JAYARAJ ANNAPACKIAM C.S.I.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai and
Accredited by NBA (CSE))
MARGOSCHIS NAGAR, NAZARETH - 628 617

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Academic Year : 2024 - 2025 ODD SEMESTER

Semester : VII
Staff Name : Y. SHEELA
Designation : AP
Department : CSE

OGI352 - GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

LECTURE NOTES

Prepared by Verified by Approved by

Staff Incharge HOD Principal
[Mrs. Y. Sheela]
 JAYARAJ ANNAPACKIAM C.S.I. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai and
Accredited by NBA (CSE))
MARGOSCHIS NAGAR, NAZARETH - 628 617

VISION

To provide quality Technical Education Reachable and Affordable to Rural

Students.

MISSION

 To produce highly competent Engineers with social commitment.

 To propel the skills of students to meet industrial needs.

 To plant the spirit of development with ethical values.

 JAYARAJ ANNAPACKIAM C.S.I COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai and
Accredited by NBA (CSE))
MARGOSCHIS NAGAR, NAZARETH - 628 617

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (R 2021)

VISION
To produce exemplary computer engineers by offering quality technical education to rural
students for developing the society.
MISSION
1. To Create a center of excellence in computer education to meet the industrial needs.
2. To Sharpen the skills of students to survive in the competitive technological world.
3. To Enlighten the students to become socially responsive computer engineers.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
Graduates can
1. Apply their technical competence in computer science to solve real world problems, with
technical and people leadership.
2. Conduct cutting edge research and develop solutions on problems of social relevance.
3. Work in a business environment, exhibiting team skills, work ethics, adaptability and
lifelong learning.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
The Students will be able to
1. Exhibit design and programming skills to build and automate business solutions using
cutting edge technologies.
2. Strong theoretical foundation leading to excellence and excitement towards research, to
provide elegant solutions to complex problems.
3. Ability to work effectively with various engineering fields as a team to design, build and
develop system applications.
OGI352 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM LTPC
3 0 03
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To impart the knowledge on basic components, data preparation and implementation of
Geographical Information System.
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS 9
Introduction to GIS - Basic spatial concepts - Coordinate Systems - GIS and Information
Systems – Definitions – History of GIS - Components of a GIS – Hardware, Software, Data,
People, Methods – Proprietary and open source Software - Types of data – Spatial, Attribute
data- types of attributes – scales/ levels of measurements.
UNIT II SPATIAL DATA MODELS 9
Database Structures – Relational, Object Oriented – Entities – ER diagram - data models -
conceptual, logical and physical models - spatial data models – Raster Data Structures – Raster
Data Compression - Vector Data Structures - Raster vs Vector Models- TIN and GRID data
models.
UNIT III DATA INPUT AND TOPOLOGY 9
Scanner - Raster Data Input – Raster Data File Formats – Georeferencing – Vector Data Input
– Digitizer – Datum Projection and reprojection -Coordinate Transformation – Topology -
Adjacency, connectivity and containment – Topological Consistency – Non topological file
formats - Attribute Data linking – Linking External Databases – GPS Data Integration
UNIT IV DATA QUALITY AND STANDARDS 9
Data quality - Basic aspects - completeness, logical consistency, positional accuracy, temporal
accuracy, thematic accuracy and lineage – Metadata – GIS Standards –Interoperability - OGC
- Spatial Data Infrastructure
UNIT V DATA MANAGEMENT AND OUTPUT 9
Import/Export – Data Management functions- Raster to Vector and Vector to Raster
Conversion - Data Output - Map Compilation – Chart/Graphs – Multimedia – Enterprise Vs.
Desktop GIS-Distributed GIS.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
On completion of the course, the student is expected to
 CO1 - Have basic idea about the fundamentals of GIS.
 CO2 - Understand the types of data models.
  CO3 - Get knowledge about data input and topology.
 CO4 - Gain knowledge on data quality and standards.
 CO5 - Understand data management functions and data output.
TEXTBOOKS:
1. Kang - Tsung Chang, Introduction to Geographic Information Systems, McGraw Hill
Publishing, 2nd Edition, 2011.
2. Ian Heywood, Sarah Cornelius, Steve Carver, Srinivasa Raju, “An Introduction
Geographical Information Systems, Pearson Education, 2nd Edition, 2007.
REFERENCES:
1. Lo. C. P., Albert K.W. Yeung, Concepts and Techniques of Geographic Information
Systems, Prentice-Hall India Publishers, 2006
2. T. Graceshalini, S. Kavitha, Geographic Information System, Technical Publications.
CO’s- PO’s & PSO’s MAPPING
PO’s PSO’s
CO’s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
1 3 1
2 3 3 1
3 3 3 3 1
4 3 3 3 3 3 1
5 3 3 3 3 3 1
AVG 3 3 3 3 3 1
1 - low, 2 - medium, 3 - high, ‘-' - no correlation
 COURSE PLAN
Text book / Teaching
S. No. of
Topics to be covered Reference Page No. Method
No. Periods
book Followed
UNIT I - FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS [9]
T1 1-2 CRL,
1 Introduction to GIS 1
R2 1.1-1.2 MCQ
CRL,
2 Basic spatial concepts 1 R2 1.2-1.8
MCQ
Coordinate Systems - GIS and T1 23-27 CRL,
3 1
Information Systems - Definitions R2 1.8-1.11 MCQ
T1 3-4
4 History of GIS 1 CRL
R2 1.11-1.12
Components of a GIS - Hardware, T1 3
5 1 CRL
Software, Data, People, Methods R2 1.13-1.14
Proprietary and open source
6 1 R2 1.15-1.20 CRL
Software
Types of data - Spatial, Attribute
7 1 R2 1.21-1.24 CRL
data
8 Types of attributes 1 R2 1.24-1.25 CRL
9 Scales/ levels of measurements 1 R2 1.25-1.28 CRL
UNIT II - SPATIAL DATA MODELS [9]
Database Structures- Relational,
10 1 R2 2.1-2.6 CRL
Object Oriented
11 Entities - ER diagram 1 R2 2.6-2.8 CRL
Data models - conceptual, logical
12 1 Web - CRL
and physical models
13 Spatial data models 1 R2 2.8-2.14 CRL

