Mathematics

Module
GRADE IX
 Let's Learn
INDICES AND
STANDARD FORM
GRADE 9
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to
state and apply the 5 laws of indicies
state and use the definitions of zero, negative and rational
indicies
use the standard form to represent very large or very small
numbers
What is an exponent?
The exponent of a number tells us how many times a
base number is multiplied by itself.

exponent

a²
This tells us that a is multiplied
by itself two times.

So, a² means a x a
base number
 INDICES(EXPONENT)

write 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 in index notation: ................

CLASS
DISCUSSION
 Investigation
Copy and complete the following:

In general, if a is a real number, and m and n are positive integers, then

Investigation
Copy and complete the following. Assume a 0

In general, if a is a real
number, and m and n are
positive integers such that
m > n, then
 Investigation
Copy and complete the following:

In general, if a is a real number and m and n are positive integers, then

 Investigation
Copy and complete the following:

In general, if a and b are real numbers, and n is a positive integer, then

 CLASS
DISCUSSION

Simplification using the laws of Indices

 Investigation
Copy and complete the following:

In general, if a and b are real numbers, and n is a positive integer, then

 INDEX NOTATION
Name: Class:

Learning goal: To practice writing indices using index notation and expanded
notation.
Fill in the blanks in the table below.

Index Notation Expanded Notation

8x8x8x8

6⁴
EXERCISE
3³

2x2x7x7x7

3² x 4⁵

(-5)³

6⁴ x 2³

8x6x6x8x8x8

(-2)⁵

-3 x -3 x -6 x -6 x -6
JOURNAL
WRITING
 Applying
Exponent Rules
n Exponent

Exponent of 0
a Base

An exponent refers to the number of

40 = 1 times a term is multiplied by itself.
A base with an
For e.g.
exponent of 0 is 3
always equal to 1. a×a×a=a

Exponent
Exponent of Products
of Quotients

6 44 × 42 = 4 6
4 1
= 4 =4 When multiplying exponential
45
terms with the same base, add
When dividing exponential the powers.
terms with the same base,
subtract the powers.

Exponent
of Powers
Negative Exponents
2 -3 -6
(2 ) = 2
1 1
2 -6 = =
26 64 When a power is raised
to another power,
When a number is raised to a multiply the exponents.
negative power, find its reciprocal.
 Scientific Notation Word Problems Solutions
6
Complete multiplication and division calculations 5 The diameter of the moon is approximately 3.5 × 10 m. The
with numbers expressed in scientific notation: Earth is approximately four times wider than the moon.
Calculate the approximate diameter of the Earth, giving your
Solutions answer in scientific notation.
1 The diameter of the sun is approximately 1 400 000 000 m.
6
Express this using scientific notation: (3.5 × 106 ) × 4 = 14 × 10
1.4 × 10 9 m
= 1.4 × 10 7
2 A typical bacteria cell has a diameter of 0.000002 m. 1.4 × 10 7 m
Express this using scientific notation:
2 × 10 -6 m 8
5 Jupiter has a diameter of approximately
6
1.4 × 10 m. Mars has
3 Complete the following multiplication calculations giving a diameter of approximately 7 × 10 m. Calculate how many
your answer in scientific notation: times wider Jupiter is compared to Mars. Give your answer
3
as a standard number.
5
a) (3 × 10 ) × (2 × 10 )
6 × 10 8 8 7
1.4 × 10 14 × 10 1
= = 2 × 10
b) (6 × 10 4 ) × (2 × 10 3 ) 6 6
1.2 × 10 8 7 × 10 7 × 10
20
-5
c) (2.5 × 10 ) × (5 × 10-2 )
1.25 × 10 -6
6 An asteroid travels at a speed of 25 000 m/s. Calculate the
distance it travels in 2 minutes. Give your answer in
4 Complete the following division calculations giving your scientific notation.
answer in scientific notation:
4
7 5
Distance = speed × time speed = 2.5 × 10 m/s
a) (8 × 10 ) ÷ (4 × 10 )
2 × 10 2
Distance = (2.5 × 10 4 ) × 120 time = 120 s
b) (3 × 10 5 ) ÷ (6 × 10 3 )
5 × 10 1 Distance = 300 × 104
c) (2 × 10-3 ) ÷ (8 × 10 -2 ) 6 3 × 10 6 m
2.5 × 10 -6 Distance = 3 × 10
EXERCISE
REFERENCES
Amazing Mathematics
New Syllabus. Mathematics 7th Edition
https://www.canva.com/design/DAFokPp3X8Q/ogonbYhPlu
sDYY6aBZFiFQ
 CHAPTER 2
QUADRATIC EQUATION AND FUNCTION
I. Quadratic Equation
1. Introduction
Before this chapter, you have known about linear equation and how to solve various
type of linear equations. That kind of equations usually arise when we solving problem in
mathematics. A linear equation involves the unknown quantity occuring to the first power,
such as,
3𝑥 + 7 = 28
2𝑦 = 𝑦 − 4
5(4𝑥 − 2) + 3(1 − 𝑥) = 12
Those are the example of linear equations. But how if the variable of the equation has a
power of 2? Thus, for the example,
2𝑥 2 = 32
𝑥2 − 1 = 0
6𝑥 2
− 4𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 1
5
The essential idea for solving a linear equation is to isolate the unknown/variable.
We keep rearranging the equation so that all the terms involving the unknown are on one
side of the equation and all the other terms to the other side. The rearrangements we used
for linear equations are helpful but they are not sufficient to solve a quadratic equation. In
this module we will develop a number of methods of dealing with these important types of
equations.
2. Definition
A quadratic equation with one variable is an equation in which there appears an
exponent of 2 on the variable (and sometimes an exponent of 1 as well). It cannot have
1
terms involving higher powers of 𝑥, like 𝑥 3 or 𝑥 4 , etc. It also cannot have terms like 𝑥
in

it.

A quadratic equation takes form:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ are the cooficient and 𝑎 ≠ 0.

 If 𝑏 ≠ 0 then the equation is called complete quadratic equation in 𝑥. If 𝑏 = 0 the it
is called a pure or incomplete quadratic equation in 𝑥. For example, 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 is a
complete quadratic equation in 𝑥 and 3𝑥 2 − 4 = 0 is a pure or incomplete quadratic
equation.
3. Solving Quadratic Equations
The value of the variable which satisfies the equation is called the root of the
equation. A quadratic equation has two roots and hence there will be two values of the
variable which satisfy the quadratic equation. For example, the roots of 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
are 𝑥1 = 1 and 𝑥2 = −1. It is because 𝑥1 = 1 and 𝑥2 = −1 are the value that will satisfy
that quadratic equation. But, how do we determine that values? There are some methods
to solve quadratic equation, which are by factorization, by completing the square, and by
using the quadratic formula.
3.1 Solving Quadratic Equations of the Form (𝒙 + 𝒂)𝟐 = 𝒄 and with No Term in 𝒙
When there is the quadratic equation of the form (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 = 𝑐, then we can take
the quare roots on both sides. Bu if the equation has no term in 𝑥, we just move the
constant to the other side and the take the square roots on both sides.

