IMMUNITY

Introduction

• Immunity is the ability of the body to protect against all types of foreign bodies like bacteria,
virus, toxic substances etc. Which enter the body.
• As it protects us from disease it is also called disease resistance.
• Lack of immunity is known as susceptibility.
• Immunity is done by immune system which is a complex network of lymphoid organs such as
bone marrow, thymus, spleen etc.

Types of Immunity

Innate Immunity

- It is also called natural or native immunity, consist of mechanisms that exist before infection
and are capable of rapid responses to microbes.
- It is comprises four types of defence barriers.
1. Anatomical barriers
2. Phagocytic barriers
3. Blood proteins
4. Cytokines.

Types of innate immunity

It is of three types-

1. Species Immunity
2. Racial Immunity
3. Individual Immunity
• Species immunity is the total immunity shown by all members of a species against
pathogen; e.g. birds immune to tetanus.
• Racial immunity is that in which various races show marked difference in their
resistance to certain infectious disease.
• Individual immunity is very specific for each and every individual despite having
same racial background and opportunity for exposure.
Factors of Innate Immunity

1. Phagocytosis of bacteria by white blood cells and tissue macrophages.

2. Intact skin resists micro-organisms to enter the body.
3. Mucus in the gastro-intestinal tract and respiratory tract traps microbes and protects these
tracts.
4. Hydrochloric acid in stomach kills organisms swallowed along with food.
5. Salivary lysozymes kill microbes in oral cavity.
6. Lachrymal fluid protects eyes from organisms and dust particles.
7. Hairs in the nose filter dust and microbes, thus filtered air enters lungs.
8. Chemical compounds present in the blood such as (1) Lysozymes (2) Complement complex
and (3) Properdin attack organisms and destroy them. Lysozymes attack bacteria and
dissolute them.
9. Complement complex is a group of proteins in blood which destroy bacteria in various ways.
10. Natural killers (NK) lymphocyte recognize and destroy tumour cells and infected cells.
11. Interferons protect body from viral infections.
12. Kupffer cells participate in phagocytosis.
Acquired Immunity –

• Acquired or adaptive immunity is the immunity that is developed by the host in its body
after exposure to suitable antigen or after transfer of antibodies or lymphocyte from an
immune donor.

Types of Acquired Immunity

- Acquired Immunity is of two types- active and passive immunity.

Active immunity –

- It is induced by natural exposure to a pathogen or by vaccination.

- It can be categorized into two types
- Naturally acquired and Artificially acquired active immunity.

Passive immunity

- Passive immunity is achieve by transfer of immune products, such as antibody or sensitized

T-cells, from an immune individual to non immune one.
- It is of two types- Naturally acquired and Artificially acquired passive immunity

Mechanism of active immunity

• Body’s immune system provide protection by synthesizing antibodies or immunoglobulinsin

response to an antigen.
• Primary immune response takes place when the host is attacked by certain microbes for first
time. The antibodies start to generate after certain period as the binding of an antigen with
its particular antibody is very specific.
• Secondary immune response occurs when an individual is being attacked by the same
antigen subsequently. It is a rapid process.
• Acquired active immune response takes two distinct forms- humoral and cell mediated
response.

The cell‐mediated response

• Formation of activated T-lymphocyte against organisms is known as T-cell immunity or cell-

mediated immunity.
• T-type of lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes are the two types of lymphocytes. Both types of
lymphocytes originate in red bone marrow of the embryo.

Pre-processing of T-lymphocytes in Embryo

• T-lymphocytes are produced in the red bone marrow of embryo. Then these T-lymphocytes
migrate to thymus gland Now in thymus every T-lymphocyte is pre-processed against
specific antigens.
• One T-lymphocyte (Thymic lymphocyte) is processed for specific antigen and thus all T-
lymphocytes are processed against specific antigens.
• Now pre-processed T-lymphocytes spreads in lymphoid tissue. T-lymphocytes do not react
against body’s own tissue, so T-lymphocytes do not attack healthy body organs. Pre-
processing of thymic lymphocytes in thymus takes place shortly before baby’s birth and few
months after birth.
Clones of Lymphocytes

• Once pre-processed, T-lymphocytes are shifted to lymphoid tissue. Many clones of

lymphocytes are formed in lymphoid tissue.
• Lymphocytes in each clone are same and every lymphocytic clone gives response to single
type of antigen or other antigens which have same structure.

Surface Receptor Proteins (T-cell markers)

• Surface of T-lymphocyte has specific molecules called as surface receptor proteins or T-cell
markers which are specific for different antigen.
• T-cell markers are also called as CD (Cluster Designation) markers. 50 CD markers are
present on lymphocytes. CD markers are designated by numbers. E.g. CD4 marker is present
on helper T-cells, HIV virus binds to CD4 receptor and enter helper T-lymphocytes. Gradually
helper T-cells are destructed in HIV infection.

