PREVALENCE AND KNOWLEDGE OF SIDE EFFECTS OF SELF

MEDICATION AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN ATTENDING ANTENATAL

CLINIC AT IRRUA SPECIALIST TEACHING HOSPITAL, EDO STATE

BY

OKOEGUALE MILDRED

EXAM NO:

DEPARTMENT OF NURSING SCIENCE, FACULTY OF BASIC MEDICAL

SCIENCE, COLLEGE OF MEDICINE, AMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY,

EKPOMA, EDO STATE

DECEMBER, 2025

i
 PREVALENCE AND KNOWLEDGE OF SIDE EFFECTS OF SELF

MEDICATION AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN ATTENDING ANTENATAL

CLINIC AT IRRUA SPECIALIST TEACHING HOSPITAL, EDO STATE

BY

OKOEGUALE MILDRED

CMS/FBM/NSG/19/53138

DEPARTMENT OF NURSING SCIENCE, FACULTY OF BASIC MEDICAL

SCIENCES, AMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY, EKPOMA, EDO STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF NURSING AND

MIDWIFERY COUNCIL OF NIGERIA FOR THE AWARD OF REGISTERED

MIDWIFE.

DECEMBER, 2025

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 DECLARATION

This is to declare that this research project titled PREVALENCE AND KNOWLEDGE

OF SIDE EFFECTS OF SELF MEDICATION AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

ATTENDING ANTENATAL CLINIC AT IRRUA SPECIALIST TEACHING

HOSPITAL, EDO STATE, is solely the result of my work except where acknowledged

as being derived from other person(s) or resources.

MATRIC NUMBER:: CMS/FBM/NSG/19/53138

…………………………………………… ……………………

OKOEGUALE MILDRED Date

iii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project titled PREVALENCE AND KNOWLEDGE OF

SIDE EFFECTS OF SELF MEDICATION AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN

ATTENDING ANTENATAL CLINIC AT IRRUA SPECIALIST TEACHING

HOSPITAL, EDO STATEwas carried out by OKOEGUALE MILDRED with

MATRIC NUMBER: CMS/FBM/NSG/19/53138has been examined and approved for

the award of Registered Midwife.

.............................................…… ……………………

MRS SARAH IYAHLOME DATE

Project Supervisor

............................................…… ……………………

DR. IFEANYICHUKWU STANLEY ESSU DATE

Ag. Head of department

.............................................…… ……………………

Chief Examiner DATE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE i

TITLE PAGE ii

DECLARATION PAGE iii

CERTIFICATION PAGE iv

DEDICATION v

ABSTRACT vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS viii

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction 1

1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 Statement of problem 3

1.3 Objectives of the study 4

1.4 Research questions 4

1.5 Significance of the study 5

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1.6 Scope of study 6

1.7 Operational definition of terms 6

CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Literature review 8

2.2 Conceptual review 8

Impacts of Self-Medication During Pregnancy 9

Prevalence of Self-Medication Among Pregnant Women 10

Knowledge pregnant women have about the potential side effects of self-medication12

2.2 Theoretical review 15

Application of Theory to the Study 17

2.3 Empirical review 18

2.4 Summary of Literature review 22

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology 24

3.1 Research design 24

3.2 Research settings 24

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3.3 Target population 26

3.4 Sample Size Determination 26

3.5 Sampling technique 27

3.6 Instruments for data collection 27

3.7 Validity of instrument 27

3.8 Reliability of the Study 28

3.9 Method of data collection 28

3.10 Method of data analysis 28

3.11 Ethical consideration 29

Questionnaire 55

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The use of medication during pregnancy is a public health concern. Globally, almost 50%

of pregnant women use medication in the early weeks of gestation. Self-medication is

defined as self-administration of medication not prescribed by or in a manner not directed

by a physician (Befekadu, Dekama&Adem, 2022) and is regarded as part of self-care

among patients assuming the responsibility of the medical personnel to treat or prevent

illnesses by using non-prescription or prescription only medicines (POMs). Self-

medication may extend to prescription and herbal drugs and may be propagated by

counselling or advice offered from health care professionals. Self-medication carries

serious risk of drug interactions, polypharmacy, misdiagnosis, excessive drug dosage use,

prolonged drug use, incorrect drug choice, rare but severe adverse events, dependence or

abuse and increased antimicrobial resistance. Self-medication is common in African

countries including Tanzania. Many studies have addressed the use drugs after

prescriptions/directions from physicians; however data on self-medication during

pregnancy is scanty. Herbal drugs are commonly used in self-medication in developing

countries (Ibrahim &Pravin, 2023). The wide use of herbal drugs in pregnancy is also

observed in developed countries Norway being an example (36%). Studies have shown

that herbal drugs are also not safe during pregnancy unlike what most people think

