Test Construction

-​ the systematic process of developing an instrument that measures

psychological traits, abilities, or states (e.g., intelligence, anxiety, resilience,
personality).

Importance of Test Construction in Psychology and Education:

1. Accurate Measurement of Human Behavior

●​ In psychology, test construction ensures that abstract concepts (like

intelligence, resilience, anxiety, or motivation) can be measured in a scientific
and reliable way.
●​ Without carefully constructed tests, results may be misleading or invalid.

2. Reliability and Validity

●​ A well-constructed test provides reliable (consistent) and valid (accurate)

results.
●​ This is important for both diagnosis in psychology (e.g., mental health
assessments) and evaluation in education (e.g., measuring learning outcomes).

3. Fairness and Objectivity

●​ Proper test construction eliminates bias and ensures that results are fair to all
test takers, regardless of background.
●​ In education, this prevents unfair advantages; in psychology, it avoids
misdiagnosis.

4. Guiding Decisions and Interventions

●​ In psychology, test results guide clinical decisions, treatment planning, and

counseling.
●​ In education, test scores help teachers adjust instruction, identify learning
gaps, and place students in appropriate programs.

5. Research and Knowledge Advancement

●​ Psychological research depends on standardized, well-constructed

instruments to test theories.
 ●​ In education, reliable tests allow researchers to evaluate teaching strategies,
curriculum effectiveness, and policy reforms.

6. Personal and Societal Impact

●​ For individuals, test construction affects self-understanding, growth, and

opportunities (e.g., college entrance exams, psychological assessments).
●​ For society, it ensures that educational and psychological systems remain
scientific, evidence-based, and just.

The importance of test construction lies in its role as the foundation of accurate
measurement. In psychology, it ensures that human traits and mental states are
assessed reliably. In education, it guarantees that learning outcomes are evaluated
fairly. Ultimately, well-constructed tests provide the basis for informed decisions,
effective interventions, and the advancement of knowledge.

PURPOSE: The main purpose of tests is to provide a systematic and objective way of
measuring knowledge, abilities, attitudes, traits, or behaviors.
➔​ In psychology, tests are used to assess mental health, personality, intelligence,
and other psychological constructs.
➔​ In education, tests determine what learners have acquired, their progress, and
their readiness for future learning.

OBJECTIVES:
●​ Diagnosis → identify psychological conditions (e.g., anxiety, depression, learning
disabilities).
●​ Prediction → forecast future behavior or performance (e.g., aptitude tests for
career guidance).
●​ Evaluation → measure effectiveness of therapy or intervention.
●​ Research → provide data to test psychological theories.

STEPS in Test Construction

1. Define the Test / Identify a Need

Begin by determining what the test is intended to measure and why. Clearly define
the construct or behavior in question and confirm that a new test is
necessary—perhaps no existing measures adequately address your context.

2. Select a Scaling Method

Choose how responses will be interpreted and quantified. This could be nominal
categories, ordinal ranks, interval scales, ratio scales, Likert scaling, or empirical
keying—depending on the construct.

3. Construct Items

Generate a large pool of potential test items that align with the test objectives.
Ensure items are clearly worded, culturally appropriate, avoid double-barreled
phrasing, and are pitched at the appropriate reading level.

4. Pilot Test / Tryout

Administer the preliminary item pool to a sample representative of the target

population. This helps identify unclear or ineffective items and gathers data for
analysis.

5. Item Analysis

Use statistical methods to evaluate each item's performance:

●​ Item difficulty — proportion answering correctly.

●​ Item discrimination — how well items differentiate high- vs. low-scorers.
●​ Internal consistency — item-total correlations, Cronbach’s alpha.​
Based on results, decide whether to keep, revise, or discard each item.

6. Revise Items and Structure

Refine item wording, adjust item pool size, revise test format or time limits, and
make sure items reflect the construct. Then, run a second pilot to confirm
improvements.