T1 CRL,
14 Raster Data Structures 1 81-84
R2 MCQ
2.14-2.18
T1 84-85
15 Raster Data Compression 1 CRL
R2 2.18-2.20
CRL,
16 Vector Data Structures 1 R2 2.20-2.26
MCQ
17 Raster vs Vector Models 1 R2 2.26-2.32 CRL
18 TIN and GRID data models 1 R2 2.32-2.35 CRL
UNIT III - DATA INPUT AND TOPOLOGY [9]
19 Scanner 1 R2 3.1-3.3 CRL
Raster Data Input - Raster Data
20 1 R2 3.3-3.10 CRL
File Formats
Georeferencing - Vector Data CRL,
21 1 R2 3.10-3.12
Input NPTEL
 Text book / Teaching
S. No. of
Topics to be covered Reference Page No. Method
No. Periods
book Followed
Digitizer - Datum Projection and CRL,
22 1 R2 3.12-3.15
reprojection SAV
Coordinate Transformation -
T1 118-122
23 Topology - Adjacency, 1 CRL
R2 3.15-3.16
connectivity and containment
Topological Consistency - Non
24 1 R2 3.16-3.18 CRL
topological file formats
25 Attribute Data linking 1 R2 3.18-3.20 CRL
26 Linking External Databases 1 R2 3.20-3.25 CRL
27 GPS Data Integration 1 R2 3.25-3.33 CRL
UNIT IV - DATA QUALITY AND STANDARD [9]
28 Data quality 1 R2 2.38 CRL
Basic aspects - Completeness,
logical consistency, positional
29 3 R2 2.38-2.45 CRL
accuracy, Temporal accuracy,
thematic accuracy and lineage
30 Metadata 1 T1 99 CRL
CRL,
31 GIS Standards 1 Web -
SAV
32 Interoperability 1 Web - CRL
33 OGC 1 R2 2.36-2.38 CRL
34 Spatial Data Infrastructure 1 T1 94 CRL
UNIT V - DATA MANAGEMENT AND OUTPUT [9]
35 Import/Export 1 Web - CRL
36 Data Management functions 1 Web - CRL
Raster to Vector and Vector to
37 2 T1 86-87 CRL
Raster Conversion
38 Data Output 1 Web - CRL
39 Map Compilation 1 Web - CRL
40 Chart/Graphs 1 Web - CRL
41 Multimedia 1 T2 265-266 CRL
Enterprise Vs. Desktop GIS- CRL,
42 1 Web -
Distributed GIS SAV
Total: 45 Periods
 UNIT I - FUNDAMENTALS OF GIS
Introduction to GIS - Basic spatial concepts - Coordinate Systems - GIS and Information
Systems – Definitions – History of GIS - Components of a GIS – Hardware, Software, Data,
People, Methods – Proprietary and open source Software - Types of data – Spatial, Attribute
data- types of attributes – scales/ levels of measurements.

INTRODUCTION TO GIS
(i) A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. GIS
applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created
searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of
all these operations. GIS (more commonly GIScience) sometimes refers to
geographic information science (GIScience), the science underlying geographic
concepts, applications, and systems.
(ii) GIS can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, techniques and
methods. It is attached to many operations and has many applications related to
engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance,
telecommunications, and business. For that reason, GIS and location intelligence
applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on
analysis and visualization.
(iii) GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable.
Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of
occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and
elevation, respectively. All Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent
references should be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical
location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues
of scientific inquiry.

BASIC SPATIAL CONCEPTS

Spatial Concept seeks to position spatial concepts as the driving force for spatial
thinking and for the selection and use of spatial tools. Eight concepts are the focus of spatial
reasoning in the use of geographical information. These concepts are demonstrable at all levels
of space and time (from sub-atomic to galactic, passed through future, and microseconds to
ions). They can be rendered understandable through simple illustrations to young children but
they are also sufficiently engaging at advanced levels for thinking about scientific and social
problems.
 Location - Understanding formal and informal methods of specifying “where”
 Distance - The ability to reason from knowledge of relative position
 Network - Understanding the importance of connections
 Neighborhood and Region - Drawing inferences from spatial context
 Scale - Understanding spatial scale and its significance
 Spatial Heterogeneity - The implications of spatial variability
 Spatial Dependence - Understanding relationships across space
 Objects and Fields - Viewing phenomena as continuous in space-time or as discrete
These concepts have been a foundation for researchers for centuries (see Classics in
Spatial Thinking). They have been augmented in recent decades with computational and
visualization tools and with vast and easily accessible information resources. These concepts
and tools must be as central to general education as reading, writing, and arithmetic. In
conjunction with the appropriate spatial tools, they provide a basic scaffold for designing
research, solving problems, and structuring education programs.
Spatial concepts invites contributions about other concepts for spatial thinking (e.g., in
design fields and in the humanities and arts). Examples may include the link between form and
function in architecture, the search for pattern in speech and text, the use of spatial notation in
music, the use of spatial metaphor in the sciences and humanities, the importance of place in
cultural and social studies, and the spatial elements of aesthetics in the visual arts.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Figure: Examples of latitudinal lines are shown on the left and examples of longitudinal
lines are shown on the right. The 0° degree reference lines for each are shown in red
(equator for latitudinal measurements and prime meridian for longitudinal
measurements).
 A geographic coordinate system is a reference system for identifying locations on the
curved surface of the earth. Locations on the earth’s surface are measured in angular units from
the center of the earth relative to two planes: the plane defined by the equator and the plane
defined by the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich England). A location is therefore
defined by two values: a latitudinal value and a longitudinal value.
A latitude measures the angle from the equatorial plane to the location on the earth‟s
surface. A longitude measures the angle between the prime meridian plane and the north-south
plane that intersects the location of interest. For example Colby College is located at around
45.56° North and 69.66° West. In a GIS system, the North-South and East-West directions are
encoded as signs. North and East are assigned a positive (+) sign and South and West are
assigned a negative (-) sign. Colby College‟s location is therefore encoded as +45.56° and -
69.66°.

Figure. A slice of earth showing the latitude and longitude measurements.

A GCS is defined by an ellipsoid, geoid and datum. These elements are presented next.
Sphere and Ellipsoid
Assuming that the earth is a perfect sphere greatly simplifies mathematical calculations
and works well for small-scale maps (maps that show a large area of the earth). However, when
working at larger scales, an ellipsoid representation of earth may be desired if accurate
measurements are needed. An ellipsoid is defined by two radii: the semi-major axis (the
equatorial radius) and the semi-minor axis (the polar radius).
The reason the earth has a slightly ellipsoidal shape has to do with its rotation which
induces a centripetal force along the equator. This results in an equatorial axis that is roughly
21 km longer than the polar axis.
Our estimate of these radii is quite precise thanks to satellite and computational
capabilities. The semi-major axis is 6,378,137 meters and the semi-minor axis is 6,356,752
meters. Differences in distance measurements along the surfaces of an ellipsoid vs. a sphere
are small but measurable (the difference can be as high as 20 km) as illustrated in the following
lattice plots.

Fig. Spheroids with vertical rotational axes

Geoid
Representing the earth’s true shape, the geoid, as a mathematical model is crucial for a
GIS environment. However, the earth’s shape is not a perfectly smooth surface. It has
undulations resulting from changes in gravitational pull across its surface. These undulations
may not be visible with the naked eye, but they are measurable and can influence locational
measurements.

