.
inverse filters are useful for precorrecting an input signal in anticipation of the
degradations caused by the system. Such as correcting the nonlinearity of a display.
13. What is the main objective of Weiner filtering?
The main objective of Weiner filtering is to find an estimate f of the uncorrupted
image f such that the mean square error between them is minimized.

14. Write the draw backs of inverse filtering.

1. Doesn’t perform well when used on noisy images
2. In the presence of noise, when H(u,v) is small, then the noise η(u,v) dominates.

15. What is meant by constrained least squares restoration?. (May /June 09).
In Wiener filter, the power spectra of the undegraded image and noise must be
known. Constrained least squares filtering just require the mean and variance of the noise.

16. What is inverse filtering?

The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering, an estimate 𝐹̂ (𝑢, 𝑣)
of the transform of the original image simply by dividing the transform of the degraded
image 𝐺̂ (𝑢, 𝑣) by the degradation function.
𝐹̂ (𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝐺̂ (𝑢, 𝑣) / H(u,v)

17. What is meant by least mean square filter?

The limitation of inverse and pseudo inverse filter is very sensitive noise.
The wiener filtering is a method of restoring images in the presence of blurr as well as
noise.
PART – B:
1. Explain probability density functions of different noise models with suitable diagram.
 The most common probability density functions found in Image Processing
applications are as follows:
o Gaussian noise
o Rayleigh noise
o Erlang (Gamma noise)
o Exponential noise
o Uniform noise
o Impulse (Salt and Pepper) noise
 The above PDFs provide useful tools for modelling a broad range of noise corruption
situations found in practice.

(a) GAUSSIAN NOISE:

 Gaussian noise arises in an image due to factors such as electronic circuit noise and
sensor noise caused by poor illumination and/or high temperature.
 It is also known as Normal Noise.
 The PDF of a Gaussian Random Variable, z is given by

 where, z  gray level; 𝑧̅ mean of average value of ‘z’; σ  standard deviation;
𝜎 2  variance of ‘z’.
 The uniform density is quite useful as the basis for numerous random number
generators that are used extensively in simulations.
 These noise models are also used frequently in practices because of its tractability in
both spatial and frequency domain.

Fig: Probability density functions of (a) Gaussian (b) Rayleigh (c) Erlang (Gamma)
(d) Exponential (e) Uniform and (d) Salt-and-pepper noises
(b) RAYLEIGH NOISE:
 Unlike Gaussian distribution, the Rayleigh distribution is not symmetric.
 The PDF of Rayleigh noise is given by

 The mean and variance of z when this random variable is characterized by a Ray leigh
PDF are

and
 The basic shape of the Rayleigh density is displaced from the origin and shifted
towards the right.
 The Rayleigh density can be quite useful forcharacterizing noise phenomena in range
imaging and modelling the shape of skewed histograms.

(c) ERLANG (OR) GAMMA NOISE:

 The PDF of Erlang noise is

 where the parameters are such that a> b, b is a positive integer, and “!” indicates
factorial.
 The mean and variance of z are

and
 Erlang function is often referred to as the gamma density, strictly speaking this is
correct only when the denominator is the gamma function, Γ(b).
 When the denominator is as shown, the density is more appropriately called the
Erlang density.

(d) EXPONENTIAL NOISE:

 The PDF of exponential noise is given by

 where a>0. The mean and variance of z are

and

 This PDF is a special case of the Erlang PDF with b=1.

 The exponential and gamma densities find application in laser imaging.
(e) UNIFORM NOISE:
 The PDF of a uniform noise is given by
  The mean and variance of z are

and

(f) IMPULSE NOISE (or) SALT-AND-PEPPER NOISE:

 Impulse noise is found in situations where quick transients, such as faulty switching,
take place during imaging.
 If ‘k’ represents the number of bits used to represent the intensity values in a digital
image, then the range of possible intensity values for that image is [0, 2𝑘 -1].
 The PDF of salt-and-pepper noise is given by

 where V is any integer value in the range 0< V <2𝑘 − 1.