7. Establish Reliability and Validity

Assess whether the test produces consistent and meaningful results:

●​ Reliability: via test–retest, split-half, or internal consistency methods.​

 ●​ Validity: content validity (expert review), construct validity (correlations with
related constructs), criterion validity (predictive power or concurrent
measures).

8. Finalize the Test and Norming

Select final items and create a test manual with instructions, scoring procedures,
reliability and validity evidence, and normative data to support interpretation.

9. Ongoing Evaluation

Even after launch, continue monitoring test use, collecting feedback, and updating
items or norms as contexts evolve or new populations are assessed.

Key Principles in Test Construction

1.​ VALIDITY
-​ Refers to whether a test accurately measures the specific construct it
intends to measure.

Types:
●​ Content Validity: Ensures the test covers all relevant domains of the
construct (e.g., a depression scale assessing both affective and behavioral
dimensions).
●​ Construct Validity: Confirms the test truly measures the theoretical
concept it's meant to, often examined through expected relationships with
other variables.
●​ Criterion-related Validity:
●​ Concurrent validity: Correlation with contemporaneous measures.
●​ Predictive validity: Ability to predict future outcomes
●​
2.​ RELIABILITY
-​ Reflects the consistency and stability of test scores under consistent
measurement conditions.
Reflects the consistency and stability of test scores under consistent
measurement conditions.Reflects the consistency and stability of test
scores under consistent measurement conditions.Reflects the
consistency and stability of test scores under consistent measurement
conditions.
 Methods of measurement:
●​ Test–retest reliability: Same test administered twice over time.
●​ Internal consistency: How well items within the same test correlate (e.g.
Cronbach’s alpha, split-half methods).
●​ Parallel-forms reliability: Comparison across different versions of the
same test.

3.​ STANDARDIZATION
-​ Establishes uniform procedures for test administration and scoring, enabling
fair comparison across individuals.
-​ Involves using a standardization sample to develop meaningful norms (e.g.,
percentiles, standard scores).

4.​ FREEDOM FROM BIAS/FAIRNESS

-​ Ensures the test is equitable and appropriate across diverse
populations—free from cultural, linguistic, or demographic bias.
-​ Includes ethical considerations like informed consent, confidentiality, and
equitable use.

5.​ ETHICAL AND COMPETENT PRACTICE

-​ Encompasses professional responsibility in choosing, administering, scoring,
interpreting, and communicating test results.

Key Aspects:
●​ Only trained professionals should administer and interpret tests.
●​ Ensure informed consent, safeguarding of sensitive data, and non-harmful
usage of test outcomes.

Ethical and Legal Considerations

1. Informed Consent and Transparency

●​ Test takers must be informed about the purpose of the test, how results will
be used, and their right to refuse participation.
●​ Ensures respect for autonomy and protects individuals from coercion.​
(Source: APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 2017)
2. Confidentiality and Data Protection

●​ Test scores and personal information must be kept confidential and only shared
with authorized persons (e.g., the client, teacher, or relevant professional).
●​ Legal frameworks such as data privacy laws (e.g., GDPR, Data Privacy Act of
the Philippines) protect test-takers.​
(Source: APA Ethics Code; International Test Commission Guidelines, 2017)

3. Fairness and Non-Discrimination

●​ Tests must be free from cultural, gender, language, and socioeconomic bias
to avoid unfair disadvantage.
●​ Items should be culturally appropriate and accessible to people with
disabilities.​
(Source: International Test Commission, 2017; AERA Standards for Educational
and Psychological Testing, 2014)

4. Competence of Test Developers and Users

●​ Only qualified professionals should develop, administer, and interpret

psychological tests.
●​ Poorly constructed or misused tests may lead to misdiagnosis, stigma, or
unfair educational placement.​
(Source: APA Ethics Code, Standard 2)

