Unit 2

Logic Gates and Boolean Algebra

• 2.1.Basic definition of Boolean Algebra
• 2.2.Basic Theory of Boolean Algebra, Boolean Functions, Logical operations
• 2.3.Logic Gates, IC Digital Logic Families. Basic gates (AND, OR, NOT gates)
• 2.4.Universal gates (NAND and NOR gates), other gates (XOR, XNOR gates)
• 2.5.Boolean identities, De Morgan Laws.
• Lab Work:
• Verification of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR,
• XOR, and XNOR gate.
Objectives
• Explain Boolean Logic and Boolean Algebra
• Generate the logic gates with diagram, truth table and Boolean
function.
• Explain Boolean Algebra and laws of Boolean Algebra
• Identify the universal gate.
Introduction to Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra or switching algebra is a system of mathematical logic.
It is a two valued system of Algebra that represents logical relationships
and operations. An English mathematician George Boole is the first to
apply these algebric techniques to the logic process.
He pointed out similarity between algebraic symbols and those that
represent logical forms. It began the algebra of logic called Boolean
Algebra.
It is the set of rules used to simplify the given logic expression without
changing its functionality (Eg: A+A’B = A+B)
It is used when number of variables are less (For: 1,2,3)
Rules in Boolean Algebra
i. Compliment
• (A’)’ = A iii. OR
• A+A=A
ii. AND • A+1=1
• A.A = A • A+0 = A
• A.0 = 0 • A+A’ = 1
• A.1 = A
• A.A’ = 0
iv. Distributive Law A.B = B.A
A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
A+(B.C) = (A+B).(A+C) vi. Associative Law
(A.B).C = A.(B.C)
A+A’B = A+B
A’+A.B = A’+B vii. De Morgan’s Law
(A+B)’ = A’.B’
v. Commutative Law (A.B)’ = A’ + B’
A+B = B+A
Priority Eg2: Y = AB + AB’C + AB’C’
1. NOT Eg3: Y = (A+B+C)(A+B’+C)(A+B+C’)
2. AND Eg4: Y = (A+B)(A+B’)(A’+B)(A’+B’)
3. OR
Beauty of Boolean algebra are:
Eg: Y = BAC’ + B’AC’ + BC’ • By using the given set of rules we can
Y = AC’[B +B’] + BC’ reduce the expression like
Y = AC’.1 + BC’ • Reduction of hardware will be given by
Less number of gates. So cost will be
Y = AC’ + BC’ decrease
• Fast response & increase in speed
Eg1: Y = AB + A.B’
Basic Operations
Logical addition, logical multiplication and complementation are the
basic operations or logic operations used in Boolean algebra. In
Boolean algebra
• Logic 0 means False, Off, Low, No
• Logic 1 means True, On, High, Yes
Logical Addition (OR operation)
In Boolean algebra logical addition is denoted by (+) or
by OR. Here each variable can have either two values
i.e. 0 or 1. For logical addition
0+0=0
Input Output
0+1=1
A B R=A+B
1+0=1
0 0 0
1+1=1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Logical Multiplication (AND operation)
In Boolean algebra logical multiplication is denoted by ( . ) or by
AND where each variable can have either two values i.e. 0 or 1.
For logical multiplication
0.0=0
Input Output
0.1=0
A B R=A.B
1.0=0
0 0 0
1.1=1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Complementation
In an operation in Boolean algebra complementation is
denoted by ( ‘ ). Complement of A is A’ read as NOT A.
In negation process some time dash is also placed over
the term or terms. Truth Table of Logical
Complementation

Input Output
A R = A’
0 1
1 0
Logic Gate
Gates are digital circuit and they are also called as logic circuits. A
logical gate is an electronic circuit that operates on one or more input
signals to produce an output signal. Gates are represented by symbols,
the lines entering the symbol from left side are inputs and the line on
the right is the output. A small circle on an input or output signify the
complements of the signals of that line.
• Basic gates are AND, OR, NOT gates
• Universal gates are NAND and NOR gates
• Other gates are XOR, XNOR gates
OR GATE
A
A +B
OR Gate is an electronic B
device with output as
Symbol for OR Gate
equal to OR sum of the
logical input where the
output is 1 when at least Input Output
one input is one.
A B F = A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
Venn Diagram
1 1 1
 AND GATE
And Gate is an electronic A
device which receives two or F= A . B
more inputs and produce an
output equal to AND product B
of the inputs. The output of Symbol for AND Gate
AND gate is 1 when both/all
the inputs are 1.

Input Output
A B F=A .B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
Venn Diagram 1 1 1
Universal Gate: NOT GATE
Not Gate is also called as
an inverter. Its output is
the complement of the A F=A’
input. It has only one
input and one output. Symbol for NOT Gate

A F=A’
0 1
1 0
Venn Diagram
Universal Gate: NOR GATE
NOR function is the A
complement of the OR B
F=(A+B)’
function. This gate is
logically equivalent to a Symbol for NOR Gate
NOT gate with an OR gate.
Input Output
A B F=(A+B)’
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
Venn Diagram 1 1 0
NAND GATE
NAND function is the A
complement of the AND F=(A.B)’
function. This gate is B