 If neither Ps nor Pp is zero, and especially if they are equal, noise values satisfying
will be white (2𝑘 − 1) or black (0), and will resemble salt and pepper granules
distributed randomly over the image; hence the name of this type of noise.
 Other names you will find used in the literature are bipolar impulse noise (unipolar if
either Ps or Pp is 0), data-drop-out noise, and spike noise.
 So, the terms impulse and salt-and-pepper noise are used interchangeably.

2. Illustrate the Image Restoration by Mean filters and Order-Statistic filters.

(i) MEAN FILTERS:
 Mean filters are the spatial filters which are used for noise reduction.
 Some of the mean filters are:
o Arithmetic Mean Filter
o Geometric Mean Filter
o Harmonic Mean Filter
o Contra Harmonic Mean Filter
(a) Arithmetic Mean Filter:
 The arithmetic mean filter is the simplest of the mean filters.
 Let Sxy represent the set of coordinates in a rectangular subimage window
(neighborhood) of size mx n, centered on point (x, y).
 The arithmetic mean filter computes the average value of the corrupted image, g(x,y),
in the area defined by Sxy.
 The value of the restored image 𝑓̂ at point (x,y) is the arithmetic mean computed using
the pixels in the region defined by Sxy.In other words,

 where, r and c are the row and column coordinates of the pixels contained in the
neighborhoodSxy.
  This operation can be implemented using a spa tial kernel of size m×n in which all
coefficients have value 1/mn.
 A mean filter smooths local variations in an image, and noise is reduced as a result of
blurring.
(b) Geometric Mean Filter:
 An image restored using a geometric mean filter is given by the expression

 where Π indicates multiplication. Here, each restored pixel is given by the product of
all the pixels in the subimage area, raised to the power 1/mn.
 A geometric mean filter achieves smoothing comparable to an arithmetic mean filter,
but it tends to lose less image detail in the process.
(c) Harmonic Mean Filter:
 The harmonic mean filtering operation is given by the expression

 The harmonic mean filter works well for salt noise, but fails for pepper noise.
 It does well also with other types of noise like Gaussian noise.
(d) Contraharmonic Mean Filter:
 The contraharmonic mean filter yields a restored image based on the expression

 where Q is called the order of the filter.

 This filter is well suited for reducing or virtually eliminating the effects of salt-and-
pepper noise.
 For positive values of Q, the filter eliminates pepper noise.
 For negative values of Q, it eliminates salt noise. It cannot do both simultaneously.
 Note that the contraharmonic filter reduces to the arithmetic mean filter if Q=0, and to
the harmonic mean filter if Q=−1.

(ii) ORDER STATISTIC FILTER:

 The order-statistic filters are spatial filters whose response is based on ordering
(ranking) the values of the pixels contained in the neighborhood encompassed by the
filter.
 The response of the filter is determined by the ranking result.
 Some of the important order-statistic filters are:
o Median filter
o Max and Min filter
o Midpoint filter
o Alpha trimmed mean filter
(a) Median Filters:
 The best-known order-statistic filter in image processing is the median filter.
 It replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the intensity levels in a predefined
neighborhood of that pixel

 where, Sxy is a subimage (neighborhood) centered on point (x, y).

  The value of the pixel at (x, y) is included in the computation of the median.
 Median filtersare quite popular becausethey provide excellent noise-reduction
capabilities, with considerably less blurring than linear smoothing filters of similar
size.
 Median filters are particularly effective in the presence of both bipolar and unipolar
impulse noise.
(b) Max and Min Filters:
 Max filter uses the 100thpercentile results and it is given by

 This filter is useful for finding the brightest points in an image or for eroding dark
regions adjacent to bright areas.
 Also, because pepper noise has very low values, it is reduced by this filter as a result
of the max selection process in the subimage area Sxy.
 The 0thpercentile filter is the min filter:

 This filter is useful for finding the darkest points in an image or for eroding light
regions adjacent to dark areas. Also, it reduces salt noise as a result of the min
operation.
(c) Midpoint Filter:
 The midpoint filter computes the midpoint between the maximum and minimum
values in the area encompassed by the filter:

 This filter combines order statistics and averaging.

 It works best for randomly distributed noise, like Gaussian or uniform noise.
(d) Alpha-Trimmed Mean Filter:
 Let the d/2 lowest and the d/2 highest intensity values of g(r, c) in the
neighborhoodSxy are deleted.
 Let gR(r,c) represent the remaining mn−d pixels in Sxy.
 A filter formed by averaging these remaining pixels is called an alpha-trimmed mean
filter and it isexpressed by

 where the value of d can range from 0 to mn − 1.

