Mohammed Premier University

National School of Applied Sciences

Department of Civil Engineering
Al Hoceima
Flow course at free surface
Professor: M.A. Moussaoui
Field: Civil Engineering
Section: S3
Academic year: 2013--2014
Flow course under load
M.A. Moussaoui
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION - GENERALITIES
Flow course on free surface
2
M.A. Moussaoui
PLAN
I. Definitions and basic concepts
II. Magnitudes defining a channel
III. Transverse section of artificial channels
IV. Slopes of a channel
V.Speeds and flow
VI. Flow regime in channels
VII. Distribution of pressures in a section
Uniform flow
II. Varied Flow
Flow course at free surface
3
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
I - Definitions and basic concepts
1-a Channel:
Free surface flow mainly deals with the flow of water in
natural or artificial channels with free surface. These concepts are necessary for
the design, layout, and construction of hydraulic works such as
the dams, the weirs and the spillways.
In free surface flow, the pressure at the surface of the water is equal to
the atmospheric pressure. The flow at free surface is due to the slope of the channel and
no, like for pipes, in the difference of load between two sections.
Gravity becomes the driving force
The scope of application is wide:
watercourses: rivers, streams, etc.;
navigation canals, irrigation, etc.;
drainage systems: stormwater drainage networks;
– developments: water retention areas, electricity production plants,
ports, etc.
4
Flow Course on Free Surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
A characteristic of most of these flows: a height
of a small flow compared to the length of flow. We speak
wire flow.
What is a channel?
A channel is a transportation system in which water flows.
presenting a free surface in contact with the atmosphere.
Panama Canal
Suez Canal / Egypt
Flow course in free surface
5
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Amsterdam Canal / Netherlands
Canal / Venice
Corinth Canal / Greece
Course of the Flow at Free Surface
5
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
The channel is said to be open as its walls do not join above the
free surface of the liquid. Two types of uncovered channels can be distinguished. channels
artificial structures built at ground level or elevated natural water courses
Otherwise, the channel is said to be uncovered (or closed); this is the case for aqueducts,
des drains, des égouts, d’eaux usées ou pluviales, etc.
For covered channels to behave like open channels, it is
It is essential that air can circulate freely above the liquid.
The study of open surface flows is often more complex than that of
pressurized flow due to the presence of the free surface that can undergo
deformations while for the loaded flows the section of
The flow is limited by the rigid walls of the pipe.
The hydraulic study of a canal often presents itself to engineers in the form of
next:
For a longitudinal bottom slope, a certain flow rate must be evacuated.
The shape and dimensions of the channel are to be determined.
6
Flow course at free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Free-Surface flow
Pipe or pressurized flow
Course of free surface flow
7
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
In a closed conduit, it is possible to have both the flow at
free surface and circulation under pressure at different times.
It is also possible to have these flows at a given time.
in different sections of the duct. For example, the flow in a
Stormwater can flow as free surface flow at a certain moment.
Then, following significant inflows caused by a sudden storm,
The sewer can drain completely and pressurize it.
Similarly, the flow in a closed pipe can be free in a
part of the length and become complete the remaining length.
Combined free-surface and pressurized flow
8
Course of Free Surface Flow
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information
Natural channels are the watercourses that exist naturally on
(or under) ground, such as streams, torrents, rivers, and
estuaries.
The geometric and hydraulic properties of natural channels are
generally quite irregular. The application of hydraulic theory does not
only gives approximate results obtained from hypotheses that
are imposed.
Artificial channels are watercourses created by humans on (or
sub) earth such as: the uncovered canals built at ground level (canals
of navigation, of supply and evacuation, of irrigation and drainage) or
the covered channels in which the liquids do not fill the entire
section (hydraulic tunnels, aqueducts, drains, sewers).
The hydraulic properties of artificial channels are generally
fairly regular. The application of hydraulic theory often yields
realistic results.
9
Flow course at free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
estuary
torrents
aqueduct
Flow course on free surface
9
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Types of channels
A channel whose section does not vary and whose
longitudinal slope and roughness remain
constants, the water height can however
varies, is called a prismatic canal; otherwise, we
it is called a non-prismatic channel.
10
Flow course on free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Classification of flows
Based on various criteria, free surface flows
can be classified into different types:
Course of the Free Surface Flow
11
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Permanent and non-permanent flow:
We are talking about a permanent flow if the hydraulic depth and the
average and punctual flow velocities of the channel do not vary
in time. The flow is considered non-permanent if the depth
hydraulics varies over time.
Note that this classification is based on the temporal variation of the
speed v at a specified location. Thus, the local acceleration, ∂v /∂t, is
equal to zero in regular flows. In the two or three-dimensional flow, the
the variation over time of all the components of velocity is zero.
12
Course of free surface flow
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Uniform and non-uniform flow
The flow of a channel is uniform: cylindrical channel, having
some
constant characteristics of one section facing another. The direction,
the
transversal sections, the slope and the roughness of the bed are invariant.
if the hydraulic depth and the speed remain constant in the
various sections of the canal.
L'écoulement d'un canal est non-uniforme si l ’une des caractéristiques