1
though information on effects to the foetus is limited (Kessler, D. A., & Pines, 2020).The

main reason for self-medication as reported from different countries include; the feeling

that the condition /disease is mild thus not requiring doctor’s consultation, previous good

experience of treating similar illness, prompted by a pharmacist, feeling of independence

to take care of him/herself and non-availability of doctors. Advertisement by

pharmaceutical companies or their agencies on drugs has also been established as a

promoting factor for self-medication. Despite the fact that the use of prescription and

non-prescription drugs is common among pregnant women, most drugs used in clinical

practice have limited information on the safety in pregnancy, hence not recommended for

use in pregnant women (Nkrumah & Gbagbo, 2021). This is due to the fact that pregnant

women are excluded from clinical trials owing to the fear of harming the mother or the

developing foetus. The only available information on drug effects during pregnancy are

derived from pre-clinical studies which involve animals and cannot be directly

extrapolated to human beings including pregnant women. however such studies give us

insight on the possibility of toxic effects to the foetus and the pregnant woman. Drug use

cannot be avoided in pregnancy in acute illnesses which can harm the mother or foetus if

left untreated. In such situation drug use in these patients is based on risk-benefit ratio

assessment whereby the potential benefits to the mother must outweigh the risks to the

foetus (Yusuff&Omarusehe, 2021). Drugs effects in pregnancy can be detected in post

marketing surveillance studies when a drug is introduced to a large population,

nevertheless there is limited information on drug risk to the foetus and pregnant woman,

2
consequently health professionals are deprived of this important information during

prescribing and dispensing.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Self-medication during pregnancy is a prevalent practice, especially among women who

attend antenatal clinics for regular check-ups and care. While self-medication may be

used to alleviate common pregnancy-related discomforts, such as nausea, headaches, or

pain, it poses significant risks to both maternal and fetal health (Reed & Fenton, 2020).

Despite the availability of antenatal care and medical professionals, many pregnant

women still resort to using over-the-counter medications, herbal remedies, or alternative

treatments without consulting healthcare providers. This unregulated practice can lead to

the inadvertent use of harmful substances, which may cause adverse side effects,

including congenital malformations, preterm labor, low birth weight, or even fetal death

(Yusuff&Omarusehe, 2021). There is growing concern regarding the level of awareness

and knowledge pregnant women have about the potential side effects of self-medication.

Many women are unaware of the risks associated with taking medications without

professional guidance. The lack of understanding may stem from limited health

education, misinformation, or the belief that certain medications are safe due to their

widespread availability or common use (Beyene&Beza, 2023). While some studies have

highlighted the prevalence of self-medication practices, there is a lack of comprehensive

3
data focusing specifically on the knowledge of side effects and the prevalence of self-

medication among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The main aim of this study is to determine the Prevalence and Knowledge of side effects

of self medication among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic at Irrua Specialist

Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Edo State.

1. Assess the prevalence of self-medication among pregnant women attending antenatal

clinics at Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Edo State.

2. Evaluate the level of knowledge pregnant women have about the potential side effects

of self-medication.

3. Determine the factors that contribute to self-medication practices among pregnant

women attending antenatal clinics at Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Edo

State.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What is the prevalence of self-medication among pregnant women attending antenatal

clinics attending antenatal clinics at Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Edo

State?

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2. What is the level of Knowledge pregnant women have about the potential side effects

of self-medication?

3. What are the factors that contribute to self-medication practices among pregnant

women attending antenatal clinics at Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Edo

State?

1.5 Significance of Study

The Findings from this study will highlight the need for better health education programs

for pregnant women regarding the safe use of medications, including over-the-counter

drugs, herbal remedies, and alternative treatments. It will also inform policymakers,

particularly in the areas of maternal health and public health, on the importance of

regulating and monitoring self-medication practices during pregnancy (Isaac & Michael,

2022). Healthcare professionals, particularly those in antenatal clinics, will benefit from

the findings of this study as it can provide a clearer understanding of the factors

influencing self-medication among pregnant women. The findings from this study will

add to the existing body of research on maternal health, particularly in relation to the

practices and knowledge of self-medication during pregnancy.

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1.6 Scope of Study

The scope of the study will be centered on prevalence and knowledge of side effects of

self medication among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic at Irrua Specialist

Teaching Hospital. The research will be conducted in Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital.

1.7 Operational definition of terms

Prevalence of Self-Medication – The Constant act of pregnant women taking

medications, including over-the-counter drugs, herbal remedies, or prescription drugs

without consulting a healthcare professional during pregnancy.

Knowledge of Side Effects – The awareness and understanding that pregnant women

have regarding the potential adverse effects, risks, and consequences of self-medication

on their health and the health of their unborn child.