Figure. Earth’s geoid with gravitational field shown in rainbow colors. The ondulations
depicted in the graphics are exaggerated for visual effects. (source: NASA)
Note that we are not including mountains and ocean bottoms in our discussion, instead
we are focusing solely on the earth’s gravitational potential which can be best visualized by
imagining the earth’s surface completely immersed in water and measuring the sea surface
level over the entire earth surface.
The earth’s gravitational field is dynamic and is tied to the flow of the earth’s hot and
fluid core. Hence its geoid is constantly changing, albeit at a large temporal scale.The
measurement and representation of the earth’s shape is at the heart of geodesy–a branch of
applied mathematics.
Datum
So how are we to reconcile our need to work with a (simple) mathematical model of
the earth’s shape with the on dulating nature of the earth’s surface (i.e. its geoid). The solution
is to align the geoid with the ellipsoid (or sphere) representation of the earth and to map the
earth’s surface features onto this ellipsoid/sphere. The alignment can be local where the
ellipsoid surface is closely fit to the geoid at a particular location on the earth’s surface (such
as the state of Kansas) or geocentric where the ellipsoid is aligned with the center of the earth.
How one chooses to align the ellipsoid to the geoid defines a datum.
Local Datum
There are many local datums to choose from, some are old while others are more
recently defined. The choice of datum is largely driven by the location of interest. For example,
when working in the US, a popular local datum to choose from is the North American Datum
of 1927 (or NAD27 for short). NAD27 works well for the US but it’s not well suited for other
parts of the world. For example, a far better local datum for Europe is the European Datum of
1950 (ED50 for short). Examples of common local datums are shown in the following table:

Local datum Acronym Best for Comment

North American Continental This is an old datum but still prevalent
NAD27
Datum of 1927 US because of the wide use of older maps.
European Datum of Western Developed after World War II and still
ED50
1950 Europe quite popular today. Not used in the UK.
World Geodetic Developed by the Department of
WGS72 Global
System 1972 Defense.

Geocentric Datum
Many of the modern datums use a geocentric alignment. These include the popular
World Geodetic Survey for 1984 (WGS84) and the North American Datums of 1983 (NAD83).
Most of the popular geocentric datums use the WGS84 ellipsoid or the GRS80 ellipsoid. These
ellipsoids‟ semi-major and semi-minor axes are nearly identical: 6,378,137 meters and
6,356,752 meters respectively. Examples of popular geocentric datums are shown in the
following table:

Geocentric datum Acronym Best for Comment

This is one of the most popular
North American Datum of Continental
NAD83 modern datums for the contiguous
1983 US
US.
 European Terrestrial Western This is the most popular modern
ETRS89
Reference System 1989 Europe datum for much of Europe.
Developed by the Department of
World Geodetic System 1984 WGS84 Global
Defense.

GIS AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS

As Definition of GIS indicates GIS as a specialized information system stresses
"spatially distributed features (points, lines, areas), activities (physical and human-invoked),
and events (time).
GIS as an approach to Geographic Information Science
1) research on GIS (algorithms, analytical methods, visualization tools, user
interfaces, human-computer-human interaction)
2) research with GIS: GIS as a tool used by many substantive disciplines in their own
ways (anthropology, archeology, forestry, geology, engineering, business and
management sciences)

DEFINITIONS
A GIS is a system of hardware, software, data, people, organizations, and institutional
arrangements for collecting, storing, analyzing and disseminating information about areas of
the earth. It is also defined as an information system designed to work with data referenced by
spatial / geographical coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database system with specific
capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set of operations for working with the data.
A Geographic Information System is a computer based system which is used to digitally
reproduce and analyze the feature present on earth surface and the events that take place on it.
In the light of the fact that almost 70% of the data has geographical reference as its denominator,
it becomes imperative to underline the importance of a system which can represent the given
data geographically.

HISTORY OF GIS
The idea of portraying different layers of data on a series of base maps, and relating
things geographically, has been around much older than computers invention. Thousands years
ago, the early man used to draw pictures of the animals they hunted on the walls of caves. These
animal drawings are track lines and tallies thought to depict migration routes. While simplistic
in comparison to modern technologies, these early records mimic the two-element structure of
modern geographic information systems, an image associated with attribute information.
Possibly the earliest use of the geographic method, in 1854 John Snow depicted a
cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the locations of some individual cases.
His study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water
pump within the heart of the cholera outbreak. While the basic elements of topology and theme
existed previously in cartography, the John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods,
not only to depict but also to analyze, clusters of geographically dependent phenomena for the
first time.
The early 20th century saw the development of "photo lithography" where maps were
separated into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research
led to general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s. In the year 1962,
the world's first true operational GIS was developed by the federal Department of Forestry and
Rural Development in Ottawa, Canada by Dr. Roger Tomlinson. It was called the "Canada
Geographic Information System" (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data
collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI). It is an initiative to determine the land
capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation,
wildlife, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:50,000.
CGIS was the world's first "system" and was an improvement over "mapping"
applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing or scanning. It
supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs" having
a true embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and location specific information in a
separate files. Dr. Tomlinson is known as the "father of GIS," for his use of overlays in
promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data.
In 1964, Howard T Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial
Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where a number of important theoretical
concepts in spatial data handling were developed. This lab had major influence on the
development of GIS until early 1980s. Many pioneers of newer GIS "grew up" at the Harvard
lab and had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as 'SYMAP', 'GRID', and
'ODYSSEY'.
By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI) and CARIS emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software,
successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach
to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to
organizing attribute data into database structures. More functions for user interaction were
developed mainly in a graphical way by a user friendly interface (Graphical User Interface),
which gave to the user the ability to sort, select, extract, reclassify, reproject and display data
on the basis of complex geographical, topological and statistical criteria. During the same time,
the development of a public domain GIS begun by the U.S. Army Corp of Engineering
Research Laboratory (USA-CERL) in Champaign, Illinois, a branch of the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers to meet the need of the United States military for software for land management
and environmental planning.
In the years 1980s and 1990s industry growth were spurred on by the growing use of
GIS on Unix workstations and the personal computers. By the end of the 20th century, the rapid
growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms
and users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS4 data over the Internet,
requiring uniform data format and transfer standards. More recently, there is a growing number
of free, open source GIS packages, which run on a range of operating systems and can be
customized to perform specific tasks. As computing power increased and hardware prices
slashed down, the GIS became a viable technology for state development planning. It has
become a real Management Information System (MIS), and thus able to support decision
making processes.

COMPONENTS OF A GIS
A working GIS integrates five key components: -
i) Hardware ii) Software iii) Data iv) People v) Methods
GIS enables the user to input, manage, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically
referenced data using a computerized system. To perform various operations with GIS, the
components of GIS such as software, hardware, data, people and methods are essential.

HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, DATA, PEOPLE, METHODS

Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. Key software components are (a) a database management system
(DBMS) (b) tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information (c) tools that
support geographic query, analysis, and visualization (d) a graphical user interface (GUI) for
easy access to tools. GIS software are either commercial software or software developed on
Open Source domain, which are available for free. However, the commercial software is
copyright protected, can be expensive and is available in terms number of licensees.
Currently available commercial GIS software includes Arc/Info, Intergraph, MapInfo,
Gram++ etc. Out of these Arc/Info is the most popular software package. And, the open source
software are AMS/MARS etc.
Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range
of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone
or networked configurations. Minimum configuration required to Arc/Info Desktop 9.0 GIS
application is as follows:
Product: ArcInfo Desktop 9.0
Platform: PC-Intel
Operating System: Windows XP Professional Edition, Home Edition
Service Packs/Patches: SP 1
SP2 (refer to Limitations)
Shipping/Release Date: May 10, 2004
Hardware Requirements
CPU Speed: 800 MHz minimum, 1.0 GHz recommended or higher
Processor: Pentium or higher
Memory/RAM: 256 MB minumum, 512 MB recommended or higher
Display Properties: Greater than 256 color depth
Swap Space: 300 MB minimum
Disk Space: Typical 605 MB NTFS, Complete 695 MB FAT32 + 50 MB forinstallation
Browser: Internet Explorer 6.0 Requirement:
(Some features of ArcInfo Desktop 9.0 require a minimum installation of Microsoft Internet
Explorer Version 6.0.)
Data
The most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data or Spatial data
and related tabular data can be collected in-house or bought from a commercial data provider.
Spatial data can be in the form of a map/remotely-sensed data such as satellite imagery and
aerial photography. These data forms must be properly geo-referenced (latitude/longitude).
Tabular data can be in the form attribute data that is in some way related to spatial data. Most
GIS software comes with inbuilt Database Management Systems (DBMS) to create and
maintain a database to help organize and manage data.
Users
GIS technology is of limited value without the users who manage the system and to
develop plans for applying it. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them do their everyday work.
These users are largely interested in the results of the analyses and may have no interest or
knowledge of the methods of analysis. The user-friendly interface of the GIS software allows
the nontechnical users to have easy access to GIS analytical capabilities without needing to
know detailed software commands. A simple User Interface (UI) can consist of menus and pull-
down graphic windows so that the user can perform required analysis with a few key presses
without needing to learn specific commands in detail.
People
GIS technology has limited value without the people who manage and develop plans
for applying it to real world problems. GIS user range from technical specialists who design
and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The
identification of GIS specialist's vs. end users is often critical to the proper implementation of
GIS technology. This is what called 'brain ware' which is equally important as the Hardware
and software. Brain ware refers to the purpose and objectives, and provides the reason and
justification, for using GIS.
This component of GIS includes all those individuals (such as the programmer,
database manager, GIS researcher etc.) who are making the GIS work, and also the individuals
who are at the user end using the GIS services, applications and tools.
Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which
are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

PROPRIETARY AND OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

In the context of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), proprietary software and
open-source software represent two key categories of tools used to manage, analyze, and
visualize spatial data. Here's an overview of each, along with examples and their implications
for GIS:
1. Proprietary GIS Software
Proprietary GIS software refers to software developed and sold by companies or
organizations under restrictive licenses. Users must purchase licenses to use these tools, and
the source code is not made available to the public.
Key Features:
 Closed Source: The underlying code is not accessible.
 Customer Support: Dedicated professional support is available.
 Ease of Use: Often comes with user-friendly interfaces and extensive documentation.
 Advanced Features: Regular updates and integration of cutting-edge tools, tailored for
enterprise needs.
 Cost: Can be expensive due to licensing fees, especially for advanced tools or enterprise
use.
Examples:
 Esri ArcGIS: The most widely used proprietary GIS software. It offers comprehensive
tools for spatial analysis, map creation, and geospatial database management.
 MapInfo: Known for spatial data visualization and mapping.
 Hexagon GeoMedia: Used for data integration and geospatial data analysis.
Advantages:
 Reliable and stable with official support.
 Extensive training materials and user community.
 Advanced tools for complex spatial analysis and enterprise-grade solutions.
Disadvantages:
 High licensing costs.
 Limited customization due to closed-source nature.
2. Open-Source GIS Software
Open-source GIS software is freely available and allows users to access, modify, and
distribute the source code. These tools are widely used for research, education, and by
organizations with limited budgets.
Key Features:
 Free or Low Cost: Most tools are free to use.
 Customizable: Users can adapt the software to their specific needs.
 Community Driven: Improvements and updates are contributed by a global
community.
Examples:
 QGIS (Quantum GIS): A powerful open-source GIS application that supports
multiple formats and offers many plugins for spatial analysis and mapping.
 GRASS GIS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System): Known for
advanced spatial modeling and analysis.
  GeoServer: Open-source server software that allows users to share, process, and edit
geospatial data.
Advantages:
 Free and accessible for individuals and organizations with budget constraints.
 Highly customizable and flexible.
 Active global community support.
Disadvantages:
 May require technical expertise for setup and use.
Lack of centralized customer support compared to proprietary software.

TYPES OF DATA
In Geographic Information Systems (GIS), data is categorized into two main types:
spatial data and attribute data. These types are foundational for geospatial analysis and
decision-making. Here's an explanation of each, along with the types of attributes:

SPATIAL, ATTRIBUTE DATA

1. Spatial Data
Spatial data represents the location, shape, and relationship of geographical features. It
answers the question "Where?" by providing information about the Earth's surface.
Types of Spatial Data:
 Vector Data: Represents geographic features using points, lines, and polygons.
o Points: Represent discrete locations (e.g., a city, tree, or well).
o Lines: Represent linear features (e.g., roads, rivers, or pipelines).
o Polygons: Represent area features (e.g., lakes, land parcels, or countries).
 Raster Data: Represents the Earth's surface using a grid of cells or pixels, with each
cell having a value.
o Examples: Satellite imagery, elevation models, or heat maps.
 3D Data: Includes elevation or depth information to represent topography or sub-
surface features.
o Examples: Digital Elevation Models (DEM), LiDAR data.
Uses:
 Mapping geographic features.
 Identifying spatial relationships (proximity, overlap, or containment).
2. Attribute Data
Attribute data provides descriptive information about spatial features. It answers the
question "What?" by describing the characteristics of a geographic feature.
Structure of Attribute Data:
 Stored in attribute tables linked to spatial data.
 Each row corresponds to a spatial feature (e.g., a city, road, or lake).
 Columns represent attributes (e.g., name, population, area, or category).

TYPES OF ATTRIBUTES
1. Nominal Attributes:
o Describe the identity or name of a feature without any order or ranking.
o Examples: Names of cities, types of land use, or categories of soil.
2. Ordinal Attributes:
o Represent data with a meaningful order or ranking but no quantifiable difference
between values.
o Examples: Road class (highway > street > trail), risk levels (high > medium >
low).
3. Interval Attributes:
o Represent numeric data where the difference between values is meaningful, but
there is no true zero point.
o Examples: Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit.
4. Ratio Attributes:
o Numeric data with a true zero point, allowing for meaningful ratios.
o Examples: Population, area, length, or income.
Uses:
 Enhancing spatial data analysis.
 Creating thematic maps (e.g., population density maps, land use categories).
Relationship Between Spatial and Attribute Data
Spatial data provides the location and geometry of features, while attribute data adds
descriptive details about those features. Together, they enable comprehensive spatial analysis.
For example:
 A vector dataset of cities (spatial data) might have attributes such as population, GDP,
and climate zone (attribute data).
  A raster dataset showing land cover (spatial data) could include cell values representing
vegetation type or elevation (attribute data).

SCALES/ LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTS.