previous ones vary. Any modification of one of the characteristics of a

uniform canal is called singularity and the round thus non-uniform.
Most artificial channels, whether covered or uncovered, are uniform at
less on the largest part of their journey; on the other hand, the courses
natural waters are generally non-uniform, but it happens that one
admits their uniformity on certain sections of their routes considered
sufficiently straight and regular.
13
Flow course at free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Laminar and turbulent flow
The flow is laminar if the liquid particles appear to move
in defined smooth paths the flow appears to be a movement
thin layers on top of each other.
In turbulent flow, liquid particles move in some
irregular journeys that are not fixed in relation to time or space.
The relative amplitude of viscous forces and inertia determines whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent: the flow is laminar if the
viscous forces dominate, and the flow is turbulent, if the forces
predominant inertia.
Transverse section and wet section
Transverse section: plane section perpendicular to the direction of
the flow. In a uniform channel, the direction of the flow is that
of the channel and the cross section becomes a straight section. In a
non-uniform canal the previous definition remains valid while the
the general direction of flow varies.
Section mouillée: partie de la section transversale occupée effectivement
by the liquid (limited by solid walls and the free surface).
14
Flow course in free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
II- Magnitudes defining a channel
Section defining a channel
In this chapter, we will define the geometric quantities.
most commonly used to characterize the flow.
Free surface flow course
16
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Depth h: (Water height or draft)
water height above the bottom, unless specified is referred to as depth
to its maximum depth h.
Wet surface A:
it is the area occupied by water and is bounded by the free surface and the
walls.
Wet perimeter P:
Length of the contact line between the wet surface and the walls of the
canal
Hydraulic rayon R:
Quotient of the wet surface by the
wet perimeter: R=S/P
Superficial width B (or in the mouth or
mirror)
width of the cross section at the level
of the free surface
Average depth:
hmS/B, quotient of the wet surface by
the surface width B. for a channel
rectangle section uniform on hmh
Course of free surface flow
17
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
section: homogeneous section in terms of average slope and cross-section
of flow;
type of watercourse: a distinction of watercourses based on the
I painted
°I < 3 % we are talking about river,
° 3< i < 6 %, we are talking about a torrential river,
° if > 6 %, we are talking about a torrent.
cut of a river
Flow course on free surface
18
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information
hydraulic jump: sudden change in water height (transition from one regime
torrential to a river regime;
torrent regime: supercritical regime (Fr > 1), high speed, low height;
fluvial regime: subcritical regime (Fr < 1), low speed, high height;
riverbed: bed usually occupied by a watercourse as opposed to
major lit which corresponds to the maximum historical footprint of a watercourse
or to the floodplain. There is also talk of the level of the highest waters.
(PHE) to designate the maximum level reached by the free surface of a
watercourse;
the right bank is the slope that separates the minor bed from the major bed. When
the bank is covered with vegetation, we speak of riparian forest;
The low water mark corresponds to the lowest water levels of a watercourse.
During the summer). The low water flow is therefore the minimal flow of a watercourse.
The bankfull discharge is the discharge reached
when the river leaves its minor bed. During a flood, we talk about flow
peak discharge to refer to the maximum flow
reached.
19
Free Surface Flow Course
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Course of free surface flow
20
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information
A river and its 2 banks
Artificial mountains
rypisylve
Eroded mountains
Course of Free Surface Flow
20
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information