Self-Medication – The practice of using pharmaceutical or herbal substances for treating

self-diagnosed conditions without professional medical advice.

Pregnant Women – Women who have been medically confirmed to be carrying a

developing fetus, attending antenatal care, and are at different gestational stages.

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Antenatal Clinic – A healthcare facility where pregnant women receive medical care,

health education, and regular check-ups to monitor the progress of pregnancy and fetal

development.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section deals with views and work from different authorities in relation to its

Conception Review, Theoretical Review, Empirical Review and lastly summary of the

literature Review

2.1 Conceptual Review

Self Medication

Self-medication is the practice of individuals using drugs or other medical products to

treat health conditions without the direct supervision or prescription of a healthcare

professional. It is a common practice in many populations worldwide, as people often

feel empowered to manage their own health or prefer to avoid the expense,

inconvenience, or perceived stigma of visiting a healthcare provider (Katz, 2021).

However, self-medication can carry significant risks, especially when it involves

inappropriate or unmonitored use of drugs. In some cases, individuals may use

prescription medications, over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, or even traditional remedies

without considering the potential risks or interactions with other medications or

underlying health [Link] pregnant women, self-medication introduces additional

challenges and risks. Pregnancy is a time of significant physiological change, and the

8
health of both the mother and the fetus is particularly vulnerable to the effects of

medication (Nkoka, Chuang & Chen, 2024). While some over-the-counter drugs may be

safe for use during pregnancy, others can have harmful effects on the developing fetus or

the mother’s health. Misunderstanding these risks or being unaware of the safety profiles

of certain drugs during pregnancy can lead to dangerous consequences.

Impacts of Self-Medication During Pregnancy

The impacts of self-medication during pregnancy are far-reaching and can have serious

consequences for both maternal and fetal health. While some women may turn to self-

medication for minor symptoms or discomforts that are perceived as not requiring

professional medical intervention, the potential risks involved cannot be underestimated.

Medications, especially those that have not been prescribed by a healthcare professional,

can interact with other drugs, cause allergic reactions, or be harmful to the fetus

(Nordeng, Koren&Einarso, 2020).The most concerning risks of self-medication during

pregnancy include birth defects, developmental delays, preterm birth, or even pregnancy

loss. For example, medications like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),

some antibiotics, or certain over-the-counter cold remedies can pose significant risks to

the developing fetus, particularly during the first trimester. In addition to pharmaceutical

drugs, herbal and alternative remedies—often thought to be safe due to their "natural"

origin—can also cause harm. Some herbs and supplements may contain compounds that

can induce premature labor, affect fetal development, or interfere with the mother's

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[Link] is also important to recognize that self-medication can exacerbate existing health

conditions. For example, a pregnant woman may self-medicate for headaches or digestive

discomfort without realizing that the medication may worsen her condition or interact

with prenatal vitamins, other prescribed drugs, or her overall pregnancy health

(Zaki&Albarraq, 2024). Thus, the impacts of self-medication are not limited to physical

harm but also extend to emotional distress, complications in prenatal care, and increased

healthcare costs from managing avoidable complications.

Prevalence of Self-Medication Among Pregnant Women

Pregnancy represents a unique physiological state where the body undergoes a variety of

complex changes, and the use of medications during this period can have significant

implications (Lagoy, Joshi, Cragan& Rasmussen, 2021). Despite these concerns, self-

medication among pregnant women remains prevalent in many countries, with various

studies reporting that a substantial proportion of women engage in self-medication during

pregnancy to manage common ailments such as headaches, nausea, back pain, and

digestive issues. The prevalence of self-medication among pregnant women varies

widely across geographic regions, socio-economic groups, and cultural contexts. While

some studies report relatively low rates of self-medication, others suggest that a

significant number of pregnant women turn to over-the-counter (OTC) medications,

prescription drugs, and traditional remedies to alleviate pregnancy-related discomforts

without consulting healthcare professionals. In some countries, particularly those with