5. Test Security and Intellectual Property

●​ Test materials (items, scoring keys, manuals) should be protected from

unauthorized access, copying, or public exposure.
●​ Copyright laws protect test publishers’ rights; unauthorized reproduction is a
legal violation.​
(Source: APA Ethics Code, Standard 9; WIPO Copyright Treaty)

6. Validity and Reliability as Ethical Duties

●​ It is unethical to use or construct tests that lack sufficient evidence of

validity and reliability.
●​ Test results must truly reflect what they claim to measure, ensuring decisions
made from them are justifiable.​
(Source: AERA Standards, 2014)
7. Legal Accountability

●​ Test developers and users are legally accountable if a test leads to harm,
discrimination, or unfair denial of opportunities.
●​ Example: In employment testing, Equal Employment Opportunity laws
prohibit discriminatory testing practices.​
(Source: US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1978; local labor and
education laws)

Ethical and legal considerations in test construction ensure that tests are:

●​ Fair (non-discriminatory, culturally sensitive)

●​ Respectful (informed consent, confidentiality)
●​ Scientifically sound (valid, reliable)
●​ Legally compliant (intellectual property, non-discrimination laws)

TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS (TOS): a two-way chart that serves as a blueprint for test
construction. In Psychology, TOS (sometimes called a test blueprint) is used to plan:

●​ Construct domains (what aspects of the trait you’re measuring).

●​ Item types (Likert scale, true/false, situational vignettes).
●​ Number of items per domain (so no domain is underrepresented).

Example:
Construct Domain Item Type No. of Items Example Item

Emotional Likert (1–5) 5 "I stay calm under pressure."

Regulation

Positive Adaptation Likert (1–5) 6 "I find ways to overcome

challenges."

Social Support Likert (1–5) 4 "I ask for help when I need it."
Utilization

Total 15
Importance of TOS

1. Ensures Content Validity

●​ A TOS matches test items to learning objectives and content areas.

●​ This alignment guarantees that the test measures what it is supposed to
measure, avoiding over- or under-emphasis on certain topics.​
(Source: Gronlund & Brookhart, Assessment of Student Achievement, 2014)

2. Balances Content and Cognitive Levels

●​ A TOS distributes questions across topics (e.g., chapters, lessons) and cognitive
levels (e.g., remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, based on
Bloom’s Taxonomy).
●​ This prevents tests from being too easy, too hard, or focused only on
lower-level skills.

3. Guides Test Construction

●​ Serves as a blueprint for writing test items.

●​ Teachers and test developers can ensure that items are representative and
cover the full scope of instruction.​
(Source: Kubiszyn & Borich, Educational Testing and Measurement, 2016)

4. Promotes Fairness and Objectivity

●​ By predetermining the number and type of items, the TOS reduces teacher bias
and ensures that all students are tested on what was actually taught.

5. Improves Reliability

●​ Because test items are systematically planned, the resulting test is more
consistent and dependable, increasing reliability.

6. Provides Transparency and Accountability

●​ A TOS allows students, administrators, and other stakeholders to see the

rationale behind test construction, promoting fairness and trust in assessment.
STEPS in constructing a TOS

1. Define the Purpose of the Test

●​ Identify what the test is meant to measure (e.g., mastery of topics in a

subject, or domains of a psychological construct).
●​ Decide whether the test is for diagnosis, evaluation, placement, or
certification.

2. List the Content Areas or Domains

●​ Break down the subject matter into major topics (education) or construct
domains (psychology).
●​ Example: For a psychology test on resilience, domains might be emotional
regulation, positive adaptation, social support.

3. Decide on the Learning Outcomes or Behavioral Objectives

●​ In education: Use Bloom’s Taxonomy (remembering, understanding, applying,

analyzing, evaluating, creating).
●​ In psychology: Identify aspects of the construct (e.g., anxiety symptoms:
cognitive, behavioral, physiological).