III- Cross sections of artificial channels

Artificially discovered channels most often have a section
trapezoidal shaped transverse or rectangular (for large
sections), sometimes semi-circular (low flow) and very rarely triangular.
For the covered channels, the most common profiles are the profile
circular, the ovoid and its variants (lowered and raised) and the profile in
‘horse shoe’. Other profiles can be obtained by combination of
lines and simple curves.
IV- Slope of a channel
The longitudinal slopes of a channel are the slope of the bottom of the channel and
that of the free surface.
21
Free Surface Flow Course
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Free Surface Flow Course
20
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
positive slope
negative slope or counter slope
The slopes are defined by the sine of the angle that the element makes.
considéré (fond ou surface) avec l’horizontale. les pentes sont comptées
positively if the element lowers in the flow and negatively
otherwise.
In general, these slopes are very slight, and they can be expressed by the
tangent of the angle and even by the angle expressed in Radians.
22
Flow course at free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
a) profile in excavations
b) profile in filling
b) mixed profile
Free Surface Flow Course
23
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
V- Speed and flow
The flow in open channels is generally turbulent.
At a point in the fluid, the instantaneous speed V has a magnitude and a direction.
which vary over time but we can define an average speed
temporarily locally by:
t+T
1

V=Vdt
∫
t
T
These local average speeds are never uniformly distributed.
in the right section; the distribution mainly depends on
channel characteristics: geometry, roughness, curvature, etc. ... the speed
decreases rapidly as one approaches the walls. It is maximum near
from the free surface.
24
Course of Free Surface Flow
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
In one section, the place of points of equal speed is called isodrome.
or isotach. Roughness and the presence of bends also come into play
in the distribution of speeds.
These curves show the presence of a maximum in the section but it
it is not uncommon to encounter two or even several maxima for
complex profiles (especially for natural waterways).
Free Surface Flow Course
25
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information