10
limited access to healthcare services, self-medication may be seen as an alternative to

professional medical intervention (Zewdie, Azale, Shimeka&Lakew, 2022). This

widespread practice is concerning, as many of the substances commonly used in self-

medication during pregnancy can have serious side effects, potentially affecting both the

mother’s and the fetus's health. Research on the prevalence of self-medication among

pregnant women reveals considerable variation depending on the region, healthcare

infrastructure, and cultural norms. In high-income countries with advanced healthcare

systems, studies suggest that approximately 20-40% of pregnant women engage in self-

medication. For example, studies conducted in the United States and the United Kingdom

show that a significant proportion of pregnant women use OTC medications like

acetaminophen, antacids, and antihistamines without consulting their healthcare

providers (Ebrahimi, Atashsokhan, Amanpour&Hamidzadeh, 2020). While these drugs

are generally considered safe in certain dosages and stages of pregnancy, misuse or

overuse can lead to unintended consequences, such as liver damage, gastrointestinal

disturbances, or preterm labor. In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the

prevalence of self-medication among pregnant women tends to be higher, often

exceeding 50% in some regions (Laronda, Unno, Butler, & Kurita, 2022). A study

conducted in India, for instance, found that over 52% of pregnant women used self-

medication to treat pregnancy-related symptoms. Similarly, in Nigeria, 43% of pregnant

women reported using OTC medications or traditional remedies without consulting a

healthcare professional.

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Knowledge pregnant women have about the potential side effects of self-medication

Knowledge of side effects refers to a person’s understanding of the possible adverse

effects or risks associated with the use of a particular drug or treatment. For pregnant

women, knowledge of the side effects of medications is critical, as certain drugs may

cause harm not only to the mother but also to the developing fetus (Alfian, Sinuraya,

Kautsar&Abdulah, 2020). The teratogenic effects of certain medications—those that can

cause congenital malformations or developmental issues—are a well-documented

concern in pregnancy. Furthermore, some medications, even those considered safe in

non-pregnant individuals, can have different or more severe side effects when used

during pregnancy due to the altered physiology of the body. Despite the clear need for

knowledge about medication safety during pregnancy, research indicates that many

pregnant women have limited understanding of the side effects of the drugs they use

(Ceulemans, Van Calsteren, Allegaert&Foulon, 2019). This lack of awareness can be

attributed to several factors, including inadequate healthcare communication, reliance on

non-expert sources of information (e.g., family members, internet searches, or

advertisements), or misinformation about the safety of certain medications. A lack of

awareness may result in the use of harmful substances that could negatively impact

maternal and fetal health. Consequently, improving the knowledge of side effects of

medications and the risks of self-medication during pregnancy is a central concern for

public health initiatives (Odalovic et al., 2023). It is essential for pregnant women to

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receive accurate, evidence-based information to guide their medication choices and

prevent preventable harm to themselves and their babies.

Factors that contribute to self-medication practices

While self-medication can sometimes be beneficial for managing minor health

complaints, it can also carry significant risks, especially during pregnancy. Pregnant

women, who are in a unique physiological state, may resort to self-medication as a way

to alleviate the common discomforts and health issues they face (Lupattelli et al., 2020).

However, the decision to self-medicate is influenced by a range of factors that vary

across individuals, communities, and healthcare systems. These factors can be broadly

categorized into socio-economic, cultural, healthcare-related, and psychological

determinants.

Healthcare Access and Availability

One of the most significant factors contributing to self-medication among pregnant

women is limited access to healthcare services. In many regions, particularly in low- and

middle-income countries (LMICs), access to antenatal care or healthcare providers may

be limited due to geographical, financial, or systemic barriers (aaro, Vezzosi,

Santagati&Angelillo, 2018). Pregnant women in rural or underserved areas may

experience difficulty reaching medical facilities or may face long waiting times at clinics.

Additionally, the cost of healthcare services, including consultations with doctors or the

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purchase of prescribed medications, may be prohibitively expensive for some women. In

these contexts, self-medication can appear to be a more affordable and immediate

solution. Furthermore, healthcare facilities may not always be readily available,

particularly in low-resource settings, making self-medication a necessary, albeit risky,

alternative. In some high-income countries, despite the availability of healthcare, long

waiting times for appointments, or a perception of inefficiency in healthcare services,

may prompt women to self-medicate. For example, some pregnant women may choose to

treat common pregnancy symptoms like headaches, fatigue, or mild nausea without

seeking medical advice, believing that the symptoms are not serious enough to warrant

professional consultation.

Cultural and Societal Norms

Cultural practices and societal beliefs heavily influence the self-medication behaviors of

pregnant women. In many cultures, traditional medicine, herbal remedies, and alternative

therapies are widely used and viewed as safe, natural alternatives to pharmaceutical

drugs. Pregnant women, particularly in cultures with strong traditions of herbal medicine,

may be more likely to use these remedies for managing pregnancy-related symptoms

such as nausea, fatigue, or pain (Mbarambara et al., 2022). Despite their widespread use,

these traditional remedies are not always proven to be safe, and some herbs and natural

products can have teratogenic effects or cause harm to both the mother and the [Link]

many communities, pregnant women may receive advice from family members, friends,

14
or local healers, rather than seeking professional healthcare. These informal sources of

advice often influence the decision to self-medicate, particularly when the

recommendations are based on personal experience or cultural beliefs about the safety of

certain substances.