4. Determine the Weight or Emphasis for Each Area

●​ Assign relative importance (percentage or number of items) for each content

area/domain based on time spent, significance, or theoretical importance.
●​ This ensures balance and prevents overrepresentation of minor areas.

5. Decide the Type of Test Items

●​ Multiple-choice, true/false, essay, Likert-scale, or situational items.

●​ Match the item type to the skill or trait being assessed.

6. Construct the TOS Table (Two-Way Chart)

●​ Place content areas/domains in rows.

●​ Place cognitive levels/objectives (or construct dimensions) in columns.
●​ Fill in the number of items to be written for each cell.

7. Review and Revise

●​ Check if the TOS reflects the intended learning goals or construct definition.
 ●​ Make sure the total number of items matches the test length.
●​ Revise if certain areas are underrepresented or overweighted.

In Test construction, it is crucial that OBJECTIVES, CONTENT, and ITEM TYPES are
connected to one another.

Objectives = define the skills/behaviors expected.

Content = the subject matter or construct covered.

Item Types = the tools to measure the objectives within the content.

A well-constructed test aligns all three.

➔​ If objectives stress critical thinking, but the test only has true/false items,
there is misalignment.
➔​ If content is broad but test items cover only one small part, the test lacks
content validity.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
-​ developed by Benjamin Bloom (1956) and revised by Anderson & Krathwohl
(2001)
-​ a framework that classifies learning into levels of cognitive complexity.
-​ helps teachers, educators, and test developers design lessons and assessments
that go beyond memorization and foster higher-order thinking.

1. Remembering

●​ Definition: Recalling or recognizing facts, terms, and concepts.

●​ Assessment methods: Multiple-choice, matching, true/false, recall items.
●​ Example: List the stages of Freud’s psychosexual development.

2. Understanding

●​ Definition: Explaining ideas or concepts in one’s own words.

●​ Assessment methods: Summaries, short-answer questions, concept
explanation.
 ●​ Example: Explain the difference between classical and operant conditioning.

3. Applying

●​ Definition: Using knowledge in new situations.

●​ Assessment methods: Problem-solving, case studies, demonstrations.
●​ Example: Apply Piaget’s theory to explain a child’s behavior in class.

4. Analyzing

●​ Definition: Breaking information into parts and examining patterns or

relationships.
●​ Assessment methods: Compare-and-contrast tasks, identifying cause and
effect, diagramming.
●​ Example: Analyze the factors that influence resilience among orphans.

5. Evaluating

●​ Definition: Making judgments based on criteria, evidence, or standards.

●​ Assessment methods: Essays, critiques, debates, peer reviews.
●​ Example: Evaluate the effectiveness of mindfulness interventions in reducing
stress.

6. Creating

●​ Definition: Combining elements to form something new or original.

●​ Assessment methods: Research projects, test design, presentations, innovation
tasks.
●​ Example: Design a psychological test to measure self-esteem among
adolescents.​

Role in Assessment:
-​ Alignment: Ensures that test items reflect learning objectives.
-​ Balance: Prevents assessments from focusing only on rote memorization.
-​ Progression: Encourages higher-order thinking (analysis, evaluation, creation).
-​ Validity: Improves test validity by matching items to different levels of
cognitive complexity.
Importance of Clear Scoring Keys and Rubrics in Testing

1. Ensures Objectivity and Fairness

●​ A scoring key (for objective items like multiple-choice) or rubric (for subjective
items like essays) provides a standardized guide for scoring.
●​ This minimizes examiner bias and ensures all students or test-takers are judged
by the same criteria.
●​ Example: Without a rubric, one essay may be graded more harshly than
another, even if both show similar quality.

2. Increases Reliability of Scores

●​ Clear scoring guidelines make test results more consistent and dependable
across different scorers or testing occasions.
●​ Especially important in psychological tests, where reliability is crucial for valid
interpretation.

3. Improves Validity

●​ Scoring must match the test’s objectives.