VI- Flow regimes in channels

One can define flows according to the variability of characteristics.
hydraulics such as the water depth and speed in relation to time and
space.
1.1. Variability over time
The movement is constant (or stationary) if the speeds U and the
profondeur h restent invariables dans le temps en grandeur et en direction.
The movement is non-permanent in the opposite case.
Permanent flow
Non-permanent flow
27
Flow course on free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
In the strict sense, the flow in the channels is rarely permanent.
However, temporal variations are, in some cases,
slow enough for the flow to be considered as
a succession of permanent regime. One can then define the regime as follows
quasi-permanent.
1.2. Variability in space
Flow Course at Free Surface
28
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information
The movement is uniform if the parameters characterizing the flow
remain unchanged in the various sections of the channel. The line of the
The back slope is therefore parallel to the line of the free surface.
The motion is non-uniform or varied if the parameters characterizing
the flow changes from one section to another. The slope of the free surface
differs from that of the background.
Un écoulement non-uniforme peut être accéléré ou décéléré suivant que
the speed increases or decreases in the direction of motion.
When the motion is gradually varied, the depth as well as
the other parameters change slowly from one section to another.
When the movement changes rapidly, the parameters
characterizing the flow change abruptly, sometimes with some
discontinuities. This generally manifests in the vicinity of a
singularity, such as a threshold, a narrowing, a hydraulic jump or
a sudden fall.
29
Flow course on free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Speed limits
Minimum speed in a channel
To prevent the deposition of suspended materials in a channel, one
adopts an average speed higher than the minimum speed given by the
Kennedy formula
where is the draft and e, a coefficient dependent on the materials
transported.
Table 1-3 provides the values of e for different types of materials.
suspension
Flow Course at Free Surface
30
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information
We can avoid low speeds by adopting the shape of the channel for
low flows
Low flows are discharged by the
minor lit
Maximum speed in a channel (Stability against erosion)
For an uncoated channel, the average speed U must not exceed
a certain value otherwise there may be erosion of the canal.
This maximum speed depends on the nature of the terrain and
flow depth.
The following tables provide the values of the maximum speed for
different materials with a flow depth of 1 m and the
correction factors for different depths.
31
Flow course at free surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Flow course at free surface
32
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
1) Water depths Y = 1 m. Straight channels
a) Incoherent materials
Flow course at free surface
32
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information
2) Correction factor for water depths y≠1 m
The regime or behavior of the flow is a function of:
effects of viscosity (internal friction of the liquid)
effects of gravity compared to the effects of inertial forces.
Effects of viscosity: Reynolds number
If Re is very large, which is always the case in surface flow
free, the flow is turbulent. The Reynolds number does not come into play.
in this case.
If Re < 2000, the flow is laminar, which is rare in the case of
free surface flows.
33
Free surface flow course
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Effects of gravity: Froude number
The effect of gravity is represented by the Froude number F, defined by the
relation:
y = flow depth.
The Froude number gives the order of magnitude of the two ratios:
Inertia forces on gravitational forces
or average flow speed on the speed of small waves.
If F = 1, the flow is critical.
If F > 1, the flow is supercritical or torrential.
If F < 1, the flow is subcritical or riverine.
represents the speed of small gravity waves in shallow water.
These waves can result from a temporary change in depth.
of water (obstacle, disturbance, etc.). Small waves can rise the
water current if the flow is riverine and cannot if the flow
is torrential. A small disturbance in a flow can therefore be a
criteria for distinguishing a river flow from a torrential flow.
34
Free Surface Flow Course
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - General Information
CANAL COATING
Objectives of the coating
The lining of a canal can be designed for various reasons, including the
The main ones are as follows:
waterproofing (reduction of losses due to infiltration)
reduction due to the banks (minimize excavations)
- adoption de vitesse élevée (diminuer les risques d'érosion. Si l'eau ne
sand and gravel transport, the concept of maximum speed can be
forgotten in the design).
reduction of maintenance (grass does not grow on certain surfaces)
increased flow rate (by reducing roughness, etc.).
An economic study is often necessary to compare the cost of
coating based on the gain it produces.
35
Course of Free Surface Flow
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Stability of the coating
The stability of the coating should be studied based on the nature of the ground.
and of the type of coating.
It is necessary to study the stability of the foundations (especially for the materials
compressible or soluble and stability in the benefit (limit case with a
quick drain). Filters are planned if necessary and the seals must
to be watertight. Some drainage channels are equipped with
buttresses to dissipate the interstitial pressures that tend to
Lift the covering in case of drainage.
Type of movement and construction modality
On rencontre le béton (le plus utilisé) mais aussi la maçonnerie, des
bricks, asphalt, clay, plastic sheets, etc.
Many techniques are used for implementation.
For the concrete, we have thicknesses of about 10 to 20 cm. The installation
Concrete can be done without formwork if m > 3/2. Otherwise, formwork is required.
The bank lining may be different from that of the canal bottom.
36
Flow Course of Free Surface
M.A. Moussaoui
Introduction - Generalities
Rampart in Grenoble: two barbicans
are visible at the bottom of the wall on the left
Course of the Flow at Free Surface
36
M.A. Moussaoui
End

of the SESSION
Flow course under load
M.A. Moussaoui