Economic Factors

Economic constraints are another significant determinant of self-medication. In many

regions, especially in low-income settings, pregnant women may resort to self-

medication due to the high costs associated with healthcare services and medications. In

countries with limited or no access to affordable healthcare, pregnant women may face

financial barriers that make it difficult to seek professional medical advice or buy

prescribed medications (Walker, Krewski, Yang, Nimrod & Garner, 2018). In such

circumstances, the use of OTC drugs or home remedies becomes a more affordable and

accessible option

2.2 Theoretical Review

Health Belief Model (HBM)

The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a well-established framework for understanding

health behaviors, particularly the decisions individuals make regarding health

interventions, including self-medication (Okandeji-Barry, Otovwe&Uju, 2022).

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According to the HBM, individuals are more likely to engage in health-promoting

behaviors (such as consulting a healthcare provider) or avoid risky behaviors (such as

self-medication) if they believe they are susceptible to health problems, believe these

problems have serious consequences, believe taking a specific action would reduce their

risk, and believe the benefits of taking action outweigh the costs or [Link] the context

of self-medication among pregnant women, the perceived susceptibility to health

problems during pregnancy may influence their decision to self-medicate. For example,

women who experience common pregnancy symptoms like nausea, fatigue, or headaches

may not perceive these symptoms as serious enough to consult a doctor, leading them to

resort to self-medication.

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Application of the Health Belief Model to the Study

Perceived susceptibility:It refers to an individual’s belief about their personal risk of

developing a health problem. In the case of pregnant women, this can refer to their

perception of the likelihood that they will experience complications or adverse effects

from self-medication.

Perceived severity: It refers to an individual’s belief about the seriousness of a health

problem and its potential consequences. For pregnant women, the perceived severity of

the possible risks associated with self-medication during pregnancy can influence

whether they choose to use medication without medical guidance.

Perceived benefits: This component of the HBM involves an individual’s belief in the

effectiveness of a recommended health action in reducing the threat of illness. In the

context of self-medication, the perceived benefits would include the perceived relief from

pregnancy-related discomforts and the quick availability of over-the-counter (OTC)

medications or home remedies.

Perceived barriers: refer to the obstacles or challenges an individual perceives in

engaging in a recommended health action. In the context of self-medication during

pregnancy, perceived barriers may include the financial costs, time constraints,

accessibility issues, or negative experiences with healthcare systems that prevent

pregnant women from seeking professional medical care.

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Cues to action:They are external events or triggers that motivate an individual to take

health-related action. In the case of self-medication among pregnant women, cues to

action could include the sudden onset of symptoms, advice from family members or

peers, or exposure to health information about safe medication use during pregnancy.

Self-efficacy:It has become an important component in understanding health behavior,

particularly in the context of the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Health Belief

Model. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to perform a specific

behavior successfully.

2.3 Empirical Review

Rizka&Atmadani (2020) assessed a study on Self-medication and knowledge among

pregnant women attending primary healthcare services in Malang, Indonesia. A cross-

sectional study was conducted from July to September 2018 in five healthcare services. A

self-administered questionnaire was used and the data were analyzed using multiple

regression models. Of 333 female participants, 39 (11.7%) used OTC medication.

Women with a higher level of knowledge of OTC medication were more likely to self-

medicate—adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 2.15, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.03–4.46.

Compared with those with less knowledge, pregnant women with more correct

knowledge of the possible risk of self-medication were less likely to self-medicate—aOR

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= 0.29; 95% CI = 0.14–0.60. The effect of a higher level of knowledge of OTC

medication was significant among women who had middle school and lower education—

aOR = 8.18; 95% CI = 1.70–39.35. The effect of correct knowledge on the possible risks

of self-medication was significant only among women with high school and higher

education—aOR = 0.17; 95% CI = 0.07–0.42. Imparting specific knowledge of the

potential risks of using non-prescribed medication during pregnancy may help pregnant

women navigate and more safely manage their OTC use.

Njalika et al., (2018) conducted a similar study on Self-medication among pregnant

women attending antenatal clinic at Makongoro health centre in Mwanza, Tanzania. A

cross sectional study which was conducted using face to face interview with 372

pregnant women at Makongoro health centre. Semi-structured questionnaires were used.