Remember! When we take the square roots on both sides, then it will produce
two results, which are positive result and negative result.

𝑎2 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±√𝑏

⇒ 𝑎1 = +√𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎2 = −√𝑏

Example 1: Solve the equation (4𝑥 + 7)2 = 3

where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ are the cooficient and 𝑎 ≠ 0.
Solution:
(4𝑥 + 7)2 = 16 take the square roots on both
sides
4𝑥 + 7 = ±√16

4𝑥 = ±√16 − 7

±√16 − 7
𝑥=
4
√16 − 7 3 −√16 − 7 11
𝑥1 = = − 𝑜𝑟 𝑥2 = =−
4 4 4 4
 Example 2: Solve 𝑥 2 − 25 = 0.
Solution:
𝑥 2 − 25 = 0

𝑥 2 = 25 take the square roots on both

sides
𝑥 = ±√25

𝑥1 = √25 = 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥2 = −√25 = −5

Practice
Solve each of the following equations.
a) (𝑥 − 5)2 = 11
b) 110 − 2𝑎2 = 12
3.2 Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring
The method of solving quadratic equations by factoring rests on the simple fact,
that if we obtain zero as the product of two numbers then at least one of the numbers
must be zero.

If two factors 𝑃 and 𝑄 are such that 𝑃 × 𝑄 = 0, the either 𝑃 = 0 or 𝑄 = 0 or

both 𝑃 and 𝑄 are equal to 0.
To factor 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we try to find two numbers whose sum is 𝑏 and
whose product is 𝑐. We now apply this idea to solving quadratic equations.
Example: Solve the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12 = 0
Solution:
We factor the left-hand side by finding two numbers whose product is 12 and whose
sum is 1. Clearly, 4, −3, are the desired numbers. We can then factor as:
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12 = 0

(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 Factorise by using the

multiplication frame. Since the
product of the two factors is
zero, one of the factors is zero.
Thus,
𝑥 + 4 = 0 or 𝑥 − 3 = 0
 𝑥1 = −4 or 𝑥2 = 3

The same method can also be applied to non-monic quadratic equations. A non-
monic quadratic equation is an equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 = 0, where and are
given numbers, and 𝑎 ≠ 1 or 0. This is the general case. Thus, 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 = 0 is
an example of non-monic quadratic equation.
Example: Solve the equation 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 = 0.
Solution:
Using the factoring method, we multiply 2 and 3 to give 6 and find two numbers that
multiply to give 6 and add to give 5. The desired numbers are 2 and 3. We use these
numbers to split the middle term and factor in pairs.
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 = 0

2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 3 = 0 Split the middle term

2𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 3(𝑥 + 1) = 0

(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 3) = 0 We can now equate each factor

to zero and obtain
𝑥 + 1 = 0 or 2𝑥 + 3 = 0

3
𝑥1 = −1or 𝑥2 = −
2

Practice
Determine the value of 𝑥 that satisfy these equations.
a) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
b) 3𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 4 = 0
3.3 Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square
The technique of completing the square is used not only for solving quadratic
equations, but also in further mathematics for such things as in analysis geometry,
calculus, etc. This is an important technique that will appear in other settings and so is
a basic skill that students who intend to proceed to senior mathematics need to master.
In the early stages, you will need to know when to apply which method. With
experience, you will use completing the square whenever you cannot see how to apply
the factor method shown above. The method of completing the square works in every
case, including the situation in which the factor method applies. Before we move any
further, you need to remember what a perfect square is.
 These are the two identities reffered as perfect squares.

𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2

𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)2

Thus, for example, 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = (𝑥 + 3)2 and 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 = (𝑥 − 2)2

Notice that in the quadratics above, the constant term in each case is the square
of half the coefficient of x. The method of completing the square simply involves
adding in a number make a given quadratic expression into a perfect square.
To express a quadratic equation of the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 in the form (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 =
𝑏, we first need to learn how to complete the square for a quadratic expression of the
form 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥.
Example: We begin by completing the square on the quadratic expression 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 −
6. But first we need to focus on 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 and ask: What number must be added to
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 to make the expression into a perfect square? The key step is to take half the
coefficient of and square it. The same rule applies when the coefficient of is 𝑥
negative. In this case, the answer is 1, since 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 + 1)2. This can be
seen diagrammatically, where a square is added to 'complete the square’.

We can then write:

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 6 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) − 1 − 6 Add and subtract 1
= ( 𝑥 + 1 )2 − 7
Hence, for a quadratic expression of the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥, we can express it as follows:

𝑝 𝑝 2
If 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 − 𝑏, then 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = ( 2) ,

𝑝 2 𝑝 2
i.e. 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 = (𝑥 + 2) − ( 2)
For a quadratic expression of the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞, we can express it as follows:

𝑝 2 𝑝 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = (𝑥 + ) − ( ) + 𝑞
2 2
In the case when the coefficient of 𝑥 is odd, we will need to use fractions. For
3 9
example, to complete the square on 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1, we note that half of −3 is − 2 and 4.

Hence, we have,
9 9 3 2 5
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + ) − + 1 = (𝑥 − ) −
4 4 2 4
We can now apply the method of completing the square to solve quadratic equations.
To complete the square for an equation, we will add in a factor on each side to
produce a square.
Example: Solve the equation 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 = 0.
Solution:
As 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 cannot be easily factorised, we need to transform the equation 𝑥 2 +
4𝑥 − 3 = 0 into the form (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 = 𝑏 as follows:
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3 = 0

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 3 Rewrite the equation such that

the constant term is on the
right-hand side of the equation.

2
4 2 4 2 4 2
Add (2) to both sides of the
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + ( ) = 3 + ( )
2 2
equation to complete the square
for the left-hand side.
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 22 = 3 + 22

(𝑥 + 2)2 = 7 Factorize the expression on the

left-hand side and simplify the
right-hand side
𝑥 + 2 = ±√7 Take the square roots on both
sides

𝑥 + 2 = √7 or 𝑥 + 2 = −√7
 𝑥1 = √7 − 2 or 𝑥2 = −√7 − 2

Practice:
Solve each of the following equations, leave your answer in the simplest form.
a) 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 4 = 0
b) 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 5 = 09
c) 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
3.4 Solving Quadratic Equations by Using Formula
The general form of a quadratic equation is 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ
and 𝑎 ≠ 0. Now, we shall use the method of completing the square to derive a formula
for the solution to all quadratic equations.