 When d = 0 the alpha-trimmed filter reduces to the arithmetic mean filter.
 If d =mn −1, the filter becomes a median filter.
 For other values of d, the alpha-trimmed filter is useful in situations involving
multiple types of noise, such as a combination of salt-and-pepper and Gaussian noise.
3. Examine the Inverse filtering and Wiener filtering in noise removal with its degraded
function.
(i) INVERSE FILTERING:
 Inverse filtering is a process of restoring an image degraded by a degradation function
H. This function can be obtained by any method.
 The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering, where we compute an
estimate, 𝐹̂ (𝑢, 𝑣)of the transform of the original image by dividing the transform of
the degraded image,𝐺(𝑢, 𝑣) by the degradation transfer function:
𝐺 (𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝐻 (𝑢, 𝑣)𝐹(𝑢, 𝑣) + 𝑁(𝑢, 𝑣)

 Substituting the first equation in the second equation,

 This is an interesting expression which tells that, even the degradation function is
known, it’s not possible to recover the undegraded image exactly because 𝑁(𝑢, 𝑣) is
not known.
 If the degradation function has zero or very small values, then the ratio𝑁(𝑢, 𝑣)/
𝐻(𝑢, 𝑣)could easily dominate the term 𝐹(𝑢, 𝑣).
 One approach to get around the zero or small-value problem is to limit the filter
frequencies to values near the origin.

(ii) MINIMUM MEAN SQUARE ERROR (OR) WIENER FILTERING:

 Wiener filter incorporates both the degradation function and statistical characteristics
of noise into the restoration process.
 The method is founded on considering images and noise as random variables, and the
objective is to find an estimate𝑓̂ of the uncorrupted imagef such that the mean square
error between them is minimized.
 This error measure is defined as

 where E{·} is the expected value of the argument.

 It is assumed that the noise and the image are uncorrelated, that one or the other has
zero mean, and that the intensity levels in the estimate are a linear function of the
levels in the degraded image.
 Based on these assumptions, the minimum of the error function in the above equation
is given in the frequency domain by the expression

 The fact that the product of a complex quantity with its conjugate is equal to the
magnitude of the complex quantity squared is used.
 This result is known as the Wiener filter, named after N. Wiener.
 The filter, which consists of the terms inside the brackets, also is commonly referred
to as the minimum mean square error filter or the least quare error filter.
 Wiener filter does not have the same problem as the inverse filter with zeros in the
degradation function, unless the entire denominator is zero for the same value(s) of u
and v.
 The terms in the above equation are as follows:
o 𝐹̂ (𝑢, 𝑣)Fourier transform of the estimate of the undegraded image
o 𝐺(𝑢, 𝑣)Fourier transform of the degraded image
o 𝐻 (𝑢, 𝑣)degradation transfer function (Fourier transform of the spatial
degradation)
o 𝐻 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑣)complex conjugate of 𝐻 (𝑢, 𝑣)
o |𝐻 (𝑢, 𝑣)|2 = 𝐻 (𝑢, 𝑣)𝐻∗ (𝑢, 𝑣)
o 𝑆𝜂 (𝑢, 𝑣) = |𝑁(𝑢, 𝑣)|2 power spectrum of the noise
o 𝑆𝑓 (𝑢, 𝑣) = |𝐹 (𝑢, 𝑣)|2 power spectrum of the undegraded image
 The restored image in the spatial domain is given by the inverse Fourier transform of
the frequency-domain estimate 𝐹̂ (𝑢, 𝑣).
 If the noise is zero, then the noise power spectrum vanishes and the Wiener filter
reduces to the inverse filter.
 A number of useful measures are based on the power spectra of noise and of the
undegraded image.
 One of the most important is the signal-to-noise ratio, approximated using frequency
domain quantities such as

 This ratio gives a measure of the level of information-bearing signal power (i.e., of
the original, undegraded image) to the level of noise power.
 An image with low noise would tend to have a high SNR and, conversely, the same
image with a higher level of noise would have a lower SNR.
 This ratio is an important measure used in characterizing the performance of
restoration algorithms.
 The mean square error can be approximated also in terms of a summation involving
the original and restored images