Data were analysed using STATA 13 (Statistical Corporation, College Station, Texas,

US). A total of 372 pregnant women participated in the study. The prevalence of self-

medication among pregnant women was 172 (46.24%). There was a significant statistical

association between self-medication and occupation (P value =0.01), gestation age (P <

0.01) and education (P < 0.01). Age, marital status and gravidity were not associated with

self-medication (P = 0.809, P = 0.243 and P = 0.922) respectively. When bivariate logistic

regression was performed, occupation and education were the only determining factors

for self-medication. Findings showed that Pregnant women who were unemployed, doing

business and house wife were most likely to practice self-medication than employed

19
pregnant women (P = 0.03; OR = 2.33; 95% CI, 1.06–5.31, P = 0.01; OR = 2.31; CI 1.21–

4.41, P = <0.01, OR = 2.73, 95% CI 0.52–2.43) respectively. Pregnant women with no

formal education, incomplete primary education, primary education and secondary

education were most likely to practice self-medication than pregnant women with college

or university education (P < 0.01, OR = 6.37 95% CI 2.37–19.03, P < 0.01, OR = 6.58,

95% CI 2.36–18.25, P < 0.01, OR = 3.78, 95% CI 1.89–7.56, P < 0.01, OR = 2.59 95% CI

= 1.30–5.17). The leading illness/symptoms which led to self-medication among pregnant

women attending clinic were malaria 56 (32.56%, morning sickness 44 (25.55%) and

headache 33(19.19%). Drugs commonly used in self-medication among pregnant women

were ant malarial 42 (24.42%), antiemetics 59 (34.30%) and analgesics 33 (19.19%).

Prevalence of self-medication among pregnant women is high in Tanzania. This is a

threat to the safety of the developing foetus and the pregnant woman.

Yahkub et al. (2022) assessed a study on Self-medication in Pregnancy and Associated

Factors among Antenatal Patients of a Tertiary Facility in North-Eastern Nigeria. A

cross-sectional study of 400 pregnant women recruited using systematic random

sampling. Data were collected between October and December 2020. A structured

questionnaire was employed to investigate sociodemographic characteristics, the

magnitude of self-medication in pregnancy, the reasons for this practice, common drugs

used, and factors associated with the practice among antenatal care attendees of the

hospital. The collected data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social

20
Sciences (SPSS) Version 26, where chi-square was utilized to determine the relationship

between variables. Result showed that Overall, 40% of pregnant women practised self-

medication during pregnancy. The common reasons for self-medication were lower cost,

availability/easy access, and the thought that the illness was minor. The common drugs

used were paracetamol and other analgesic drugs, antacids/anti-ulcer, anti-malaria, and

Cough/Cold mixture. Age, occupation, gravidity, and the number of antenatal visits

associated with self-medication. There was a high prevalence of self-medication among

the participants. Also, drugs for such practice were cheap, readily available, and

accessible, whereas frequent antenatal care attendance discourages self-medication

practice in pregnancy

Lahlou, Fatima, Hadj&BoujrafSaid (2024), Conducted a study on Self-medication

practice among pregnant and postpartum women attending the regional hospital center of

Souss Massa, Morocco. A cross-sectional study was conducted using a pretested

questionnaire among 420 pregnant and postpartum women who were attending the

regional hospital center of the Sous Massa region from April to December 2022.

Statistical analysis was performed using Jamovi Software. The logistic regression

analysis was used to determine the significance of the association between the outcome

and independent variables. Findings showed that the research enrolled 420 pregnant and

postpartum women. During the current pregnancy, 24.8% of the women used self-

medication. The leading common causes/symptoms that necessitate self-medication

21
among pregnant and postpartum women were Anemia (84.8%), epigastralgia (16.8%),

vomiting, pyrosis (15.2%), and urinary and vaginal infections The therapeutic families

concerned with self-medication practice were Analgesics (41.4%), Antacids (20.3%),

antimicrobials (13.5%), and Vitamin supplements (9%). According to the findings, the

most frequent sources of information were pharmacists (45.6%), followed by physicians

(44.3%). The primary reasons given by respondents for self-medication were the need for

rapid release (51.7%), previous treatments with the same drugs (31.7%), and 20%

reported difficulty of access to healthcare professionals. Out of 95.9% of the participants

reported that they knew the dangers of self-medication and 96% of them were informed

and received information about the dangers and contraindications of self-medication

during pregnancy. This was significantly statistically associated with selfmedication

respectively with p-value = 0.031 and p-value = 0.005. The findings of the present study

provide an initial awareness of the state of self-medication among pregnant and

postpartum women attending the regional hospital centers. It is recommended that

healthcare professionals increase their interventions to improve the consciousness of

pregnant women; this might require implementing suitable strategies to regulate the

commercialization, delivery, and use of conventional medications

2.4 Summary of Literature review

Self-medication is the practice of individuals using drugs or other medical products to

treat health conditions without the direct supervision or prescription of a healthcare

