Unit 1: Data Representation & Register Transfer
Data Representation:
Computers data ko binary format mein store karte hain. Data representation techniques ka use
different data types ko store aur process karne ke liye hota hai.
• Data Types: Integer, Floating-Point, Character, Boolean.
• Complements: 1’s Complement, 2’s Complement (Negative numbers represent karne ke liye
use hota hai).
• Fixed-Point Representation: Integer numbers ka storage mechanism.
• Floating-Point Representation: Decimal numbers ko store karne ka tarika (IEEE 754 format
use hota hai).
• Gray Code: Binary numbering system jo ek bit change karke next number represent karta hai
(Error detection ke liye useful).
• Decimal & Alphanumeric Codes: ASCII, Unicode jaise codes jo characters aur numbers ko
represent karne ke liye use hote hain.
• Error Detection Codes: Parity Bit, Hamming Code jo transmission errors detect aur correct
karne ke liye use hote hain.
Example:
• 2’s complement of -5 ka binary representation (4-bit system) → 1011
Diagram:
Register Transfer & Microoperations:
CPU ke andar data ek register se doosre register mein transfer hota hai. Register microoperations ise
define karte hain.
• Register Transfer Language (RTL): Symbols aur notations jo register-level operations ko
describe karte hain.
• Bus and Memory Transfers: Data transfer mechanisms between CPU and memory.
• Arithmetic Microoperations: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division operations jo
CPU internally execute karta hai.
• Logic Microoperations: AND, OR, XOR, NOT operations jo logical processing ke liye use hote
hain.
• Shift Microoperations: Left Shift, Right Shift jo bitwise data shifting ke liye use hote hain.
• Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit (ALU): Arithmetic aur logical operations perform karne wala CPU
ka important component.
Example:
• R2 ← R1 + R3 (Yeh ek register transfer statement hai jo R1 aur R3 ka sum calculate karke R2
mein store karta hai)
Diagram:
ALU Operations Example:
R1: 0001 1010 (26)
R2: 0000 1111 (15)
--------------------
R3: 0010 1001 (41) -> R1 + R2
Unit 2: Basic Computer Organization & CPU
Basic Computer Organization & Design:
Ek computer ka design multiple components ka combination hota hai jo ek system ke andar
coordinated manner mein kaam karte hain.
• Instruction Codes: Binary format mein likhi instructions jo CPU execute karta hai.
• Computer Registers: High-speed storage elements jo immediate data store karte hain.
• Computer Instructions: Machine-level instructions jo CPU execute karta hai.
• Timing & Control: CPU ka control unit different operations ke timings ko synchronize karta
hai.
• Instruction Cycle: Fetch → Decode → Execute cycle jo har instruction ke execution ko
describe karta hai.
• Memory & Input-Output Instructions: Data access aur I/O devices se communication handle
karne wale commands.
• Accumulator Logic: Accumulator ek special register hota hai jo arithmetic aur logic
operations perform karta hai.
Diagram:
Central Processing Unit (CPU):
CPU ek computer ka brain hota hai jo sabhi calculations aur logical decisions execute karta hai.
• General Register Organization: Multiple registers jo temporary data store karte hain.
• Stack Organization: Stack-based memory allocation jo function calls aur interrupts handle
karta hai.
• Instruction Format: Opcode + Operands ka combination jo CPU instructions define karta hai.
• Addressing Modes: Direct, Indirect, Immediate, Register addressing modes jo data ka
location define karte hain.
• Data Transfer & Manipulation: Load, Store, Move, Swap jaise commands jo data ko
manipulate karte hain.
• Program Control: Control instructions jaise Jump, Branch jo program execution flow ko
modify karte hain.
• RISC vs CISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) vs Complex Instruction Set
Computing (CISC) architectures ka comparison.
Unit 3: Pipelining & Parallel Processing
Pipelining:
Pipelining ek technique hai jo instruction execution ko overlap karke performance improve karti hai.
• Basic Concepts: Multiple instruction execution stages execute hone lagti hain ek pipeline
structure mein.
• Throughput & Speedup: Kitni instructions ek unit time mein execute hoti hain aur kitna
performance improve hota hai.
• Pipeline Hazards: Data hazards, Control hazards, Structural hazards jo pipelining ko affect kar
sakti hain.
Diagram:
Parallel Processors:
Parallel processing multiple processors ka use karta hai ek saath kaam karne ke liye.
• Introduction: Parallel processing architectures ka overview.
• Concurrent Memory Access: Multiple processors ka ek saath memory access karna.
• Cache Coherency: Multiple caches ke beech data consistency maintain karna.
Unit 4: Input-Output & Memory Organization
Input-Output Organization:
Computer ka I/O system external devices se communicate karta hai.
• I/O Device Interface: Hardware aur software components jo I/O communication handle
karte hain.
• I/O Transfers: Program controlled, Interrupt-driven, Direct Memory Access (DMA).
• Privileged & Non-Privileged Instructions: OS aur user processes ke liye different instructions.
• Software Interrupts: Software generated interrupts jo specific conditions par trigger hote
hain.
Memory Organization:
Memory organization data storage aur retrieval ke different methods define karta hai.
• Memory Hierarchy: Register → Cache → Main Memory → Secondary Storage.
• Main & Auxiliary Memory: RAM aur Hard Disk ka difference.
• Cache Memory: High-speed memory jo frequently used data store karti hai.
• Associative Mapping: Cache mapping technique jo fast data retrieval allow karti hai.
• Direct & Set-Associative Mapping: Cache mapping ke different techniques.
• Cache Initialization: Cache memory ko efficiently initialize karne ka process.
• Virtual Memory: Hard disk space ka use as a RAM extension.
Diagram:
