INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS

What is Basic Communication Model

The basic communication model in computer networking is where the Sender (encodes
the message) channel sends a message over a channel or medium and receiver (decodes
the message) gives Feedback.

Components
The components involved in the implementation of the basic communication model are:
 Sender − Who sends the message.
 Encodes − Translates messages into symbols like words, pictures, sound, etc.
 Channel or medium − It used to transmit messages. Some channels are face-to-
face communication, over telephone, letters, television, newspapers, radio, etc.
 Decode − Receiver decodes these symbols to understand what the sender wants
to say.
 Receiver − A person who receives the message.
 Feedback − After receiving a message, the receiver sends feedback to the sender,
answer and what he understands from the message.
Sometimes noise is also part of the communication process and it disturbs the message
and it will be difficult for the receiver to understand the exact message that the sender
wants to send.
Communication can be verbal, written or by gestures.
In the basic communication model, the sender encodes the message and transmits the
message through communication channels like verbal (face-to-face, over telephone,
video calls) and non verbal (newspapers, letters) for sending the message.
Then, the receiver receives the message and decodes it according to their understanding
and again sends feedback to the sender.
In this communication process, noise plays a role of disruption. If noise is there in the
communication process then the receiver does not receive the exact message.

Example of Data Communication

Given below is the diagram of data communication in computer networks:
Message appeals
Let us see real life data communication which in terms of message appeals to customers
or consumers −
Fear appeal
It is a negative appeal and it defines what negative outcomes can happen because of the
action of consumers.
For example, toothpaste advertisements which show that if we do not use that product
then our teeth become affected and we have to go to the dentist and it will be a painful
process. So we have to use this toothpaste.
Emotional appeal
Some advertisements through which we get emotionally connected and buy that
particular product.
Sex appeal
These advertisements convey a specific message to specific gender.
For example, alcohol brand advertisements target men in their advertisements.
Cosmetic products appeal only to ladies.
Rational appeal
It emphasizes information, facts and details about the particular product. It provides
logical reasons why consumers should choose this particular product from all the
available alternatives.

A Communication model
A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early
attempts for implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single,
complex, unstructured program with many interacting components. The resultant
software was very difficult to test and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has
developed a layered approach. In a layered approach, networking concept is divided into
several layers, and each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say that
networking tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture
o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of
services to manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower
to higher layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore,
any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower
to a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are
implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the
information with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the
contents and order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one
layer to another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with
the layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as
a layer-n protocol.
Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.
 o In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine
to layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer
immediately just below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication
takes place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A
Layered architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information
is shared among different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one
layer can be easily replaced by another implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

NETWORK MODELS
Data communication is sharing information between devices over a network. Models
and protocols enable it. Two common models are OSI and TCP/IP. We will explain them
and the hybrid model, comparing their features, advantages and disadvantages.

The OSI Model :

The OSI model stands for Open Systems Interconnection model. It was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984 as a reference model for
network communication. The OSI model defines seven layers of network functions, from
the physical layer that deals with the transmission medium to the application layer that
interacts with the user. Each layer performs a specific task and communicates with the
adjacent layers through interfaces.

 Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the

application user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with
the user.
 Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote
host should be presented in the native format of host.
 Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For example,
once user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains this
session for a while and does not ask for authentication again in that time span.
 Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.
 Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely
addressing hosts in a network.
 Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and
onto the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.
 Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output,
pulse rate etc.
Advantages of the OSI Model
 It provides a common basis for developing and coordinating standards for
network communication.
 It allows interoperability between different systems and vendors by defining
common interfaces and protocols.
 It facilitates modular design and implementation by separating network functions
into independent layers.
 It enables troubleshooting and testing by isolating problems at specific layers.
Disadvantages of the OSI Model
 It is complex and abstract as it defines seven layers with many functions and
protocols.
 It is not fully compatible with some existing network technologies that do not
follow its structure or principles.
 It is not widely implemented as it is mainly used as a reference model rather than
an operational model.

The TCP/IP Model :

TCP/IP model stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol model. It was
designed in the 1970s and used for Internet. TCP/IP model defines four layers of network
functions. From network access layer that deals with physical medium to application
layer that interacts with users. Each layer performs specific task and communicates with
any other layer through sockets and ports.

The TCP/IP model has four layers:

  Network access: Transmits data over physical medium (cables, wireless).
 Internet: Routes data between networks using routers and switches.
 Transport: Delivers data between applications on different hosts.
 Application: Provides user interface and specific application services.
Advantages of the TCP/IP Model
 It is simple and has only 4 layers.
 It is compatible with most existing network technologies.
 It is most used and implemented. Also , used for the Internet.
 It has various routing protocols.
 It has client-server architecture so supports distributed computing.
Disadvantages of the TCP/IP model
 It is not much secure and can be attacked, e.g., SYN flooding, IP spoofing etc.
 It does not guarantee delivery of packets by the transport layer.
 It does not have a clear separation of functions between its layers.

The Hybrid Model :

The hybrid model combines OSI and TCP/IP with five layers:
 Physical: Sends raw bits over cables or wireless signals.
 Data link: Provides error-free data transfer between nodes.
 Network: Routes data across networks using routers and switches.
 Transport: Ensures end-to-end data delivery between applications on hosts.
 Application: Provides user interface and application services.
Advantages of Hybrid Model
 It balances between simplicity and complexity.
 It provides interoperability .
 It enables flexibility and adaptability.
Disadvantages Hybrid Model
  It may cause confusion and inconsistency by mixing different models with
different structures and principles.
 It may not support some advanced and specialized network functions that are not
defined by either model.
 It may not be fully compatible with some existing network technologies that do
not follow its structure or principles.
Hybrid models are useful. Because it combines the benefits of both models. It provides
framework for understanding and designing network systems. It has flexibility and
compatibility for different network protocols and technologies.