If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 ≠ 0, then,

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥1,2 =
2𝑎

The above formula for solving quadratic equations is usually used when the quadratic
expression cannot be factorized easily.
Example: Solve the equation 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 = 0.
Solution:
Comparing 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 = 0 with 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we have 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 4, and
𝑐 = −5. Then we substitute the value of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, into the quadratic formula.
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

−4 ± √42 − 4.3. −5
=
2.3

−4 ± √16 + 60
=
6

−4 ± √76
=
6

−4 + √76
⇒ 𝑥1 =
6

−4 − √76
⇒ 𝑥2 =
6
 Practice
Solve each of the following equations.
a) 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 7 = 0
b) (𝑥 − 1)2 = 4𝑥 − 5
c) 5𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 1 = 0
d) (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 8𝑥 − 7
4. Discriminant
There is an expression (𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐) in the quadratic formula, that expression is called the
discriminant which is represented by 𝐷. Thus, it can be written,
𝐷 = 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
Discriminant values have three possibilities, which are 𝐷 < 0, 𝐷 = 0, and 𝐷 > 0. It can
help us to know the existence of roots in a quadratic equation.

If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 ≠ 0, has the value of 𝐷 = 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐,

then

• If 𝐷 > 0, then the quadratic equation has 2 real solutions.

• If 𝐷 = 0, then the quadratic equation has 1 real solutions.
• If 𝐷 = 0, then the quadratic equation has no real solutions.

5. Applications of Quadratic Equations in Real-World Contexts.

In order for quadratic equations to be applied to solve problems, we may have to
formulate the quadratic equations first.
Example: On a map, a piece of land id in the shape of a right-angled triangle with sides of
length 𝑥 cm, (𝑥 + 6) 𝑐𝑚 and (2𝑥 + 5) 𝑐𝑚. The side of (2𝑥 + 5) 𝑐𝑚 is the hypotenuse.
a) From the information given, formulate an equation and show that it simplifies to
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 11 = 0.
b) Solve the equation 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 11 = 0, giving both answers correct to 3 desimal
places.
c) Hence, find the perimeter of the triangle.
Solution:
a) Using Pythagoras’ Theorem,
(2𝑥 + 5)2 = 𝑥 2 + (𝑥 + 6)2
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 36 = 4𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 25
2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11 = 0 … (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛)
 b) Comparing 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11 = 0 with 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, we have 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 8, and
𝑐 = −11.
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
−8 ± √82 − 4.2. −11
=
2.2
−8 ± √64 + 88
=
4
−8 ± √152
=
4
−8 + √152
⇒ 𝑥1 = ≈ 1.082
4
−8 − √152
⇒ 𝑥2 = ≈ −5.082
4
c) Perimeter of the triangle
𝑃 = 𝑥 + (𝑥 + 6) + (2𝑥 + 5)
= 4𝑥 + 11
Since the length of a triangle cannot be negative value, then we take 𝑥1 ≈ 1.082
𝑃 = 4𝑥 + 11 = 4(1.082) + 11 ≈ 15.3 𝑐𝑚
Practice
Mr. Lee drove form city P to city Q, which are 600 km apart. During his return journey,
his average speed increased by 7 km/h and the time taken was 15 minutes less.
a) If he drove at an average speed of 𝑥 km/h on his journey form city P to city Q,
formulate an equation in 𝑥 and show that it reduces to 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 16,800 = 0.
b) Solve the equation 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 16,800 = 0, giving both your answers correct to
decimal places.
c) Find the time taken for the return journey.
II. Quadratic Functions
1. Introduction
Previously we have known that the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 or 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 =
𝑐 is a straight line. That is why we called 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 as linear function. But how about
the graph of quadratic function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐? The graph of quadratic function 𝑦 =
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is called parabola. The parabola also appears in physics as the path
described by a ball thrown at an angle to the horizontal (ignoring air resistance). The
 vertex of the parabola gives information regarding maximum height and combined with
the symmetry of the curve also tells us how to find the horizontal range. Quadratic
functions frequently appears when solving a variety of problems. The theory of these
functions and their graphs enables us to solve simple maximization/minimization
problems without having to resort to calculus.
2. The Parabola 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐
You will be familiar from earlier years with the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 which
you can obtained by making up a table of values and plotting points. This graph is called a
parabola. The path of a ball tossed under gravity at an angle to horizontal (roughly) traces
out a parabola. For the sake of convenience we will refer to the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 as the
basic parabola.

The basic parabola has a number of important properties.

a) The graph is symmetrical about the 𝑦-axis. This means that the y-value at, say 𝑥 = 3,
is the same as the 𝑦-value at 𝑥 =– 3. The 𝑦-axis is called the axis of symmetry of the
parabola.
b) The minimum value of 𝑦 occurs at the origin. This point is called the vertex of the
parabola. It also represents the minimum value of the function, since the 𝑦-values to
the right and left of this point are greater than the 𝑦-value at the origin.
c) The arms of the parabola continue indefinitely, becoming steeper the higher they go.
This basic parabola can be reflected in vertical and horizontal lines and translated to
produce congruent parabolas. Since each point on the basic parabola satisfies the equation
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , we can express the coordinates o the general point by (𝑎, 𝑎2 ). Thus, the value of
𝑎 = 2, gives the point (2, 4).
2.1 Reflection in the 𝒙-axis
When the basic parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is reflected in the 𝑥-axis, the point (3, 9), for
example, is reflected to the point (3, 9). Indeed the general point (𝑎, 𝑎2 ) becomes
(𝑎, −𝑎2 ) and so the equation satisfied by these points is 𝑦 =– 𝑥 2 .

2.2 Translations of The Basic Parabola

a) Vertical Translation
When we translate the parabola vertically upwards or downwards, the 𝑦-
value of each point on the basic parabola is increased or decreased. Thus, for
example, translating the parabola upwards by 9 units, shifts the general point
(𝑎, 𝑎2 ) to (𝑎, 𝑎2 + 9). The equation of this new parabola is thus 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 9. The
vertex of this parabola is now (0, 9), but it has the same axis of symmetry.
Similarly, the basic parabola becomes 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 9 when we tarsnlated down 9
units, with vertex (0, 9).
b) Horizontal Translation
What happens when we translate the basic parabola to the left or to the right?
This is more tricky, We begin by considering the equation 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3)2. Since the
right-hand side is a square, the 𝑦-values are all non-negative and takes the value 0
when 𝑥 = 3. The value 𝑥 = 5, which is 2 units to the right of 3, produces the same
𝑦 value as does 𝑥 = 1, which is 2 units to the left of 3. Since the same thing will
happen as we move the same number of units to the right or left of 3, we see that
the graph of this function is symmetric about the line 𝑥 = 3. Thus, 𝑥 = 3 is the
equation of the axis symmetry for this graph, which has its vertex at (3, 0). If we
put 𝑥 = 0 we obtain 𝑦 = 9 and this called the 𝒚-intercept. The graph of 𝑦 =
(𝑥 − 3)2 is congruent to the basic parabola, but it is translated 3 units to the right.