Classification of T-lymphocytes

1. Cytotoxic T-Cells: These cells attack directly to antigens and destroy them.
2. Helper T-Cells: These cells activate both T-cells and B-Cells. Helper T-Cells are destroyed in
HIV infection leading to suppression of immune system.
3. Suppressor T-Cells: These cells prevent cytotoxic T-cells from killing body tissues and
prevent body damage.

Pathway of T-cell Immunity

1. Antigen (Virus/Bacteria/Toxins) enter the body which leads to proliferation of T-cells clones.
2. Antigen attaches to glycoprotein called as MHC(Major Histocompatibility Complex). MHC
protein is also called as Human Leucocyte Antigen (HLAs).
3. Inactive T-cells now identify antigen - MHC 3 complex.
4. After recognizing an antigen, T-cells become active to destroy antigen.

Memory T-Cells

• When antigen activates clone of lymphocytes, many such new activated lymphocytes are
preserved in the lymphoid tissue.
• These preserved T-cells which are formed after activation, are called as memory T-cells.
• These memory cells spread through entire lymphoid tissue of the body.
• If such memory cells are again exposed to same antigen, then they can rapidly destroy
antigen and protect the body.
• Memory cells are formed during first exposure to antigen and they prevent delay in immune
response if same antigen enters the body again.
The humoral response (or antibody‐mediated response)

• It involves B cells that recognize antigens or pathogens that are circulating in the lymph or
blood (“humor” is a medieval term for body fluid).
• B-lymphocyte forms circulating antibodies (Globulins) in plasma. These antibodies attack
organisms and destroy them, this is also called as B-cell immunity.
Pre-processing of B-lymphocytes

• B-lymphocytes are derived from stem cells in bone marrow and transferred to liver for pre-
processing in mid foetal life. Pre-processed B-lymphocytes are then shifted to lymphoid
tissue and bone marrow.
• Clones of B-lymphocytes are formed in lymphoid tissue.
Formation of Antibodies

• When clones of B-lymphocytes are exposed to specific antigen, B-lymphocytes become

larger, and then they are called as Plasma cells.
• Plasma cells formed from B-lymphocytes produce antibodies. Antibodies are secreted in
lymph and then these antibodies enter blood.
Characteristic Features of Antibodies

• Antibodies formed by B-lymphocytes in response to antigen are called as immunoglobulins.

• IgM, IgG, IgA, IgD and IgE are five classes of antibodies. 75% of antibodies are IgG antibodies
(Ig Immunoglobulins). Excess IgE antibodies leads to allergic reactions.
Action of Antibodies

1. Antibodies directly attack the antigen or

2. Activate complement system.
Complement System and Antibodies

• Complement system consists of 20 proteins out of which, 11 are very important.

• Complement proteins are present in plasma. Antibodies activate complement proteins to
destroy antigen.
Passive Immunity

• In passive immunity antibodies or activated T-cells are injected in patient to attack antigen.

Immunization – Artificial Immunity

• Immunization is done to produce acquired immunity against particular disease. In passive

immunization either
1. Antibodies or activated T-cells are directly injected Or
2. Dead organisms carrying antigen are injected, eg typhoid, whooping cough and
diphtheria vaccines or
3. Attenuated organisms are injected, e.g.; Vaccines of poliomyelitis, yellow fever,
measles or small pox.
4. Immunization against toxins is also done eg Antitetanus vaccine.
• Transfer of antibodies from breast milk to baby is also an example of passive immunity.

Disorders of Immune Responses

• Allergic Reaction (Hypersensitivity): Person is hypersensitive to particular food, dust

particles or clothes. When person is sensitive (allergic) to such food or dust particles, they
produce allergen (antigen) in the body. Allergen binds with IgE antibody and allergic reaction
takes place in the bbody
• Basophils, mast cells, eosinophil participate in allergic reactions and histamine, protease,
eosinophil, chemotactic substance, heparin are released, which produces Urticaria.
• Heparin is responsible for urticaria, in which person gets redness, swelling and itching.
Asthma, Common cold, Anaphylaxis are examples Of allergic reactions.
• Auto-immune Diseases: Development of anti bodies against its own tissue leads to auto-
immune diseases. Rheumatoid arthritis, hyperthyroidism, glomerulo-nephritis, psoriasis,
systemic lupus erythematous are few examples of auto-immune diseases.
• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) : AIDS virus destruct CD4T helper cells which
results in lowered immune response.

Characteristic Features of Immunity

• Specificity: Formation of specific antibodies or activation of specific lymphocyte against

specific antigens.
• Memory: Memory T-cells and B-cells produced in the first attack of antigen remember
specific antigens, and in second attack of same antigen memory cells accelerate immune
response rapidly.
• Tolerance: Immune system attacks only foreign cells and ignores normal tissue. This is called
tolerance.