Module 9: CURVE TRACING

9.1 Equations of Tangent and Normal Lines

Since the derivative of a function can be interpreted as the slope of the tangent to the graph of the function,
the line T is the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at P1(x1, y1). The other line N, perpendicular to T at P1, is called
the normal to the curve at P1.

1. The tangent to the curve y = f(x) at P1(x1, y1) is the line through P1 with slope f ‘(x1).

2. The normal to the curve y = f(x) at P1(x1, y1) is the line through P1 and perpendicular to the tangent at
P1.

The adjoining figure shows the graph of the curve y = f(x) and P is a point on it. TPQ is the tangent to the curve
at P. This is inclined at an angle  to the positive x-axis.
𝑑𝑦
Then as seen previously, tan  = 𝑑𝑥 represents the slope of the tangent line TPQ to the curve y = f (x) at
the point P. Thus, the equation of the tangent line to the curve at P using point-slope form is
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑓′(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
The normal line is defined as the line which is perpendicular to the tangent at the point of its contact to
the curve. Therefore, the slope of this normal line at that point is negative reciprocal of the slope of the tangent
line at point P. Hence the equation of the normal line at P to the curve y = f (x) will be
1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = − 𝑓′(𝑥) (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

Example Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = 2x2 – 3x + 2 at the point (2,4).

Solution:
Solving for the slope of the tangent line at x = 2, we have
𝑦 ′ = 4𝑥 − 3 = 4(2) − 3 = 5
Hence, the equation of the tangent line at (2, 4) is
𝑦 − 4 = 5(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 6
For the normal line, since the slope is negative reciprocal of the slope of the tangent line, then
1
𝑦 − 4 = − 5 (𝑥 − 2)
1 22
𝑦 = −5𝑥 + 5

9.2 Sketching Polynomial Curves

A function is increasing if its graph moves up as x moves to the right and decreasing if its graph moves
down as x moves to the right.

Test for Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Let f be differentiable on the interval (a, b)
1. If 𝑓′(𝑥) > 0for all x in (a, b), then f is increasing on (a, b).
2. If 𝑓′(𝑥) < 0for all x in (a, b), then f is decreasing on (a, b).
3. If 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0for all x in (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).
Critical Numbers
If f is defined at c, then c is a critical number of f if f ' ( c ) = 0 or if f ' is undefined at c.

Relative Extrema
Let f be a function defined at c.
1. 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative maximum of f if there exists an interval (a, b) containing c such that
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑐) for all x in (a, b).
2. f ( c ) is a relative minimum of f if there exists an interval (a, b) containing c such that
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑐) for all x in (a, b).

First Derivative Test for Maximum/Minimum

1. If 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0and 𝑓′(𝑥) changes from positive to negative, f is a maximum.
2. If 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓′(𝑥) changes from negative to positive, f is a minimum.
3. If 𝑓′(𝑥) does not change sign, f is neither a maximum nor a minimum.

We can interpret the first derivative test by a graph as shown in the figure.
y

A
C

x
o

D
The graph of the function as shown in the figure is increasing from A to B, decreasing from B to D and
increasing from D to E. At points B and D the slope of the curve is zero and is said to be stationary. Point B,
where the function changes from increasing to decreasing, is called a maximum point and the function is said to
have a relative maximum value at B. Likewise, point D, where the function changes from decreasing to
increasing, is called a minimum point and the function is said to have a relative minimum value at D.

If a value x0 in the domain of f(x) is such that f’(x0) is zero or undefined, x0 is called a critical value of
f(x) and the corresponding point on the curve y = f(x) is called a critical point. Points B and D, are critical points.

Example 1 Find any maximum and minimum point of y = x 2 − 4 x − 1 . Sketch the curve indicating these
points

Solution:
To determine the critical point, solve for y’
y’= 2x –4
Then set y’= 0
2x – 4 = 0 → x = 2, y = – 5
Test whether the point (2, – 5) is a maximum or minimum point.
(2, – 5): x < 2, y’ = (-)
x > 2, y’ = (+)
Hence (2, – 5) is a minimum point
 y

20

y = x2 – 4x -1
16

12

x
-3 -2 -1 o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-4

-8 (2, – 5 )

Example 2 Determine any maximum and minimum points of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5 − 20𝑥 3

Solution:
Solving for the critical points,
𝑦’ = 15𝑥 4 − 60𝑥 2
𝑦 ′ = 15𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 4)
y' = 15𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
Then
set y' = 0
15𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 0  x =0; x = -2; x = 2
For each value of x, find the value of y
when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
when x = -2, y = 64
when x = 2, y = -64
Test the critical points;
(0, 0): x < 0, y’ = (-)
x > 0, y’ = (-)
Hence (0, 0) is neither maximum nor minimum point
(2, -64): x < 2, y’ = (-)
x > 2, y’ = (+)
 (2, -64) is a minimum point
(-2, 64) x < -2, y’ = (+)
x > -2, y’ = (-)
 (-2, 64) is a maximum point