Similarly, the graph of 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 5)2 is congruent to the basic parabola, but it is

translated 5 units to the left. Its vertex is the point (−5, 0) and the axis of symmetry
is 𝑥 = −5.
 Practice
1) Write down the equation of the parabola obtained when the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is
translated 3 units to the left. Sketch the parabola.
2) Describe the transformation required to move the parabola 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2 to
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 2)2. Sketch the parabola.
c) General Translations
We can combine the two transformations and shift parabolas up or down and
then left or right. Thus, for example, the graph of the parabola with equation 𝑦 =
(𝑥 – 3)2 + 5 is congruent to the basic parabola, with a shift to the right of 3 units
and a shift upwards of 5 units. The vertex is at (3, 5) and the axis of symmetry is
𝑥 = 3. We can find the 𝑦-intercept by putting 𝑥 = 0 to give 𝑦 = 14.

Finding the 𝑦-intercept is a useful thing to do and assists in drawing the diagram.
Practice
Consider the parabola with equation 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)2 − 4.
a) Describe how the graph of this parabola is obtained from the basic parabola.
b) State the vertex and the equation of the axis of symmetry of this parabola.
c) Sketch the parabola showing the 𝑦-intercept and the 𝑥-intercepts.
3. Sketching the Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄
We have seen that if a parabola is in the form 𝑦 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑑, then we can find
its vertex, its axis of symmetry, and produce a sketch with little effort. Quadratic functions
are, however, generally given in the expanded form 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐. The technique of
completing the square enables us the change the given equation to our desired form. To
complete the square, we add and subtract the square of half the coefficient of 𝑥.
3.1 𝒙-intercepts
We have seen in the examples so far that some parabolas cut the x-axis and some
do not. We can find the 𝑥-intercepts, if they exist, by setting 𝑦 = 0 in the equation of
the parabola. This will produce a quadratic equation. As discussed in the before,
Quadratic equations, this can be solved in three ways: by factoring, by completing the
square, and by using the quadratic formula. Completing the square, which is often
done to find the vertex and axis of symmetry anyway, is often the most efficient way
of laying bare all of the features of the parabola.
For example, to analyze the graph of the quadratic function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5, we
complete the square.
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)2 − 4 − 5
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)2 − 9
This tells us that the vertex is at (– 2, 9) and the equation of the axis of symmetry is
𝑥 = −2. To find the 𝑥-intercepts, we put 𝑦 = 0 to obtain
(𝑥 + 2)2 − 9 = 0
⇔ (𝑥 + 2)2 = 9
⇔ 𝑥 + 2 = ±√9
⇔ 𝑥1 + 2 = √9 or 𝑥2 + 2 = −√9
⇔ 𝑥1 + 2 = 3 or 𝑥2 + 2 = −3
⇔ 𝑥1 = 1 or 𝑥2 = −5
This method will, of course, work even if the 𝑥-intercepts are surds. Furthermore,
when we complete the square on a parabola such as 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6 we obtain 𝑦 =
(𝑥 − 2)2 + 2. Since the right-hand side is always at least 2, the 𝑦-values are never
zero. Thus, this parabola has no 𝑥-intercepts
Practice
Sketch each parabola showing the intercepts, axis of symmetry and vertex.
a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 7
b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 5
3.2 Upside-down Parabolas
We saw above that the parabola 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 is the reflection of the basic parabola in the
𝑥-axis. Similarly, a parabola such as 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 4)2 is a reflection of the parabola
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 4)2 in the 𝑥-axis

Once the basic parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is reflected to 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 , we can apply vertical and

horizontal translations as discussed above. Thus, for example, to graph the parabola
with equation 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 4)2 + 7, we take the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and:
Reflect in the 𝑥-axis 𝑦 = −𝑥 2
Translate 4 units to the right 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 4)2
Translate 7 units up 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 4)2 + 7

Practice
Sketch the graphs of the parabolas with equations:
a) 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 8
b) 𝑦 = −(𝑥 + 3)2 − 4
c) 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 2)2 + 6
 The problem of completing the square for equations of upside-down parabolas is
tricky. One approach is to take out a factor of −1. We can then treat the quadratic in
the brackets in the usual way.
Example: Complete the square and hence sketch the graph of the parabola with
equation 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 8.
Solution:
Factor out −1, and obtain
𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 8 ⇔ 𝑦 = −1(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8)
⇔ 𝑦 = −1((𝑥 + 3)2 − 9 + 8)
⇔ 𝑦 = −1((𝑥 + 3)2 − 1)
⇔ 𝑦 = −(𝑥 + 3)2 + 1)
Hence the vertex is at (–3, 1). To find the x-intercepts, we set and so
−(𝑥 + 3)2 + 1 = 0 ⇔ −(𝑥 + 3)2 = −1
⇔ (𝑥 + 3)2 = 1
⇔ 𝑥 + 3 = ±√1
⇔ 𝑥1 + 3 = 1 or 𝑥2 + 3 = −1
⇔ 𝑥1 = −2 or 𝑥2 = −4
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = −8.
The graph is drawn here.

Practice
Sketch the following parabolas. In each case complete the square and determine the 𝑥-
and 𝑦-intercepts, the axis of symmetry and the vertex of the parabola.
a) 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 13
b) 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5
c) 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 10𝑥
4. The Stretching Transformation
The transformations dealt with so far have produced parabolas that are congruent to
the basic parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . There is a further transformation that results in stretching the
arms of the parabola, producing a new parabola that is not congruent to the original one.
We begin by graphing the parabola 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 . Its axis of symmetry is 𝑥 = 0 and its
vertex is (0, 0). Since each point on the basic parabola has 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 coordinates (𝑎, 𝑎2 ),
each point on the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 has coordinates (𝑎, 3𝑎2 ). Thus, the parabola 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2
is obtained from the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 by stretching by a factor of 3 from the 𝑥-axis, that
is, the 𝑦-values are increased by factor of three.

Practice
Use transformations to give a quick sketch the following parabolas.
a) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 2
b) 𝑦 = 9(𝑥 − 1)2
c) 𝑦 = 3(𝑥 − 1)2
d) 𝑦 = −3𝑥 2 + 2
5. Graph Characteristics of Quadratic Function
Take a look at the quadratic function below.
We can that the graph of quadratic function has some characteristic, among them are
5.1. Intersection Points
a) The 𝒚-intercept
The 𝑦-intercept is the point on the 𝑦-axis through which the parabola passes.
Every parabola must have a point of intersection with the 𝑦-axis. The 𝑦-intercept
can be obtained by making the value of 𝑥 = 0 in the quadratic equation.

On parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 ≠ 0, the 𝑦-

intercept can be obtained when 𝑥 = 0, so that

𝑦 = 𝑎(0)2 + 𝑏(0) + 𝑐 = 𝑐

Hence, coordinate of the 𝑦-intercep is (0, 𝑐).

b) The Axis of Symmetry (𝒙𝒑 )

If you are notice, the graph of quadratic function or parabola always looks
symmetry. It means when we pulled out a straight line vertically through the
vertex, then we fold it against that line, so the left side will coincide with the
right side. Take a look at the image below.

In that graph, the axis of symmetry is the vertical line that pass through at the
point 𝑥 = 1.

On parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 ≠ 0, the axis of

symmetry is the vertical line that pass through at the point

−𝑏
𝑥𝑝 =
2𝑎
 c) The Vertex
The vertex or also called the turning point is the highest or lowest point of a
quadratic function. if the parabola opens upwards, the minimum of the function
will be obtained, and vice versa.

On parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 ≠ 0, there is the

vertex point (𝑥𝑝 ,𝑦𝑝 ). The 𝑦𝑝 coordinate can be obtained when you substitute
𝑥𝑝 into the quadratic function. Or, you can obtain 𝑦𝑝 from this formula

−𝐷 −𝑏2 + 4𝑎𝑐
𝑦𝑝 = =
4𝑎 4𝑎

6. Determining Quadratic Functions

It is a fundamental fact that two points uniquely determine a line. That is, given two
distinct points, there is one and only one line that passes through these points. How many
(distinct) non-collinear points in the plane are required to determine a parabola? The
answer is three. This idea may be expressed by the following theorem:

Theorem
If two quadratic functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 take
the same value for three different values of 𝑥, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for all values of 𝑥.

Example: Find the equation of the quadratic function whose graph passes through (−1,
2), (0, 3), and (1, 6).
Solution:
Suppose the equation is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐. Substituting the coordinates of the three
points, we have
2 =𝑎−𝑏+𝑐
3=𝑐
6 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
 Thus, 𝑐 = 3 and so 𝑎 − 𝑏 = −1 and 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 3. Therefore 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = 2. Hence the
function is 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3.
Practice
Determine the quadratic function from this graph.

References:
The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project. Quadratic Equations. (2011).
Quadratic Equations. (2009). https://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-quadeqns-
2009-1.pdf
New Syllabus Mathematics 7th Edition. (2015).
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 Chapter 3: Congruence and Similarity
3.1. Congruence
Two shapes are said to be congruent if they are the same shape and size;
that is, the corresponding sides of both shapes are the same length and
corresponding angles are the same.

The three triangles shown here are congruent. Thus, we write ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹 ≅
∆𝑃𝑄𝑅. This statement says that the two triangles are congruent and therefore
each corresponding part is congruent.
Congruent figures have corresponding parts (angles and sides) that are
also congruent. There are a few ways that we can prove figures to be congruent,
but for now we will focus on simply identifying them as being congruent. Also
identifying their corresponding (matching) parts.
Example:
1. Given: 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 ≅ 𝑅𝑆𝑇𝑈

The corresponding angles: The corresponding sides:

∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝑅 ̅̅̅̅ = 𝑅𝑆
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝑆 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 = ̅𝑆𝑇
̅̅̅
∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝑇 ̅̅̅̅ = 𝑇𝑈
𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅
∠𝐷 ≅ ∠𝑈 ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐴 = 𝑈𝑅
2. Given:

∆𝑋𝑌𝑍 = ∆𝑅𝑆𝑇
The corresponding angles: The corresponding sides:
∠𝑋 ≅ ∠𝑅 ̅̅̅̅ = 𝑅𝑆
𝑋𝑌 ̅̅̅̅
∠𝑌 ≅ ∠𝑆 ̅̅̅̅
𝑌𝑍 = ̅̅
𝑆𝑇̅̅
∠𝑍 ≅ ∠𝑇 ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝑍 = 𝑅𝑇
Let’s Practice
1. Given: 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸 ≅ 𝐽𝐾𝐿𝑀𝑁.
Determine the corresponding angles
and corresponding sides of those
polygons.

2. Given:
Determine the corresponding angles and
corresponding sides of those triangles.
3.1.1. Congruence Triangles.
Two triangles are congruent if they are identical in every respect except
for position.
The triangles alongside are
congruent. They have identical
side lengths and angles.

If we are given sufficient information about a triangle, there will be only

one way in which it can be drawn. Any two triangles which have this
information in common must be congruent.
• Test For Triangle
These are four tests for congruence which are outlined below.
a) Test 1 (Side, Side, Side)

If all three sides of one triangle are the same as the lengths of the
sides of the second triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
This test is referred to as SSS.
b) Test 2 (Side, Angle, Side)

If two sides of one triangle are the same length as two sides of the
other triangle and the angle between these two sides is the same
 in both triangles, then the triangles are congruent. This test is
referred to as SAS.
c) Test 3 (Angle, Angle, Side)

If two angles and the length of one corresponding side are the
same in both triangles, then they are congruent. This test is
referred to as AAS.
d) Test 4 (Right angle, Hypotenuse, Side)

If both triangles contain a right angle, have hypotenuses of the

same length and one other side of the same length, then they are
congruent. This test is referred to as RHS.
Example 1:
Which of the triangles below are congruent to the triangle ABC, and why?
Solution:
Consider first the ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹:
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐹
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐸𝐹
𝐴𝐶 = 𝐷𝐸
As the sides lengths are the same in both triangles the triangles are
congruent. (SSS)
Consider the ∆𝐺𝐻𝐼:
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐻𝐼
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝐺𝐻𝐼
∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = ∠𝐺𝐼𝐻
As the triangles have one side and two angles the same, they are
congruent. (AAS)
Consider the ∆𝐽𝐾𝐿: Two sides are known but the angle between them is
unknown, so there is insufficient information to show that the triangles
are congruent.
Example 2:
ABCD is a square and 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐸𝐹.
Find the pairs of congruent triangles in the
diagram.

Solution:
Consider the ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝐴𝐹𝐸:
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐹 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐹 is a square
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐹𝐸 This is given in the question
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐹𝐸 = 90° They are corners of a square
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝐴𝐹𝐸 have two sides of the same length hypotenuse and one
other side of the same length. So ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐴𝐹𝐸. (based on RHS)
Let’s Practice
1. Identify the triangles below which are congruent and give the reasons
why.

2. If O is the centre of both circles, prove

that the ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵 and ∆𝑂𝐶𝐷 are
congruent.
 3. When 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐸𝐹, this rhombus contains
two congruent triangles. Identify the
triangles and prove that they are
congruent.

3.2. Similarity
Two figures are similar if one is an enlargement of the other, regardless of
orientation. If two figures are similar then their corresponding sides are in
proportion. The lengths of their sides will be increased (or decreased) by the
same ratio from one figure to the next. This ratio is called the enlargement factor.
Consider the enlargement below for which the enlargement factor 𝑘 is 1.5.

𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐵′𝐶 ′ 𝐶 ′ 𝐷′ 𝐷′ 𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐷′
Since 𝑘 = 1.5, then = = = = = ⋯ = 1.5
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝐷𝐴 𝐵𝐷

When a figure is enlarged or reduced, the size of its angles does not change. The
figures are therefore equiangular. Hence, we can conclude that Two figures are
similar if the figures are equiangular and the corresponding sides are in the same
ratio.
Example:
1. Take a look at the following picture.

Are those two rectangular similar? Explain your answer.