The scales or levels of measurement refer to how data can be categorized, ordered,
and quantified. These scales were first introduced by psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens in
1946 and are essential for understanding how to analyze and interpret data. In GIS, these are
particularly relevant when dealing with attribute data.
1. Nominal Scale
 Definition: Data is categorized into distinct groups or classes without any inherent
order or ranking.
 Characteristics:
o Categories are mutually exclusive (no overlap).
o Categories are exhaustive (cover all possibilities).
o No numerical or quantitative value is associated.
 Examples:
o Land use types: Forest, Urban, Agricultural.
o Soil categories: Sandy, Clay, Loam.
o Names of rivers, countries, or cities.
 GIS Application: Often used to classify features like vegetation types or political
boundaries.
2. Ordinal Scale
 Definition: Data is categorized and ranked in a meaningful order, but the intervals
between ranks are not uniform or measurable.
 Characteristics:
o Indicates relative position or order.
o No consistent difference between levels.
 Examples:
o Risk levels: Low, Medium, High.
o Road quality: Poor, Fair, Good.
o Education levels: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary.
 GIS Application: Used for ranking suitability analysis, such as flood risk zones or land
value gradients.
3. Interval Scale
 Definition: Data is numeric, with equal intervals between values, but there is no true
zero point.
 Characteristics:
o Differences between values are meaningful.
o Ratios are not meaningful because of the lack of a true zero.
 Examples:
o Temperature (Celsius or Fahrenheit).
o Years (e.g., 1990, 2000).
 GIS Application: Typically used in climate studies or temporal mapping.
4. Ratio Scale
 Definition: Data is numeric, with equal intervals between values and a true zero point,
allowing for meaningful ratios.
 Characteristics:
o Allows for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
o Ratios between numbers are meaningful.
 Examples:
o Distance (meters, kilometers).
o Area (square kilometers).
o Population density (people per square kilometer).
o Precipitation (mm).
 GIS Application: Widely used in spatial analysis, such as measuring distances between
features, calculating areas, or assessing population densities.

Scale Characteristics Examples GIS Application

Land use types, soil Classifying land cover or

Nominal Categories without order
categories political regions

Ordered categories, no Risk levels, road Ranking suitability or

Ordinal
measurable difference quality prioritization

Temporal or climatic
Interval Equal intervals, no true zero Temperature, years
mapping

Distance, area, Spatial measurements and

Ratio Equal intervals, true zero
population density quantitative analysis
 UNIT II - SPATIAL DATA MODELS
Database Structures – Relational, Object Oriented – Entities – ER diagram - data models -
conceptual, logical and physical models - spatial data models – Raster Data Structures – Raster
Data Compression - Vector Data Structures - Raster vs Vector Models- TIN and GRID data
models.

DATABASE STRUCTURES
The two basic data structures in any fully-functional GIS are:
Vector, e.g,
 ArcInfo Coverages
 ArcGIS Shape Files
 CAD (AutoCAD DXF & DWG, or Micro Station DGN files)
 ASCII coordinate data
Raster, e.g,
 ArcInfo Grids
 Images

DATA STRUCTURE MODELS

Data models are the conceptual models that describe the structures of databases. The
structure of a database is defined by the data types, the constraints and the relationships for the
description or storage of data. Following are the most often used data models:
1) Hierarchical Data Structure Model
2) Network Data Structure Model
3) Relational Data Structure Model
4) Object Oriented Data Structure Model
Hierarchical Data Structure Model
It is the earliest database model that is evolved from file system where records are
arranged in a hierarchy or as a tree structure shown in the below figure. Records are connected
through pointers that store the address of the related record.
Each pointer establishes a parent-child relationship where a parent can have more than
one child but a child can only have one parent. There is no connection between the elements at
the same level. To locate a particular record, you have to start at the top of the tree with a parent
record and trace down the tree to the child.
Network Data Structure Model
A network is a generalized graph that captures relationships between objects using
connectivity shown figure. A network database consists of a collection of records that are
connected to each other through links. A link is an association between two records. It allows
each record to have many parents and many children thus allowing a natural model of
relationships between entities.

Relational Data Structure Model

  The relational data model was introduced by Codd in 1970. The relational database
relates or connects data in different files through the use of a common field.
 A flat file structure is used with a relational database model. In this arrangement, data
is stored in different tables made up of rows and columns as shown in figure.
 The columns of a table are named by attributes. Each row in the table is called a tuple
and represents a basic fact.
 No two rows of the same table may have identical values in all columns.

Object Oriented Database Structure

 An Object Oriented model uses functions to model spatial and non-spatial relationships
of geographic objects and the attributes.
 An object is an encapsulated unit which is characterized by attributes, a set of
orientations and rules.
 An object-oriented model has the following characteristics.
 Generic Properties: there should be an inheritance relationship.
 Abstraction: objects, classes and super classes are to be generated by classification,
generalisation, association and aggregation.
 Adhoc Queries: users can order spatial operations to obtain spatial relationships of
geographic objects using a special language.
 For example, let us try to represent a thought: “Hawaii is an island that is a state of
USA” in GIS. In this case, we don’t mind the geographic location with latitude and
longitude in the conventional GIS model. This is not appropriate to use the layers. In
an object-oriented model, we are more careful with spatial relationships for example,
“is a” (the island is a land) and “part of” (the state is a part of the country).
 In addition, Hawaii (state) has Honolulu City and also is in Pacific Region. Figure (a)
shows “is a n” inheritance for the super class of land, while Figure(b) shows the spatial
relationships for the object of the state.
ENTITIES - ER DIAGRAM
An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is a data modeling technique that graphically
illustrates an information system’s entities and the relationships between those entities. An
ERD is a conceptual and representational model of data used to represent the entity framework
infrastructure.
The elements of an ERD are:
 Entities
 Relationships
 Attributes
Steps involved in creating an ERD include:
 Identifying and defining the entities
 Determining all interactions between the entities
 Analyzing the nature of interactions/determining the cardinality of the
relationships
 Creating the ERD
Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD)
An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is crucial to creating a good database design. It
is used as a high-level logical data model, which is useful in developing a conceptual design
for databases.
An entity is a real-world item or concept that exists on its own. Entities are equivalent
to database tables in a relational database, with each row of the table representing an instance
of that entity.
An attribute of an entity is a particular property that describes the entity. A relationship
is the association that describes the interaction between entities. Cardinality, in the context of
ERD, is the number of instances of one entity that can, or must, be associated with each instance
of another entity. In general, there may be one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many
relationships.
For example, let us consider two real-world entities, an employee and his department.
An employee has attributes such as an employee number, name, department number, etc.
Similarly, department number and name can be defined as attributes of a department. A
department can interact with many employees, but an employee can belong to only one
department, hence there can be a one-to-many relationship, defined between department and
employee.
 In the actual database, the employee table will have department number as a foreign
key, referencing from department table, to enforce the relationship.
E-R Diagram example from Database Management course
The entity-relationship (E-R) diagram is one of the most commonly implemented
conceptual data models used with GIS. Entities, attributes, and relationships are used to
represent real-world features, what their properties are, and what the relationships are between
these entities. Hardware and software issues are not explored in the E-R Diagram. These are
addressed later in logical and physical data models. This first level of data abstraction is used
by geospatial analysts as a starting point when analyzing and assessing the data available to
them and how it fits together. The example below illustrates an E-R Diagram built during one
of my Geospatial Data Structures course assignments.