 In fact, if one considers the restored image to be “signal” and the difference between
this image and the original to be “noise,” a signal-to-noise ratio in the spatial domain
can be defined as

 The closer f and 𝑓̂ are, the larger this ratio will be. Sometimes the square root of the
preceding two measures is used instead, in which case they are referred to as the root-
mean-square-error and the root-mean-square-signal-to-noise ratio, respectively.
4. Elucidate the Noise reduction by Adaptive filters - adaptive-local noise and median
filters with its algorithm.
 The adaptive filters are one whose behaviour changes based on statistical
characteristics of the image inside the filter region defined by the m×n rectangular
neighborhoodSxy.
 The adaptive filters are capable of performance superior to that of the Mean and Order
Statistics filters, which results in increased complexity.
 It has two types:
o Adaptive, Local Noise Reduction Filter
o Adaptive Median Filter

(a) ADAPTIVE, LOCAL NOISE REDUCTION FILTER:

 The simplest statistical measures of a random variable are its mean and variance.
 These are reasonable parameters on which to base an adaptive filter because they are
quantities closely related to the appearance of an image.
 The mean gives a measure of average intensity in the region over which the mean is
computed, and the variance gives a measure of image contrast in that region.
 The filter operates on a neighborhood, Sxy, centered on coordinates (x,y).
 The response of the filter at (x,y) is to be based on the following quantities:
o g(x,y)the value of the noisy image at (x,y);
o 𝜎𝜂2 the variance of the noise;
o 𝑧̅𝑆𝑥𝑦  the local average intensity of the pixels in 𝑆𝑥𝑦 ; and
o 𝜎𝑆2𝑥𝑦  the local variance of the intensities of pixels in𝑆𝑥𝑦 .
 The behavior of the filter must be as follows:
1. If 𝜎𝜂2 is zero, the filter should return simply the value of gat(x, y). This is the
trivial, zero-noise case in which g is equal to f at (x, y).
2. If the local variance 𝜎𝑆2𝑥𝑦 is high relative to 𝜎𝜂2 , the filter should return a value
close to gat (x, y). A high local variance typically is associated with edges, and
these should be preserved.
3. If the two variances are equal, we want the filter to return the arithmetic mean
value of the pixels inSxy. This condition occurs when the local area has the
same properties as the overall image, and local noise is to be reduced by
averaging.
 An adaptive expression for obtaining 𝑓̂(𝑥, 𝑦) based on these assumptions may be
written as

 The only quantity that needs to be known a priori is 𝜎𝜂2 , the variance of the noise
corrupting image f(x, y).
 An assumption in previous equation is that the ratio of the two variances does not
exceed 1, which implies that 𝜎𝜂2 ≤ 𝜎𝑆2𝑥𝑦 .
 The noise in our model is additive and position independent, so this is a reasonable
assumption to make becauseSxy is a subset of g(x, y).
 However, the exact knowledge of 𝜎𝜂2 is seldom known. Therefore, it is possible for
this condition to be violated in practice.
 For that reason, a test should be built into an implementation of the above equation so
that the ratio is set to 1 if the condition 𝜎𝜂2 >𝜎𝑆2𝑥𝑦 occurs.
 This makes this filter nonlinear.
  However, it prevents nonsensical results (i.e., negative intensity levels, depending on
the value of 𝑧̅𝑆𝑥𝑦 ) due to a potential lack of knowledge about the variance of the image
noise.
 Another approach is to allow the negative values to occur, and then rescale the
intensity values at the end. The result then would be a loss of dynamic range in the
image.