Solution:
They are similar because they are both rectangles and the sides of the larger
rectangle are three times longer than the sides of the smaller rectangle. As we
can see from the proportion of the corresponding sides.
9 𝑐𝑚 6 𝑐𝑚
= =3
3 𝑐𝑚 2 𝑐𝑚
2. Given that 𝐷𝑂𝑁𝑇 ∼ 𝑊𝐴𝐿𝐾.

Evaluate the length of 𝑂𝑁.

Solution:
Because 𝐷𝑂𝑁𝑇 ∼ 𝑊𝐴𝐿𝐾, then we can write:
𝐾𝐿 𝐴𝐿 5 13
= ⇔ =
𝑁𝑇 𝑂𝑁 3 𝑂𝑁
3
⇔ 𝑂𝑁 = 13 × = 7.8 𝑓𝑡
5
Let’s Practice.
1. Prove that the following rectangles are similar.

2. Given polygon 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 ∼ 𝑇𝑈𝑉𝑊, write a proportion to find the value of 𝑥.

3.2.1. Similar Triangles
Two triangles are similar if either they are equiangular or their side lengths
are in the same ratio. When we are dealing with triangles, if either of the
above conditions is true, then the other condition must also be true.
Therefore, when testing for similar triangles, we only need to check that one
of the conditions is true.
If we can show that two of the angles in one triangle are equal in size to two
of the angles in another triangle, then the remaining angles must also be
equal, since the angles in each triangle sum to 180°. Once we have
established that two triangles are similar, we can use the fact that
corresponding sides are in the same ratio to find unknown lengths.
Example:
1. Show that the following figures possess similar triangles.

Solution:
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝐴𝐷𝐸 are equiangular as:
𝛼1 = 𝛼2 {equal corresponding
angles}
∠𝐷𝐴𝐸 is common to both triangles
Hence, the triangles are similar.
2. Show that the following figures possess similar triangles.

Solution:
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝐸𝐷𝐶 are equiangular as:
𝛼1 = 𝑎2 {equal alternate angles}
𝛽1 = 𝛽2 {vertically opposite angles}
Hence, the triangles are similar.

3. Establish that a pair of triangles is similar, and hence find 𝑥:

Solution:

∆𝐴𝐵𝐸 and ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 equiangular since 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 and 𝛽1 = 𝛽2 {corresponding

angles}. ∆𝐴𝐵𝐸 and ∆𝐴𝐶𝐷 are similar. Corresponding sides must be in the
same ratio.
 𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝐷
=
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐸
𝑥 + 12 24
⇔ =
𝑥 15
12 8
⇔1+ =
𝑥 5
12 3
⇔ =
𝑥 5
⇔ 𝑥 = 20
Let’s Practice
1. Show that the following figures possess similar triangles:

2. For the following figures, establish that a pair of triangles is similar, and
hence find 𝑥:
3.2.2. The Application of Similarity.
Example:
An electric light post E is directly opposite a
mail box M on the other side of a straight
road. Taj walks 30 metres along the road
away from E to point T. Kanvar is 4 metres
away from M at point S, so that E, M, and S
are in a straight line. Kanvar walks 6 metres
parallel to the road in the opposite
direction to Taj, to K. Now T, M, and K are in
a straight line. Find the width of the road.
Solution:
Here is the sketch of the problem geometrically:

Let the width of the road be 𝑥 m.

∆𝑇𝐸𝑀 and ∆𝐾𝑆𝑀 are equiangular as:
• ∠𝑇𝐸𝑀 = ∠𝐾𝑆𝑀 = 90°
• ∠𝐸𝑀𝑇 = ∠𝑆𝑀𝐾 {vertically opposite angles}
∆𝑇𝐸𝑀 and ∆𝐾𝑆𝑀 are similar.
𝐸𝑀 𝑇𝐸
=
𝑆𝑀 𝐾𝑆
𝑥 30
⇔ =
4 6
⇔ 𝑥 = 5 × 4 = 20 𝑚
So, the road is 20 metres wide.
 Let’s Practice
1. A boy who is 1.6 m tall stands 8.1 m from the base of an electric light pole.
He casts a shadow 2.4 m long. How high above the ground is the light
globe?

2. Two surveyors estimate the height of a nearby hill. One stands 5 m away
from the other on horizontal ground holding a measuring stick vertically.
The other surveyor finds a "line of sight" to the top of the hill, and
observes that this line passes the vertical stick at a height of 2.4 m. They
measure the distance from the stick to the top of the hill to be 1500 m
using laser equipment. Find, correct to the nearest metre, their estimate
for the height of the hill.

3.2.3. Areas and Volumes

• Areas
Triangle 𝐴 has base 𝑏 cm and height ℎ cm.

Suppose it is enlarged with scale factor 𝑘 to produce a similar triangle B.

Area of triangle B
1
= (𝑘𝑏)(𝑘ℎ)
2
1
= 𝑘 2 ( 𝑏ℎ)
2
= 𝑘 2 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐴
This suggests that if a figure is enlarged with scale factor k to produce a
similar figure, then the new area = 𝒌𝟐  the old area.
Example:
1. For the following similar figures, find 𝑥:

Solution:
A is enlarged with scale factor 𝑘 to give 𝐵.
10 5
𝑘= =
6 3
Area of 𝐵 = 𝑘 2 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
5 2
𝑥 = ( ) × 18
3
𝑥 = 50
2. For the following similar figures, find 𝑥:

Solution:
C is enlarged with scale factor 𝑘 to give D.
Area of 𝐷 = 𝑘 2 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶
27 = 𝑘 2 × 12
 9
⇔= 𝑘2
4
3
⇔ 𝑘 = {𝑎𝑠 𝑘 > 0}
2
Since the sides are in the same ratio,
3
𝑥= × 4 = 6 𝑐𝑚
2
• Volume
The cylinder A has radius 𝑟 cm and height ℎ cm. Suppose it is enlarged
with scale factor 𝑘 to produce a similar cylinder B. The radius of cylinder
B will be 𝑘𝑟, and its height will be 𝑘ℎ.

Volume of cylinder B
= 𝜋(𝑘𝑟)2 (𝑘ℎ)
= 𝜋(𝑘 2 𝑟 2 )(𝑘ℎ)
= 𝑘 3 (𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ)
= 𝑘 3 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐴
This suggests that if a 3-dimensional figure is enlarged with scale factor
𝑘 to produce a similar figure, then the new volume = 𝑘 3 × the old
volume.
Example:
1. For the following similar figures, find 𝑥:
 Solution:
2
A is reduced with scale factor 𝑘 to give B, hence 𝑘 = 5.