DATA MODELS
In GIS and data management, data models define how spatial and non-spatial data are
represented, stored, and processed. These models are classified into three key levels:
conceptual, logical, and physical models. Each level represents a different stage in the data
modeling process, from high-level abstraction to the technical implementation.
CONCEPTUAL, LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL MODELS
1. Conceptual Data Model
 Definition: A high-level, abstract representation of the system's data. It focuses on the
what rather than the how of the data and its relationships.
 Purpose:
o Capture the system's requirements.
o Define entities, relationships, and constraints.
o Serve as a communication tool between stakeholders (e.g., domain experts,
developers, and clients).
 Key Features:
o Does not consider implementation details like data formats or storage.
o Independent of specific database systems or software.
 Components:
o Entities: Objects or features (e.g., rivers, roads, land parcels).
o Attributes: Properties of entities (e.g., name, length, area).
o Relationships: Connections between entities (e.g., a road intersects a river).
 GIS Example:
o Entities: Land parcels, buildings, and roads.
o Attributes: Parcel ID, building height, road type.
o Relationships: Buildings located within parcels, roads connected to buildings.
2. Logical Data Model
 Definition: A detailed blueprint of the data that specifies how the data will be organized
and managed, independent of the physical database or system.
 Purpose:
o Translate the conceptual model into a formal structure.
o Focus on data organization and relationships in a way that can be
implemented in a database.
 Key Features:
o Specifies data types, relationships, keys, and constraints.
o Represents data in a database-independent format (e.g., relational, object-
oriented).
 Components:
o Entities and Tables: Representation of data as tables or objects.
 o Keys: Primary keys and foreign keys to enforce relationships.
o Normalization: Eliminating redundancy and ensuring consistency.
 GIS Example:
o Logical structure of a relational database for spatial data.
o Tables: Roads, Buildings, and Land Parcels.
o Relationships: A foreign key linking roads to land parcels.
3. Physical Data Model
 Definition: The implementation-specific representation of the data in a particular
database system, including storage and performance optimization details.
 Purpose:
o Define the exact structure of the database, considering software and hardware
requirements.
o Optimize for performance and storage efficiency.
 Key Features:
o Includes indexes, storage allocation, partitioning, and access paths.
o Dependent on the chosen database management system (DBMS) and hardware.
 Components:
o Tables and Indexes: Physical storage structures.
o Access Paths: Efficient retrieval mechanisms.
o Storage Format: File systems, data blocks, or cloud storage.
 GIS Example:
o Implementation of spatial data in a database like PostgreSQL/PostGIS or Esri
Geodatabase.
o Storage of raster data in tiles or vectors in spatial indexing structures.

SPATIAL DATA MODELS

Spatial data models in GIS define how geographic features and phenomena are
represented and organized in a digital environment. These models describe the structure of
spatial data and how it can be stored, manipulated, and visualized. The two primary spatial data
models are vector and raster, with additional extensions and hybrid models.
1. Vector Data Model
The vector model represents geographic features as discrete geometric shapes (points,
lines, and polygons), often used for precise representation of features.
Key Components:
 Points: Represent single locations with no area (e.g., a well or a city).
 Lines: Represent linear features (e.g., roads, rivers, pipelines).
 Polygons: Represent area features (e.g., lakes, land parcels, or administrative
boundaries).
Attributes:
 Each feature (point, line, or polygon) is linked to an attribute table containing
descriptive data (e.g., road names, population data).
Advantages:
 High precision in representing spatial features.
 Efficient for features with clear boundaries (e.g., property lines).
 Compact data storage.
Disadvantages:
 Complex spatial analysis can be computationally expensive.
 May not handle continuous data (e.g., elevation or temperature) efficiently.
Uses in GIS:
 Mapping infrastructure (roads, utilities).
 Land use planning.
 Managing cadastral data (property and land ownership).
2. Raster Data Model
The raster model represents geographic phenomena as a grid of cells (pixels), where
each cell has a value representing a specific property.
Key Components:
 Cell Values: Store numeric or categorical information (e.g., elevation, temperature,
land cover type).
 Resolution: Refers to the size of each cell; finer resolutions provide more detail but
require more storage.
Advantages:
 Well-suited for representing continuous data (e.g., elevation, rainfall, temperature).
 Simple structure, easy to manipulate and analyze.
Disadvantages:
 Large data size, especially at high resolutions.
 Precision is limited to the cell size.
 Boundaries of features are not as well-defined compared to vector data.
Uses in GIS:
 Remote sensing and satellite imagery analysis.
 Digital elevation models (DEMs).
 Climate modeling and environmental monitoring.

RASTER DATA STRUCTURES

The Raster Data Model is a method of representing spatial data in a grid format, where
the geographic space is divided into cells (also called pixels). Each cell contains a value
representing information, such as elevation, land cover, temperature, or rainfall. It is
particularly suited for continuous data and remote sensing applications.
Key Features of the Raster Data Model
1. Grid Structure:
o A raster is made up of a regular grid of rows and columns.
o Each cell (pixel) has a fixed size and represents a specific area on the Earth's
surface.
2. Cell Values:
o Each cell contains a single value, representing an attribute like elevation, land
use, or temperature.
o Values can be:
 Continuous: e.g., elevation, temperature, precipitation.
 Discrete: e.g., land cover categories like forest, urban, or water.
3. Spatial Resolution:
o Defined by the cell size (e.g., 10m × 10m or 30m × 30m).
o Finer resolution provides more detail but requires more storage space.
4. Extent:
o Represents the total geographic area covered by the raster.
Advantages of the Raster Data Model
1. Simple Data Structure:
o Easy to create, process, and analyze due to the grid format.
o Well-suited for mathematical modeling and analysis.
2. Best for Continuous Data:
o Handles phenomena like elevation, temperature, or rainfall that vary
continuously across space.
3. Efficient Spatial Analysis:
o Operations like overlays, proximity analysis, and surface modeling are
straightforward.
4. Integration with Remote Sensing:
o Raster format is compatible with satellite imagery and aerial photography.
Disadvantages of the Raster Data Model
1. Storage Intensive:
o High-resolution rasters require significant storage and processing power.
o Large data sizes can slow down analysis.
2. Reduced Precision:
o Boundaries and shapes of features are less precise compared to vector data.
o Features are generalized to the resolution of the cells.
3. Limited Attribute Data:
o Each cell can store only one attribute value.
Raster Data Operations
1. Map Algebra:
o Mathematical operations performed on raster layers.
o Example: Adding two raster layers of rainfall data to calculate total
precipitation.
2. Zonal Statistics:
o Calculating statistics (e.g., mean, sum) for specific zones defined by a raster or
vector layer.
3. Resampling:
o Adjusting the resolution of raster data (upscaling or downscaling).
4. Raster Overlay:
o Combining multiple raster layers to create new datasets (e.g., suitability
analysis).
 5. Interpolation:
o Creating continuous surfaces from point data (e.g., temperature readings).
Applications of the Raster Data Model
1. Environmental Analysis:
o Modeling climate variables like temperature and precipitation.
o Analyzing land use and land cover changes.
2. Topographic Modeling:
o Creating Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) for terrain analysis.
3. Disaster Management:
o Flood risk mapping and wildfire modeling.
4. Remote Sensing:
o Interpreting satellite imagery for vegetation, urban growth, and deforestation.
5. Agriculture:
o Monitoring crop health, soil moisture, and irrigation patterns.
Raster Data Formats
1. Common Formats:
o GeoTIFF: Georeferenced raster data with metadata.
o ASCII Grid: Text-based raster data.
o NetCDF: Multidimensional raster data, often used in climate modeling.
2. Software Compatibility:
o Raster data is supported by most GIS software, such as QGIS, ArcGIS, and
ERDAS Imagine.
RASTER DATA COMPRESSION
The Raster Data Model is a method of representing spatial data in a grid format, where
the geographic space is divided into cells (also called pixels). Each cell contains a value
representing information, such as elevation, land cover, temperature, or rainfall. It is
particularly suited for continuous data and remote sensing applications.
Key Features of the Raster Data Model
1. Grid Structure:
o A raster is made up of a regular grid of rows and columns.
o Each cell (pixel) has a fixed size and represents a specific area on the Earth's
surface.
2. Cell Values:
o Each cell contains a single value, representing an attribute like elevation, land
use, or temperature.
o Values can be:
 Continuous: e.g., elevation, temperature, precipitation.
 Discrete: e.g., land cover categories like forest, urban, or water.
3. Spatial Resolution:
o Defined by the cell size (e.g., 10m × 10m or 30m × 30m).
o Finer resolution provides more detail but requires more storage space.
4. Extent:
o Represents the total geographic area covered by the raster.
Advantages of the Raster Data Model
1. Simple Data Structure:
o Easy to create, process, and analyze due to the grid format.
o Well-suited for mathematical modeling and analysis.
2. Best for Continuous Data:
o Handles phenomena like elevation, temperature, or rainfall that vary
continuously across space.
3. Efficient Spatial Analysis:
o Operations like overlays, proximity analysis, and surface modeling are
straightforward.
4. Integration with Remote Sensing:
o Raster format is compatible with satellite imagery and aerial photography.
Disadvantages of the Raster Data Model
1. Storage Intensive:
o High-resolution rasters require significant storage and processing power.
o Large data sizes can slow down analysis.
2. Reduced Precision:
o Boundaries and shapes of features are less precise compared to vector data.
o Features are generalized to the resolution of the cells.
3. Limited Attribute Data:
o Each cell can store only one attribute value.
Raster Data Operations
1. Map Algebra:
o Mathematical operations performed on raster layers.
o Example: Adding two raster layers of rainfall data to calculate total
precipitation.
2. Zonal Statistics:
o Calculating statistics (e.g., mean, sum) for specific zones defined by a raster or
vector layer.
3. Resampling:
o Adjusting the resolution of raster data (upscaling or downscaling).
4. Raster Overlay:
o Combining multiple raster layers to create new datasets (e.g., suitability
analysis).
5. Interpolation:
o Creating continuous surfaces from point data (e.g., temperature readings).
Applications of the Raster Data Model
1. Environmental Analysis:
o Modeling climate variables like temperature and precipitation.
o Analyzing land use and land cover changes.
2. Topographic Modeling:
o Creating Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) for terrain analysis.
3. Disaster Management:
o Flood risk mapping and wildfire modeling.
4. Remote Sensing:
o Interpreting satellite imagery for vegetation, urban growth, and deforestation.
 5. Agriculture:
o Monitoring crop health, soil moisture, and irrigation patterns.
Raster Data Formats
1. Common Formats:
o GeoTIFF: Georeferenced raster data with metadata.
o ASCII Grid: Text-based raster data.
o NetCDF: Multidimensional raster data, often used in climate modeling.
2. Software Compatibility:
o Raster data is supported by most GIS software, such as QGIS, ArcGIS, and
ERDAS Imagin