(b) ADAPTIVE MEDIAN FILTER:

 The adaptive median filtering can handle noise with probabilities larger than the
median filter.
 An additional benefit of the adaptive median filter is that it seeks to preserve detail
while simultaneously smoothing non-impulse noise, something that the “traditional”
median filter does not do.
 The adaptive median filter also works in a rectangular neighborhood, Sxy.
 The adaptive median filter changes (increases) the size ofSxy during filtering,
depending on certain conditions to be listed shortly.
 The output of the filter is a single value used to replace the value of the pixel at(x, y)
the point on which region Sxy is centered at a given time.
 The following notations are used:
o 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 minimum intensity value inSxy
o 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 maximum intensity value inSxy
o 𝑧𝑚𝑒𝑑 median of intensity values inSxy
o 𝑧𝑥𝑦  intensity at coordinates(x, y)
o 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 maximum allowed size of Sxy

 The adaptive median-filtering algorithm uses two processing levels, denoted level A
and level B, at each point (x, y):
o Level A: If 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 <𝑧𝑚𝑒𝑑 <𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 , go to Level B
Else, increase the size of Sxy
If Sxy ≤ Smax, repeat Level A

o Level B: If 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 <𝑧𝑥𝑦 <𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 , output 𝑧𝑥𝑦

Else output 𝑧𝑚𝑒𝑑

 where Sxy and Smax are odd, positive integers greater than 1.
 Another option in the last step of level A is to output 𝑧𝑥𝑦 instead of 𝑧𝑚𝑒𝑑 .
 This produces a slightly less blurred result, but can fail to detect salt (pepper) noise
embedded in a constant background having the same value as pepper (salt) noise.
 This algorithm has three principal objectives:
o to remove salt-and-pepper (impulse) noise
o to provide smoothing of other noise that may not be impulsive
o to reduce distortion, such as excessive thinning or thickening of object
boundaries
 The values 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 are considered statistically by the algorithm to be
“impulse-like” noise components in region Sxy, even if these are not the lowest and
highest possible pixel values in the image.
5. Discuss in detail about the Image restoration – degradation model along with their
properties.
 The principal goal of restoration techniques is to improve an image in some
predefined sense.
 Although there are areas of overlap, image enhancement is largely a subjective pro
cess, while image restoration is for the most part an objective process.
 Restoration attempts to recover an image that has been degraded by using a priori
knowledge of the degradation phenomenon.
 Thus, restoration techniques are oriented toward modeling the degradation and
applying the inverse process in order to recover the original image.

IMAGE RESTORATION / DEGRADATION PROCESS MODEL:

 The image degradation is modelled as an operator that, together with anadditive
noise term, operates on an input imagef(x,y) to produce a degraded imageg(x,y).

Fig: A Model of the Image Degradation /Restoration process

 Given g(x,y), some knowledge about , and some knowledge about the additive
noise term 𝜂(𝑥, 𝑦), the objective of restoration is to obtain an estimate 𝑓̂(𝑥, 𝑦) of the
original image.
 In order to make the estimate to be as close as possible to the original image and,
knowing more about and η, the closer 𝑓̂(𝑥, 𝑦)will be to f(x,y).
 If is a linear, position-invariant operator, then the degraded image is given in the
spatial domain by

 where h(x,y) is the spatial representation of the degradation function.

 The symbol “ ” indicates convolution. Based on the convolution theorem, the
equivalent of previous equation in the frequency domain is

 where the terms in capital letters are the Fourier transforms of the corresponding
terms in the previous equation.

NOISE MODELS:
 The principal sources of noise in digital images arise during image acquisition and/or
transmission.
 The performance of imaging sensors is affected by a variety of environ mental factors
during image acquisition, and by the quality of the sensing elements themselves.
 For instance, in acquiring images with a CCD camera, light levels and sensor
temperature are major factors affecting the amount of noise in the resulting image.
 Images are corrupted during transmission principally by interference in the
transmission channel.
  For example, an image transmitted using a wireless network might be corrupted by
lightning or other atmospheric disturbance.
 Since main sources of noise are presented in digital images are resulted from
atmospheric disturbance and image sensor circuitry, the following assumptions are
made:
o The noise model is spatial invariant (i.e.) independent of spatial location
o The noise model is uncorrelated with the objective function

SPATIAL AND FREQUENCY PROPERTIES OF NOISE:

 A frequency property refers to the frequency content of noise in the Fourier sense
(i.e.) as opposed to frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 For example, when the Fourier Spectrum of noise is constant, the noise is called
White noise.
 This terminology is a carryover from the physical properties of white light, which
contains nearly all frequencies in the visible spectrum in equal proportions.
 Spatial frequency refers to the exception of spatially periodic noise that noise is
independent of spatial coordinates, and that it is uncorrelated with respect to the
image itself.