Volume of 𝐵 = 𝑘 3 × volume of A
2 3
⇔ 𝑥 = ( ) × 100
5
⇔ 𝑥 = 6.4 𝑐𝑚
2. For the following similar figures, find 𝑥:

Solution:
C is enlarged with scale factor 𝑘 to give D.
Volume of 𝐷 = 𝑘 3 × volume of C
⇔ 80 = 𝑘 3 × 10
⇔ 8 = 𝑘3
⇔𝑘=2
So, 𝑥 = 2 × 3.5 = 7 𝑐𝑚
Let’s Practice
1. For each pair of similar figures, find 𝑥:
2. For each pair of similar figures, find 𝑥:
 Flat-Sided and Curved-Sided Solids

Flat-Sided Solids

Flat-sided solids are solids whose sides are flat (not curved). Try observing the surface of a
box and compare it with the surface of a ball. The surface of a box is an example of a flat
side, and the surface of a ball is an example of a curved side. If a solid has even one curved
side, then it cannot be classified as a flat-sided solid. No matter how many sides a solid has,
if all of them are flat, then it is a flat-sided solid.

A. Cube

Properties of a Cube:

1. Has 8 vertices (Vertices A, B, C, ..., G, H)

2. Has 6 faces (in the shape of squares with the same area)
3. Has 12 equal edges (Edges AB, BC, CD, AD, BF, ...)
4. Has 12 face diagonals (Diagonals AF, BE, BG, FC, ...)
5. Has 4 space diagonals (Diagonals EC, FD, GA, HB)
6. Has 6 diagonal planes (Planes ABGH, BCHE, CDEF, ADGF, AEGC, BFHD)

Cube Formulas

• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑟 × 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 𝑠 3
• 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 6 × 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 6𝑟 2
• 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑟√2
• 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑟√3
• 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 𝑟 2 √2

Example

1. Look at the picture bellow!

The number of space diagonal is …

2. The length of an edge of a cube is 15 cm, then the volume of the solid is...
Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑠 3
= 15 × 15 × 15
= 3375 𝑐𝑚 3
3. Given that the edge length of a large cube is 16 cm. If this cube is cut into smaller
cubes, each with a length of 4 cm, how many small cubes are produced?
Solution:
Volume of large cube = 16 × 16 × 16 = 4096 𝑐𝑚 3
Volume of small cube =4 × 4 × 4 = 64 𝑐𝑚 3

Number of small cubes =4096 ÷ 64 = 64

B. Cuboid

Properties:
1. Has 3 (three) pairs of opposite sides (ABCD and EFGH; ABFE and DCGH; ADHE and
BCGF)
2. Has 3 (three0 pairs whose respective dimentions are equal (ABCD and EFGH; ABFE
and DCGH; ADHE and BCGF)
3. Has at least 2 (two) pairs of sides that are rectangular (ABCD and EFGH; ABFE and
DCGH)
4. Has 12 face diagonals (Diagonals AF, BE, BG, FC, ...)
5. Has 4 space diagonals (Diagonals EC, FD, GA, HB)
6. Has 6 diagonal planes (Planes ABGH, BCHE, CDEF, ADGF, AEGC, BFHD)

Cuboid formulas:

• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑝 × 𝑙 × 𝑡
• 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 × ((𝑝 × 𝑙) + (𝑙 × 𝑡) + ((𝑝 × 𝑡))

Example:

1. Look at the picture bellow!

Determine:
a. Surface area of the cuboid
b. Volume
Solution:
Known 𝑝 = 5 𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑙 = 3 𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑡 = 4 𝑐𝑚
a. 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 × ((𝑝 × 𝑙) + (𝑙 × 𝑡) + ((𝑝 × 𝑡))
= 2 × ((5 × 3) + (3 × 4) + (5 × 4))
= 2 × (15 + 12 + 20)
= 2 × 47 = 94 𝑐𝑚 2
b. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑝 × 𝑙 × 𝑡
= 5×3×4
= 60 𝑐𝑚 3
 2. The image below is a rectangular prism formed by small cubes. If all outer sides of the
rectangular prism are painted, the number of small cubes that are painted on only one
of their sides is…

Solution:
A small cube that is painted on only one of its sides is a cube that is not located on the
edge of each of its sides.

On the front-back side, there are 2 x 10 = 20

small cubes On the left-right side, there are 2 x 2 = 4
small cubes On the top-bottom side, there are 2 x 5 = 10
small cubes So, overall there are 20 + 4 + 10 = 34 small cubes that are painted on
only one side.

Cube and Rectangular Prism Practice Problems

1. The number of diagonal planes of a cube is ...

2. A cube with a side length of 4 cm has a diagonal plane area of ...
3. The surface area of a cube is 3,750 𝑐𝑚². The volume of the cube is ...
4. Given a cube has a volume of 1000 𝑐𝑚³. What is the surface area of the cube?
5. Two cubes are known. The volume of cube 1 is 8 times the volume of cube 2. If the
side length of cube 1 is y times the side length of cube 2, then the value of y is ...
6. A rectangular box is known for a toothbrush holder, with dimensions 𝑜𝑓 6 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 2
cm. The maximum length of a toothpick that can fit in the box is ...
7. Totok will make a rectangular bathtub with a capacity of 288 liters. If the ratio 𝑝 ∶ 𝑙 ∶
𝑡 = 6 ∶ 3 ∶ 2, then the size of the bathtub is ...
8. Given a rectangular prism ABCD.EFGH with p = 12 cm, l = 9 cm, t = 20 cm. What is
the volume of the rectangular prism?
9. Given a rectangular prism has a length of 10 cm, a width of 15 cm, and a height of 20
cm. The surface area of the rectangular prism is ...
10. Ali has a wire with a length of 2.5 m. From that wire, a rectangular prism frame will
be made with a length of 28 cm, a width of 12 cm. If the remaining wire is 10 cm,
what is the height of the rectangular prism that Ali wants to make?
C. Prism

Triangular Quadrilateral Pentagonal Hexagonal Prism

Prism Prism Prism

Prism Formulas:
• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 × 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

D. Pyramid

Triangular Quadrilateral Pentagonal Hexagonal

Pyramid Pyramid Pyramid Pyramid

Pyramid Formulas:
• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Example:

Look at the picture bellow!

 A pyramid with a square base has a base perimeter of 72 cm. If the length of TP = 15
cm, the volume of the pyramid is...

Solution:

72
The perimeter of the square base is 72 cm, so its side length is = 18 𝑐𝑚.
4

1 18
Length of 𝑂𝑃 = 2 𝐴𝐵 = =9
2
𝑇𝑂 = √𝑇𝑃 2 − 𝑂𝑃 2

= √152 − 92
= √225 − 81
= √144 = 12 𝑐𝑚

Therefore, the volume of the pyramid is

1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 3 × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑡
1
= 3 × (18 × 18) × 12
= 324 × 4
= 1296 𝑐𝑚 3