logically equivalent to a Symbol for NAND Gate

NOT gate with an AND
gate. Input Output
A B F=(A.B)’
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
Venn Diagram 1 1 0
Exclusive OR(XOR) gate
In XOR Gate the
A
output is 1 when either
F=A’.B+A.B’
but not both the inputs
B
are 1. For 2 statement
Symbol for XOR Gate
A and B XOR is also
denoted as A Å B Input Output
A B F= A’.B+A.B’
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
Venn Diagram
1 1 0
Exclusive NOR(XNOR) gate
In XNOR Gate the output
A
is 1 only when both F=AB + A ‘B ‘=(AÅB)’
inputs are either 0 or 1. It
is equivalent to an B
Exclusive OR gate Symbol for XNOR Gate
followed by an inverter. It
is denoted as (AÅB)’
Input Output
A B F= AB + A’B’
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
Venn Diagram 1 1 1
 IC Digital Logic Families
In Digital Electronics, a logic family refers to digital integrated circuit devices which are
constructed with a combination of electronic gates. A family has its own power supply
voltage and distinct logic levels. Some families were also introduced as individual
components which were used to design integrated circuits and also to interconnect
them. Each family has its own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages. Also within
each family, there is a range of voltages which may be high level or low level. These
families are listed below:
• Diode Logic (DL)
• Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL)
• Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL)
• Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
• Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
• Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Logic (CMOS)
Diode Logic (DL)
In Diode logic, all the logic is implemented with the use of resistors and
diodes. It is essential that the diode is forward biased so that it can
conduct. In diode logic, the purpose of the diodes is to perform OR and
AND operations. Diodes can also be used as a logical switch. The
disadvantage of Diodes is that they tend to degrade the signals quickly.
Diodes also cannot work for multiple stages, only one stage at a time.
The diodes also cannot perform the NOT operation which limits their
functionality.
Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL)
In resistor-transistor logic, all the logic is implemented with the use of
transistors and resistors. In this logic, input signals are combined with
the use of transistors. These input signals are then inverted and
amplified. Sometimes an extra transistor is needed to re-amplify the
signal. Resistor-Transistor gates are not very expensive and are very
simple to construct. The drawback in using RTL gates is that they draw
a great amount of current from the power supply. They are used in
slower applications, but cannot be used in today’s computers as they
cannot switch at high speeds. RTL gates can be used as amplifiers as
well to amplify small signals. They can also be used as an interface
between digital and linear circuits.
Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
In Diode-transistor logic, all the logic is implemented with the use of
diodes and transistors. DTL has some advantages over DL and RTL. As
the diodes can perform AND and OR operations but along with a
transistor the output signal can be amplified. In DTL, the signal can be
restored to full logic levels if we add a transistor at the output of the
logic gates. This results in logic inversion. Another advantage of DTL is
that the OR operation can be performed by the diodes instead of
resistors. This removes the interaction between input signals. But the
switching speed of the transistor is limited due to the input resistor to
transistor. DTL was used in early vacuum tube computers.
 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
In transistor-transistor logic, the logic gates are constructed around the transistors. It was first introduced in 1964. TTL uses
bipolar transistors to construct its integrated circuits. There have been different versions of TTL:
Standard TTL.
High speed TTL.
Low power TTL.
Schhottky TTL.
All the TTL families above have three configurations namely:

Totem-Pole output.
Open collector output.
Tristate output.
The input sections of TTL consists of a phase splitter transistor and an input transistor.The input transistor conducts when
the emitter-base junction becomes forward biased.

TTL has become the standard logic circuit in many application for a number of years. TTL greatly decreases the
manufacturing costs because multiple emitters can be added in the input so no extra space is needed and a multiple input
gate can be constructed easily. The output circuit has also been modified in recent years and the the configuration is
called “Totem pole”. A commercial IC package of TTL includes three three-input gates, four two-input gates, or two four-
input gates. The structure of the IC always remains the same.
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)
In Emitter coupled logic, the transistors are prevented from going into
deep saturation so that there are no storage delays. This logic is used in
applications with high speed environment. ECL is considered to be one
of the best because there is a very low propagation delay. In fact, it is
the fastest bi-polar circuit available today. ECL was first introduced in
1962. This logic family bypasses TTL in terms of speed. ECL is also a
non-saturated logic. The logic levels for ECL are normally -0.9V for high
logic and -1.6 for low logic. The design of ECL consists of termination
resistors which allows the signals to propagate with very low reflection.
Complementary Metal Oxcide Semiconductor
Logic (CMOS)
CMOS is known for its low power consumption and high fan-out. The
transistors inside the CMOS are made from an NMOS transistor and
PMOS transistor. To realize the logical functions, both P-type and N-
type transistors are used. It is currently being used in microprocessor
technology and Application Specific Integrated Circuits. There is no
power dissipation in CMOS. It is also considered to be one of the most
reliable logic family today.
Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra
• In Boolean Algebra
And is denoted by . OR ٨
Or is denoted by + OR v

• Identity Laws
P.0=0 P+1=1
P. 1 = P P+0=P

• Idempotent Law
P. P = P P+P=P
• Commutative Law
p.q=q.p p+q=q+p
p٨q=q٨p pvq=qvp

• Associative Law
(p . q) . r = p . (q .r) (p + q) + r = p + (q + r)
Laws using AND and OR operator

• Distributive Law
p . (q + r) = (p . q) + (p . r)
p + (q . r) = (p + q) . (p + r)

• Addition Law
p.(p+q) = p = p+ (p.q) this is also called as Law of duality.
This is the property of changing operations and identity elements in
Boolean algebra is known as duality principle. The dual is formed by replacing AND
with OR, OR with AND, 0 with 1 and 1 with 0. Variables and complements are left
unchanged.
Laws using NOT operation
• Complement Law
p . ~p = 0 p + ~p = 1

• Involution Law
Involution law states that the application of the NOT operation twice in
a logic circuit yields the output that is the same as the input itself.
p = ~(~p)
De Morgan’s Law
De Morgan’s law states that the logic circuit performing the
complement of the output of an AND operation is equivalent to a logic
performing the OR operation on the complements of the input
themselves.
(x+y)‘ = x’.y’ (x.y)’ = x’ + y’