Example 3. Find a and b so that y = x 3 + ax 2 + b will have a critical point at (2, 5)

Solution:
If (2,5) is a critical point, set y ' = 0 and substitute x = 2 to find a .
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 = 0
3(2)2 + 2𝑎(2) = 0
4a = −12
a = −3
To find b , use the given equation, substitute the coordinates of the given point and the value of a .
5 = 2 3 + (−3)( 2) 2 + b
5 = 8 − 12 + b
b=9
Concavity and Point of Inflection

Let f(x) be twice differentiable. Then

1. y = f (x) is concave upward at x = a , when f ' ' (a) is positive.
2. y = f (x) is concave downward at x = a , when f ' ' (a) is negative.
3. y = f (x) has a point of inflection at x = a, when f ' ' (a) =0 and f ' ' ( x) changes sign as x increases through a .

The Second Derivative Test for Finding the Maximum and Minimum Point

1. y = f (x) is a maximum at x = a , if f ' (a) =0 and f ' ' (a) is negative.

2. y = f (x) is a minimum at x = a , if f ' (a) =0 and f ' ' (a) is positive.
3. The second derivative test fails if f ' (a) =0 and f ' ' (a) = 0. If this case occurs, use the first derivative test.

Curve Tracing

Another method of tracing a curve is by using the first and second derivative tests. The procedure is as follows:
1. Get the first derivative and equate to zero. Solve for the values of x called the critical numbers and the
corresponding values of y. These are the critical points or CP’s.
2. Get the second derivative and substitute the critical numbers to determine if the critical point is a maximum or
a minimum point.
3. Equate the second derivative test to zero, and solve for the values of x and the corresponding values of y. These
are the inflection points, if any.
4. With the critical points and inflection points as guide, sketch the graph
5. Intercepts, symmetry, an asymptotes, if any, may also be considered.

Example 1. Analyze and trace the curve of y = 3x − x 3 .

Solution:
Differentiating with respect to x,
𝑦’ = 3 − 3𝑥 2
Setting the first derivative to zero, we have
3 − 3𝑥 2 = 0
3(1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 0
3(1 + 𝑥)(1 − 𝑥) = 0
This will give 𝑥 = −1 and 1
And hence y= -2 and 2
The critical points are (-1, -2) and (1, 2)
Take the derivative of y’, we have
y ' ' = −6 x
Testing for maximum and minimum point
(-1, -2): y' ' = −6(−1) = 6, positive
hence (-1, -2) is minimum
(1, 2): y' ' = −6(1) = −6, negative
hence, (1, 2) is maximum
To find the point of inflection
y ' ' = −6 x = 0
x=0
thus, y=0
The inflection point is (0,0). Take several values that will satisfy the equation, we have
If x = 2 -2 3 -3
y= -2 2 -18 18
 y
20

16

12

4 (1,2)
o x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(-1,-2) -4

-8
y = 3x – x3
-12

-16

-20

4x
Example 2. Analyze and trace the curve of y = .
4 + x2
Solution:
Differentiating the function with respect to x,
(4+𝑥 2 )(4)−4𝑥(2𝑥)
𝑦′ = (4+𝑥 2 )2
16+4𝑥 2 −8𝑥 2 16−4𝑥 2
𝑦′ = = (4+𝑥 2)2 = 0
(4+𝑥 2 )2

16 + 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 2 = 0
4𝑥 2 = 16  𝑥2 = 4
Implying that 𝑥 = 2 and -2
Solving for y, y = 1 and -1
The critical points are (2,1) and (-2, -1)

To find the point of inflection

2
(4+𝑥 2 ) (−8𝑥)−(−4𝑥 2 +16)(2)(4+𝑥 2 )(2𝑥)
𝑦′′ = (4+𝑥 2 )4
=0
2 )2
(4 + 𝑥 (−8𝑥) − 4𝑥(4 + 𝑥 )(−4𝑥 + 16) = 0 2 2

-4x (4 + 𝑥 2 )[2(4 + 𝑥 2 ) + (−4𝑥 2 + 16)] = 0

-4x(4 + 𝑥 2 )(-2x 2 + 24) = 0
8x(4 + 𝑥 2 )(𝑥 2 -12) = 0
x = 0 and x = ±2√3
√3 √3
y=0 y= and -
2 2

If x= -4 -2 3 -2 0 2 2 3 4
−4 3 3 4
y= - -1 0 1
5 2 2 5

y
5

2
(2,1)
1

o x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
(-2,-1)
-2