Prism and Pyramid Practice Problems

1. If the base area of a right prism is 𝑎 cm and its height is 2𝑏 cm, then the volume of
the prism is ...
2. The height of a right triangular prism is 8cm. If the sides of the right triangle are 4 cm
and 5 cm, then the volume of the prism is ...
3. The base of a prism is a rhombus with diagonal lengths of 1cm and 24cm. If the height
of the prism is 10 cm, then the area of the lateral faces of the prism is ...
4. A right prism with a regular hexagonal base has a base side length of 10cm and a
height of 20cm. The volume of the prism is ...
5. A pyramid TABCD has a base area of 21 𝑐𝑚². If the volume of the pyramid is 84𝑐𝑚³,
then its height is ...
6. The height of a pyramid is 1.2 𝑑𝑚 and its base is a rectangle with dimensions
3 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 12 𝑐𝑚. What is the volume of the pyramid?
7. The base of a pyramid is a parallelogram with a base of 15𝑐𝑚 and a height of 8𝑐m. If
the volume of the pyramid is 600 𝑐𝑚³, then the height of the pyramid is ...
8. The base of a pyramid is an isosceles triangle with side lengths of 5𝑐𝑚, 5𝑐𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6𝑐𝑚. If
the height of the pyramid is 10 𝑐𝑚, then its volume is ...
9. The base of a pyramid is a square with an area of 100𝑐𝑚². If the volume of the pyramid
is 400𝑐𝑚³, then the area of all its lateral faces is ... 𝑐𝑚²
10. A pyramid TABCD has a base side length of 14 cm and a height of 24 cm. Calculate:
a. Volume of the pyramid
b. Lateral surface area of the pyramid

Curved Surface Area Solid Shapes

A curved surface area solid shape is a shape whose sides are curved or rounded. Examples
of curved surface area solid shapes include cylinders, cones, and spheres.
A. Cylinder
A cylinder has two flat sides (base and top) in the shape of a circle and one curved side
(lateral surface) that connects the two flat sides.

Cylinder Formulas:

𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑡
𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟2 + 𝜋𝑟2 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑡
𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑡)
𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑡
𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑡

Example Problem:

1. A cylinder has a height of 20 cm and a base diameter of 14 cm. Determine the

surface area of the cylinder with and without its top!

Solution:

Known:
Height = 20 cm
Diameter = 14 cm
Radius = 7 cm

Surface area of cylinder with lid

Surface area = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑡)

22
= 2 × 7 × 7(7 + 20)
= 44 × 27
= 1188
So, the surface area of the cylinder with a lid is 1188 𝑐𝑚 2
Surface area of cylinder without lid
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟𝑡
= 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 2𝑡)
22
= 7 × 7(7 + 2 × 20)
= 22 × 47
= 1034
So, the surface area of the cylinder without a lid is 1034 𝑐𝑚 2
 2. A cylinder has a radius of 5 cm and a height of 10 cm (𝜋 = 3,14). Determine the
surface area of the cylinder!

Known:

𝜋 = 3,14; 𝑟 = 5 𝑐𝑚; 𝑡 = 10 𝑐𝑚

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑡

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 × 3,14 × 5 × 10
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 314 𝑐𝑚 2
B. Cone
A cone is a three-dimensional shape whose base is circular and is bounded by generator
lines that surround it, forming an apex.

Cone Formulas:
• 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2
• 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟𝑡
• 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟𝑠
• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑡

Example:

1. Given the radius of the base of a cone is 7 cm. If the height of the cone is 6cm, what
is the volume of the cone?
Solution:
1
𝑉 = 3 × 𝜋 × 𝑟2 × 𝑡
1 22
𝑉= × × 72 × 6
3 7
𝑉 = 22 × 7 × 2
𝑉 = 308 𝑐𝑚 3
So, the volume of of the cone is 308 𝑐𝑚 3.
2. A cone has a volume of 616 cm3. If the radius of the base of the cone is 7cm, what
is the height of the cone?
Solution:
1
𝑉 = × 𝜋 × 𝑟2 × 𝑡
3
(3×𝑉)
𝑡=
𝜋×𝑟 2
3×616
𝑡= 22
×72
7
 1848
𝑡= 154
𝑡 = 12 cm

C. Sphere/Ball
A sphere is a three-dimensional shape bounded by the locus of points equidistant from a
certain point.

Sphere formulas:
4
• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 3 × 𝜋 × 𝑟 3
• 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Example:

There is a solid object in the shape of a quarter sphere with a diameter of 20 𝑐𝑚. The
volume of the object is ... 𝑐𝑚 3 (𝜋 = 3.14)

Solution:
1
𝑉= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
4

1 4
𝑉 = 4 (3 𝜋𝑟 3 )

1
𝑉 = 3 × 3,14 × 103

𝑉 = 1046,66 𝑐𝑚 3

Practice Problems: Cylinder, Cone, and Sphere

1. Determine the volume of a cylinder with a base radius of 7𝑐𝑚 and a height of
10 𝑐𝑚!
2. A cylinder has a diameter of 14 𝑐𝑚. If the lateral surface area of the cylinder is
440 𝑐𝑚 2, calculate the volume of gas in the cylinder!
3. Look at the picture bellow!
 A trash can is shaped like a cylinder with a hemispherical lid as shown in the
picture. The total surface area of the trash can is ...
4. The volume of a cylinder is 2512 𝑐𝑚 3. If the height is 200𝑐𝑚, then the radius of
the cylinder is ...
5. The volume of a cylinder is 1570 𝑐𝑚 3. If the height is 200𝑐𝑚, then the radius of
the cylinder is ...
6. Given the radius of a cone is 6cm and its height is 8𝑐𝑚. The lateral surface area
of the cone is ...
7. If the lateral surface area of a cone is 1914 𝑐𝑚 2 with a base radius of 21 𝑐𝑚, then
the length of the slant height of the cone is ...
8. A cone has a volume of 1232 𝑐𝑚 3. If the height of the cone is 24 𝑐𝑚, what is the
surface area of the cone?
9. Look at the picture bellow!

The image above shows a birthday hat with an upper circular radius of 7𝑐𝑚 and
a lower circular radius of 14 𝑐𝑚. Determine the lateral surface area of the red
birthday hat!
10.Tobi will make a cone-shaped rice cone (nasi tumpeng) whose surface (lateral
surface) will be fully covered with food decorations. If the diameter of the rice
cone is 28 𝑐𝑚 and the height is 48 𝑐𝑚, and 𝜋 = 722, the area of the rice cone to
be decorated with food is ...
11.A sphere has a radius of 21 𝑐𝑚, then the volume of the sphere is ... 𝑐𝑚 3 (𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝜋 =
3.14)
12.The factory is estimated to produce about 10,000 balls with a diameter of 20 𝑐𝑚.
So the total area of plastic material needed is ... 𝑚 2
13.A shape is a hemisphere with a radius of 60 cm. So its volume is ... 𝑐𝑚 3
14.Given the volume of a sphere is 125.5 𝑐𝑚 3, then the radius of the sphere is ...
15.The surface area of a hemisphere is 1356.48 𝑐𝑚 2. The length of the radius of the
sphere is ...
16.Look at the picture bellow!

A lantern is a composite shape of a cone and a hemisphere. The length of the

22
lantern is 15.5 𝑐𝑚 and the diameter of the shape above is 7𝑐𝑚. If 𝜋 = 7 , then
the surface area of the lantern is ...
17.Look at the picture bellow!

The trash can is shaped like a cylinder with a hemispherical lid, as shown in the
picture. The total surface area of the trash can is…