Differences: OSI, TCP/IP and Hybrid Models :

The following table highlights the different features of the three network models:

OSI Model TCP/IP Model Hybrid Model

It has 7 layers: Physical, Data It has 5 layers:

It has 4 layers: Application,
Link, Network, Transport, Application, Transport,
Transport, Internet and
Session, Presentation and Network, Data Link and
Network Access.
Application. Physical.

It is a practical model
It is a reference model that It is an implemented model
that combines the
describes the functions of that defines the protocols for
features of both
network communication. network communication.
models.

It supports both
It supports both connection-
It mainly supports connection- connection-oriented
oriented and connectionless
oriented services such as TCP. and connectionless
services.
services.

It follows a horizontal approach

It follows a vertical It follows both vertical
where each layer
approach where each layer and horizontal
communicates with its
communicates with its approaches depending
corresponding layer on another
adjacent layers. on the layer.
device.
 It is less reliable than the It is more reliable than the OSI It is as reliable as the
TCP/IP model. model. TCP/IP model.

Conclusion
Data communication is exchanging info between devices on a network. OSI and TCP/IP
models define data formatting, transmission, and receiving.
 OSI has seven layers: physical, data link, network, transport, session,
presentation, application.
 TCP/IP has layers: network access, internet, transport, application.
OSI provides standards but is complex. TCP/IP is simple and commonly used. Hybrid
model combines OSI and TCP/IP, offering a balance between simplicity and complexity. It
has five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application. Each model has
strengths and weaknesses. Choice depends on network requirements.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

Analog Transmission :
To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be converted into analog
signal.There can be two cases according to data formatting.
Bandpass:The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of interest. A bandpass is a
band of frequencies which can pass the filter.
Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies signals.
When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is called digital-to-analog
conversion. When low-pass analog signal is converted into bandpass analog signal, it is
called analog-to-analog conversion.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion :
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first
converted into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.
An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are three
kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:
Amplitude Shift Keying
In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data.

When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held; otherwise it is set to 0. Both
frequency and phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.
Frequency Shift Keying
In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.

This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1, is chosen
to represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to represent binary digit 0. Both
amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are kept intact.
Phase Shift Keying
In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to reflect the
binary data.

When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered. Amplitude
and frequency of the original carrier signal is kept intact.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once. This is done in two different
phases. The main stream of binary data is divided equally into two sub-streams. The
serial data is converted in to parallel in both sub-streams and then each stream is
converted to digital signal using NRZ technique. Later, both the digital signals are merged
together.

Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Analog signals are modified to represent analog data. This conversion is also known as
Analog Modulation. Analog modulation is required when bandpass is used. Analog to
analog conversion can be done in three ways:

Amplitude Modulation
In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the analog
data.

Amplitude modulation is implemented by means of a multiplier. The amplitude of

modulating signal (analog data) is multiplied by the amplitude of carrier frequency,
which then reflects analog data.
The frequency and phase of carrier signal remain unchanged.
Frequency Modulation
In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified to reflect
the change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog data).

The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not altered.
Phase Modulation
In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in order to reflect
the change in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.

Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase

modulation frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. Frequency of carrier is signal
is changed (made dense and sparse) to reflect voltage change in the amplitude of
modulating signal.

Digital Transmission
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use
the data, it must be in discrete digital form.Similar to data, signals can also be in analog
and digital form. To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital form.
Digital-to-Digital Conversion :
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in two
ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is necessary
whereas block coding is optional.
Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital
data is found in binary format.It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.
Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.There are three
types of line coding schemes available:

Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to
represent binary 1, high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is
transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is no rest
condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.

Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar
encodings is available in four types:
 Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage
represents 1 and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest
condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I
changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.
 Return to Zero (RZ)
Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the
next bit is started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized.
RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to
represent 0 and zero voltage for none. Signals change during bits not between bits.
 Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two
halves. It transits in the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is
encountered.
 Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at the middle of
the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.
Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage
represents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.

Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For example, in
even-parity, one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way
the original number of bits is increased. It is called Block Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is substituted
with n-bit block where n > m. Block coding involves three steps:
 Division,
 Substitution
 Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion :
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated is
analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog to digital
conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is
discrete. To convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form.
It involves three steps:
 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.
Sampling

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the
rate at which analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate
must be at least two times of the highest frequency of the signal.
Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows
the amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done between
the maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude value. Quantization is
approximation of the instantaneous analog value.
Encoding

In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Transmission Impairments :
Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the
transmitted signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be
transmitted as a digital signal.
In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets
different amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the
receiver side we get changes in bits (0's or 1's).
Causes
There are various causes of transmission impairments −
 Noise
 Distortion
 Attenuation
Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets
added to the transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified
and at the receiver side it is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises
are various kinds like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows −
 Dist
ortion
This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in which a
composite signal has various frequency components in it and each frequency
component has some time constraint which makes a complete signal.
But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens between the
frequencies components, then there may be the chance that the frequency component
will reach the receiver end with a different delay constraint from its original which leads
to the change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due to environmental
parameters or from the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.
Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows −
Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be
difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority
factor by environment as environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signal
strength decreases as it tries to overcome the resistance imposed.

The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels time.
Attenuation is diagrammatically represented as follows −