●​ If rubrics clearly reflect the intended learning outcomes or construct being
measured, the test is more likely to measure what it is supposed to measure
(content validity).

4. Provides Transparency and Accountability

●​ Students/test-takers understand how they will be graded, which promotes trust

in the testing process.
●​ Teachers, psychologists, and institutions can justify scores with evidence from
the rubric or key.

5. Guides Learning and Performance

●​ Rubrics serve as a learning tool by showing test-takers what is expected (e.g.,

organization, accuracy, creativity).
●​ Feedback based on clear criteria helps learners improve their future
performance.
6. Supports Ethical Testing Practices

●​ In both education and psychology, fairness and accuracy are ethical

responsibilities.
●​ Clear scoring prevents misinterpretation, discrimination, and misuse of test
results.

TEST LENGTH: Impact on Reliability and Validity

Reliability: Longer tests generally increase reliability because they provide more
items to measure the construct, reducing the effect of guessing or random errors.
Very short tests often produce inconsistent results.​

Validity: Test length should be appropriate. If too short → the test may not
adequately cover the content or construct (low content validity). If too long →
fatigue can reduce attention, leading to inaccurate responses and lower validity.

Principles in Writing Test Questions

1. True or False

●​ Keep statements short and clear.

●​ Avoid absolutes (“always,” “never”) unless factually correct.​
Avoid trick questions; focus on important concepts.

2. Multiple Choice

●​ Write a clear stem (question/problem).

●​ Use plausible distractors (wrong options).
●​ Avoid clues (grammatical mismatches, longer correct answers).
●​ Ensure only one correct/best answer.

3. Matching Type

●​ Use homogeneous lists (same category).

●​ Keep options on one page to avoid confusion.
●​ Provide more options than items to reduce guessing.​
 ●​ Clear directions (e.g., “Match column A with column B”).

4. Fill-in-the-Blank

●​ Word items so there’s only one correct answer.

●​ Avoid lifting exact phrases from the text.
●​ Place blanks at the end of the statement, not the beginning.
●​ Keep blanks of equal length to avoid clues.

ITEM ANALYSIS
-​ the systematic evaluation of test items (questions) after a test has been
administered. Its PURPOSE is to determine how well each item functions in
measuring the intended learning outcomes or psychological construct.

Key components:

1. Item Difficulty (p-value)

●​ Shows the proportion of students who answered correctly.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠
●​ Formula: 𝑝 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠
​
●​ Ideal range: 0.30–0.70 (not too easy, not too hard).

2. Item Discrimination (D-index)

●​ Measures how well an item differentiates between high-performing and

low-performing students.
●​ Formula: 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ​ − 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟​
●​ Values range from -1.00 to +1.00.
○​ Positive = good discrimination (high scorers get it right more often).
○​ Negative = poor item (may need revision or removal).

3. Distractor Analysis

●​ For multiple-choice items, checks if incorrect options (distractors) are

functioning well.
●​ A good distractor should attract some students, especially low scorers.
●​ Distractors never chosen or always chosen may need revision.
Importance of Item Analysis

●​ Improves test reliability and validity.

●​ Identifies poorly written items for revision or removal.
●​ Ensures fairer, more accurate measurement of learning or psychological traits.
●​ Guides future test construction by showing what works best.

Process of Item Analysis

1.​ Administer the Test – Give the test to a representative group.

2.​ Score the Test – Arrange scores from highest to lowest.
3.​ Group Test-Takers – Divide into high and low scorers (e.g., top 27% and bottom
27%).
4.​ Compute Item Difficulty – Find the proportion of students who answered each
item correctly.
5.​ Compute Item Discrimination – Compare performance of high vs. low groups
on each item.
6.​ Analyze Distractors – Check if wrong options attract responses, especially from
low scorers.
7.​ Revise or Remove Items – Keep good items, improve weak ones, and discard
poor items.​