22
professional. While some women may turn to self-medication for minor symptoms or

discomforts that are perceived as not requiring professional medical intervention, the

potential risks involved cannot be underestimated. Research on the prevalence of self-

medication among pregnant women reveals considerable variation depending on the

region, healthcare infrastructure, and cultural norms. Despite the clear need for

knowledge about medication safety during pregnancy, research indicates that many

pregnant women have limited understanding of the side effects of the drugs they use, the

decision to self-medicate is influenced by a range of factors that vary across individuals,

communities, and healthcare systems. Empirically the study cover studies ranging from

Self-medication and knowledge among pregnant women attending primary healthcare

services in Malang, Indonesia, Self-medication among pregnant women attending

antenatal clinic at Makongoro health centre in Mwanza, Tanzania, Self-medication in

Pregnancy and Associated Factors among Antenatal Patients of a Tertiary Facility in

North-Eastern Nigeria and Self-medication practice among pregnant and postpartum

women attending the regional hospital center of Souss Massa, Morocco.

23
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This section provides the research methods that will be used in the study. The subsections

include: Research design of the study, Target population, Sample size determination,

sampling technique, data analysis, instruments for data collection, instrument validity

instrument reliability, method of data collection, method of data analysis and ethical

considerations of the study.

3.1 Research Design

The research design in this study will be descriptive research design. This was adapted to

help to provide answers to the research questions.

3.2 Research Settings

Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital (ISTH) formerly called OtibhorOkhae Teaching

Hospital, Irrua was established by Decree 92 of 1993 to provide tertiary Health Care

Delivery Services to the people of Edo State and beyond. The Decree among other things

provided for a Board of Management for the hospital with the statutory responsibility of

policy formulation for the hospital. The hospital is located in Irrua, Edo Central

24
Senatorial District, along the Benin-Abuja highway at about 87 kilometers north of Benin

City, the Edo State Capital. Irrua is situated on the Ishan plateau, some 87 kilometers

north of Benin City. The vegetation is mixed rainforest and transition Guinea Savannah.

The natives are mainly farmers, but Irrua is literally surrounded by towns with tertiary

educational institutions: located 5 Km to the south is Ekpoma with Ambrose Alli

University and 40 Km to the north is Auchi with a Federal Polytechnic while about 25

Km to the southeast is Igueben with a College of Education. Irrua has a population of

120,571 (one hundred and twenty thousand, five hundred and seventy-one) Irrua

Specialist Teaching Hospital (formerly OtibhorOkhae Teaching Hospital). It was

commissioned on the 21st of November 1991 by the former Vice President of the Federal

Republic of Nigeria, Admiral Augustus Aikhomu. Clinical activities did not however,

commence until May, 1993. It offers specialized units, including general outpatient care,

emergency services, diagnostic labs, surgical units, and public health programs. ISTH is

internationally recognized for its Lassa Fever Research and Treatment Center, which

collaborates with global organizations to advance treatment, containment, and training

for managing infectious diseases. The hospital also houses a prestigious College of

Nursing and Midwifery, offering accredited programs that produce highly skilled

healthcare professionals. With its focus on cutting-edge healthcare delivery, tropical

disease research, and nursing education, ISTH remains a cornerstone of Nigeria’s

healthcare system and a leader in reducing disease burden in West Africa.

25
3.3 Population of the Study

The target population for this study will include 280 pregnant women attending antenatal

clinic at ISTH, which will be gotten during data collection period.

3.4 Sample Size Determination

The sample size will bedetermined using the Taro Yamane formula (1976) as follows:

n= N

I+N (e2)

n= the sample size

e= the level of precision (assumed to be 0.05 at 95% confidence level)

N = population size

n= 280

1+ 280 (0.052)

n = 165

10% attrition of 165 will be 17

26
Therefore n = 165+ 17 =182

3.5 Sampling Technique

The study will adopt the convenience sampling techniques. The participants will be

randomly selected from those that will attend the clinic.

3.6 Instrument for data collection

Data will be collected using questionnaire on Prevalence and knowledge of side effects

of self medication among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic at Irrua Specialist

Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Edo State. Section A comprised of items on socio-demographic

characteristic of respondents. Section B was made up of items which assess the

prevalence of self-medication among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at Irrua

Specialist Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Edo State. Section C was made up of items which

Evaluate the level of knowledge pregnant women have about the potential side effects of

self-medication. Section D was made up of items which Determine the factors that

contribute to self-medication practices among pregnant women attending antenatal

clinics. All were measured in Yes and No

3.7 Validity of Instrument

The face and content validity will be carried out by the project supervisor in the

Department of Nursing Sciences, Ambrose Alli University. The project supervisor will

27
examine the research questions in line with the stated objectives and corrections will be

made on the generated items.

3.8 Reliability of Instrument

The test-retest reliability technique will be used to ascertain the reliability coefficient of

the instrument. The Spearman Brown Co-efficient will be used to obtain the reliability

Co-efficient of the instrument with a range of (0.6 – 0.8).

3.9 Method for Data Collection

With an introductory letter from the Head of Department of Nursing Sciences, Ambrose

Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State, the researcher will visit to research facilities. The

visit will provide a forum for introduction and establishment of rapport between the

researcher and the respondents. The researcher and research assistants will administer

copies of the questionnaire directly to pregnant women in Irrua Specialist Teaching

Hospital,Irrua, Edo State, and the duration of administration and retrieval is expected to

done within one month.

3.10. Method of Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics analysis such as frequency and percentage will be used to analyze

the retrieve data.

28
3.11 Ethical Consideration

An ethical clearance was obtained from the research ethic committee of the Irrua

Specialist Teaching Hospital. In carrying this research, the principles of voluntary

participation, anonymity, confidentiality, informed consent, beneficence, autonomy, fair

treatment was duly observed as ethical approval was sought before data collection

begins. The purpose, content and implications were explained to those involved. They

were not forced to participate in the study as they were allowed to use their free will to

participate and principle of confidentiality, privacy, anonymity and justice where strictly

observed. After the study the researcher left contact details for any questions or concerns

that may have arisen during and after the study as a result of their participation.

29
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 QUESTIONNAIRE
Department of Nursing Science,
College of Medical Sciences,
Faculty of Basic Medical Science,
Ambrose Alli University,
Ekpoma, Edo State.
Dear Madam,
I am a student of the Department of Nursing in Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma,

carrying out a research project title “Prevalence And Knowledge Of Side Effects Of Self

Medication Among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Clinic At Irrua Specialist

Teaching Hospital, Irrua, Edo State in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of

Nursing Science ([Link]).

I will be grateful if you would carefully complete this questionnaire, as it will help me

conclude the study. I also promise to treat all information given with high level of

confidentiality thanks.

Yours Faithfully
OKOEGUALE MILDRED
CMS/FBM/NSG/19/53138
Section A: Socio – Demographic Data
1. Age :16 – 25 () 26 – 35 () 45 and above ()

2. Education Level: Primary School () Secondary School () Tertiary

Institution ()

3. Occupation: Unemployed () Self Employed () Other ()

33
 4. Marital Status: Single () Married () Divorced () Windowed ()

5. Religion: Christianity () Islam () African Tradition ()

Section B: Prevalence of Self – Medication

S/N VARIABLE YES NO

6 Have you taken any medication without a doctor’s

prescription during this pregnancy?

7 Have you used over – the – counter (OTC) drugs while

pregnant?

8 Have you used herbal remedies without consulting a

healthcare provider:

9 Do you regularly self – medicate for minor symptoms

(e.g, headache, nausea)?

10 Have you ever bought drugs from a pharmacy without

a prescription while pregnant?

11 Have you shared or used another person’s prescribed

medication during this pregnancy?

12 Have you self – medicated more than once during

pregnancy?

13 Do you keep medications at home for use without a

prescription?

34
 14 Have you used traditional or alternative medicine

without medical advice?

15 Do you currently engage in self- medication despite

attending antenatal clinics?

Section C: Knowledge of Potential Side Effect of Self – Medication

S/N VARIABLE YES NO

16 Do you know that some drugs can harm your unborn

baby?

17 Are you aware that self – medication can cause birth

defects?

18 Do you know that some over – the counter drugs are

not safe during pregnancy?

19 Are you informed about drug interactions and their

dangers during pregnancy?

20 Do you know that taking incorrect dosages can harm

your health?

21 Are you aware that herbal remedies may have unknown

side effects?

22 Do you believe that some medications can cause

35
 miscarriage?

23 Have you received any education on the risks of self –

medication during antenatal visits?

24 do you know that not all medications are safe in every

trimester of pregnancy?

25 are you aware that improper drug use can lead to

complications during delivery?

26 do you know the potential effects of self – medication

on fetal development?

27 Are you aware that consulting a healthcare provider is

necessary before using any drug?

Section D: Contributing Factors to Self – Medication

S/N VARIABLE YES NO

28 Do you self – medicate due to long waiting times at the

clinic?

29 Is lack of money a reason for not seeing a doctor before

taking drugs?

30 Do you self – medicate because you believe you know

36
 what medication you need?

31 Have you received advice from friends / family to take

certain medications?

32 Do you think over – the – counter medications are

always safe during pregnancy?

33 Is poor access to healthcare facilities a reason you self

– medicate?

34 Do you feel more comfortable using herbal or

traditional medicine?

35 Do you believe antenatal care does not address all your

health needs?

36 Have you previously used self – medication

successfully?

37 Do advertisements or media influence your decision to

self – medicate?

37