VECTOR DATA STRUCTURES

Vector data structures refer to the methods and formats used to store, represent, and
manage vector data in GIS. Vector data represents geographic features as points, lines, and
polygons, making it ideal for discrete data like roads, land parcels, and administrative
boundaries.
Types of Vector Data Structures
Vector data is stored and organized in three primary structures:
1. Spaghetti Model
The spaghetti model is the simplest vector data structure, treating each feature as an
independent object without any topological relationships.
Characteristics:
 Features (points, lines, polygons) are stored as a list of coordinates.
 No spatial relationships (e.g., adjacency or connectivity) are maintained.
Advantages:
 Simple to create and understand.
 Suitable for graphic representations where topology is not needed.
Disadvantages:
 Redundancy: Shared boundaries are stored multiple times.
 Inefficient for spatial analysis (e.g., finding neighboring polygons).
Example:
 A road network where each road segment is stored independently, even if they intersect.
2. Topological Model
The topological model explicitly defines the spatial relationships (topology) between
vector features. It ensures that connectivity, adjacency, and shared boundaries are preserved.
Key Components:
1. Nodes: Points where lines (edges) intersect or terminate.
2. Edges: Line segments connecting nodes.
3. Faces: Polygons enclosed by edges.
Topology Rules:
 Connectivity: Defines how lines are connected at nodes.
 Adjacency: Identifies neighboring polygons.
 Containment: Tracks which features are inside polygons.
Advantages:
 Efficient for spatial analysis (e.g., network analysis, overlay operations).
 Minimizes data redundancy by storing shared boundaries only once.
Disadvantages:
 Complex data structure requiring more processing power.
 Requires preprocessing to build topological relationships.
Example:
 A land parcel map where neighboring parcels share common boundaries without
duplication.
3. Network Model
The network model is a specialized topological structure for linear features, emphasizing flow
and connectivity. It is used for network analysis, such as transportation or utility systems.
Key Components:
 Nodes: Represent intersections or endpoints (e.g., road junctions).
 Edges (Arcs): Represent paths or connections (e.g., roads, pipelines).
 Weights: Attributes assigned to edges (e.g., distance, travel time, capacity).
Advantages:
 Essential for route optimization, flow analysis, and utility management.
 Supports advanced analysis like shortest path and accessibility.
Disadvantages:
 Requires detailed data and preprocessing to maintain topology.
Example:
 A city’s road network for analyzing the shortest route or traffic flow.

RASTER VS VECTOR MODELS

Aspect Raster Model Vector Model
Grid of cells (pixels), each with a Points, lines, and polygons with
Representation
specific value. specific coordinates.
Continuous data (e.g., elevation, Discrete data (e.g., roads, land
Data Type
temperature, rainfall). parcels, cities).
Precision is limited by cell size High precision, especially for
Precision
(resolution). boundaries and locations.
Regular grid of cells, each Coordinates (X, Y) defining vertices
Data Structure
containing a value. of points, lines, or polygons.
Representation of Poor for precise boundaries (e.g., Excellent for defining exact
Features road edges, boundaries of lakes). boundaries and discrete features.
Requires significant storage, More efficient storage for discrete
Size
especially at high resolution. data.
Simple to understand and More complex data structure with
Complexity
manipulate. topological relationships.
Best for surface analysis, spatial
Best for representing networks,
Analysis modeling, and continuous
boundaries, and discrete entities.
phenomena.
 Aspect Raster Model Vector Model
Efficient for mathematical Slower for overlay or proximity
Analysis Speed operations (e.g., cell-based analysis, but more precise for network
functions). or boundary analysis.
Smaller file sizes, but requires more
Larger file sizes with high
Storage processing for complex operations
resolution; can be compressed.
(e.g., topology).
Difficult to edit individual features Easier to edit specific features (points,
Editing
(modifying individual pixels). lines, and polygons).
Lower resolution leads to High-quality representation of sharp
Display Quality
pixelated images. boundaries.
Best for continuous data like
Best for discrete features like cities,
Suitability terrain, satellite imagery,
roads, administrative boundaries.
environmental monitoring.
Remote sensing, environmental Urban planning, network analysis,
Use Case
modeling, land-use classification. cadastral data.
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), Road networks, property boundaries,
Example
satellite imagery, land cover maps. rivers, lakes.

TIN AND GRID DATA MODELS.

The TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) and GRID (Raster) data models are two
methods for representing spatial data, each with distinct advantages and applications in
Geographic Information Systems (GIS). These models are primarily used for representing
surface data, but they differ in how they store and process that data.
1. TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) Data Model
Definition:
 A TIN is a vector-based model used to represent a continuous surface by subdividing
it into a network of non-overlapping triangles. Each triangle is formed by connecting
three adjacent data points (vertices) that define the surface.
Key Features:
 Vertices: The individual data points or nodes that represent geographic locations (e.g.,
elevation points).
  Edges: The lines connecting the vertices, forming the boundaries of the triangles.
 Faces: The triangles formed by the edges that represent the surface.

Advantages:
1. Efficient Representation of Irregular Surfaces:
o Unlike raster grids, TINs can adaptively represent surface variations. They use
fewer triangles in flatter areas and more triangles in areas with high variation
(e.g., mountainous terrain), making them more efficient than raster models in
many cases.
2. High Precision in Topography:
o TINs are particularly useful for representing topographic surfaces like terrain,
where accuracy in modeling features like ridges, valleys, and slopes is crucial.
3. No Fixed Resolution:
o TINs do not have a fixed grid resolution like raster data, allowing them to
accurately capture surface detail where it's most needed.
Disadvantages:
1. Complex Data Structure:
o TINs require more sophisticated data structures and processing algorithms than
raster models, making them more complex to create and manage.
2. Difficult to Edit:
o Editing TINs can be challenging because adding new data points or altering
triangles can affect the connectivity and topology of the model.
 3. Limited Representation of Other Features:
o TINs are primarily focused on surface representation and do not inherently
model features like roads or land use.
Applications:
 Topographic Modeling: TINs are used for terrain analysis, such as calculating slope,
aspect, and watershed boundaries.
 Surface Analysis: They are useful in applications like hydrology, land development,
and natural resource management.
2. GRID (Raster) Data Model
Definition:
 The GRID model, also known as the raster model, represents spatial data as a matrix
of cells (or pixels), where each cell contains a value representing some characteristic of
the geographic area (e.g., elevation, temperature, land cover type).
Key Features:
 Grid Cells: Each cell holds a value that represents a particular attribute at that location
(e.g., elevation, temperature).
 Uniform Resolution: The grid has a fixed cell size (e.g., 10m x 10m, 30m x 30m), and
the data is represented in a regularly spaced manner.
 Coordinate System: Each cell has a coordinate in space, which is typically referenced
using geographic or projected coordinates.
Advantages:
1. Simplicity and Ease of Use:
o Raster data is straightforward to create, analyze, and manipulate, as it uses a
regular grid structure that is easy to process mathematically.
2. Ideal for Continuous Data:
o Raster models excel at representing continuous data (e.g., elevation, temp.)
because each cell can store a value corresponding to a continuous surface.
3. Efficient for Mathematical Operations:
o Raster data is particularly well-suited for operations like map algebra, overlays,
and surface modeling, as these operations are often performed on a cell-by-cell
basis.
4. Compatibility with Remote Sensing:
o Raster data is the natural format for satellite imagery and aerial photography,
making it essential for remote sensing applications.
Disadvantages:
1. Resolution Limitation:
o The accuracy of raster data is limited by the resolution of the grid. Higher
resolution means more detail, but it also requires more storage and processing
power.
2. Storage Requirements:
o High-resolution rasters require significant storage space, especially for large
datasets.
3. Coarse Representation of Features:
o Raster data can have difficulty accurately representing discrete boundaries or
linear features (e.g., roads, rivers), as the grid can "smooth" sharp boundaries.
Applications:
 Environmental Modeling: Raster is ideal for modeling continuous phenomena like
temperature, elevation, and precipitation.
 Remote Sensing: Satellite and aerial images are typically stored and analyzed as raster
data.
 Spatial Analysis: Raster is useful for surface modeling, such as slope, aspect, and flow
accumulation in terrain analysis.
 UNIT III - DATA INPUT AND TOPOLOGY
Scanner - Raster Data Input – Raster Data File Formats – Georeferencing – Vector Data Input
– Digitizer – Datum Projection and reprojection -Coordinate Transformation – Topology -
Adjacency, connectivity and containment – Topological Consistency – Non topological file
formats - Attribute Data linking – Linking External Databases – GPS Data Integration

SCANNER
 A scanner is used to convert analog source map or document into digital images by
scanning successive lines across a map or document and recording the amount of light
reflected from the data source.
 Documents such as building plans, CAD drawings, images and maps are scanned prior
to vectorization.
 Scanning helps in reducing wear and tear; improves access and provides integrated
storage.
Types of Scanner
1) Flat bed scanner
2) Rotating drum scanner
3) Large format feed scanner

Flat bed scanner is a PC peripheral which is small and comparatively inaccurate. The
rotating drum scanners are accurate but they tend to be slow and expensive. Large format feed
scanner are the most suitable type for inputting GIS data as they are cheap, quick and accurate.

RASTER DATA INPUT

Raster data inputs refer to spatial data represented as a grid of pixels, where each pixel
has a specific value that corresponds to a geographic location. Raster data is often used in fields
such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems), remote sensing, environmental science, and
agriculture. Common types of raster data inputs include:
1. Satellite Imagery
 High-resolution images captured by satellites.
 Examples: Landsat, Sentinel, MODIS.
 Applications: Monitoring vegetation, land use, or climate change.
2. Aerial Photography
 Images taken from airplanes or drones.
 Applications: Detailed surveys, mapping, or environmental monitoring.
3. Digital Elevation Models (DEM)
 Represents elevation data of the Earth's surface.
 Applications: Terrain analysis, flood modeling, and infrastructure planning.
4. Climate Data
 Temperature, precipitation, humidity, and wind speed data.
 Often derived from remote sensors or meteorological models.
 Applications: Agricultural planning, disaster risk management.
5. Land Cover or Land Use Maps
 Classified raster data showing types of land cover or usage.
 Applications: Urban planning, deforestation studies, and biodiversity management.
6. Soil Maps
 Gridded representations of soil properties such as pH, texture, or organic matter.
 Applications: Precision agriculture, irrigation planning.
7. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
 Derived from satellite imagery to assess vegetation health.
 Applications: Crop monitoring and forestry.
8. Topographic Maps
 Rasterized versions of maps showing elevation, contours, and terrain features.
 Applications: Navigation, engineering projects, and environmental conservation.
9. Hydrological Data
 Includes river networks, rainfall distribution, or watershed boundaries.
 Applications: Water resource management and flood prediction.
10. Rasterized Geospatial Data
 Any vector data (points, lines, polygons) converted into a raster format for analysis.
Key Characteristics of Raster Data:
 Spatial Resolution: Size of each pixel (e.g., 10m, 30m).
 Temporal Resolution: Frequency of data capture (e.g., daily, monthly).
  Data Format: Common formats include GeoTIFF, HDF, and NetCDF.
Applications of Raster Data Inputs:
 Precision agriculture.
 Environmental impact assessments.
 Disaster management.
 Urban planning.
 Climate modeling.

RASTER DATA FILE FORMATS

Raster data is stored in specific file formats that organize spatial and attribute data for
analysis in GIS and related software.

Here are some commonly used raster data file formats:

1. GeoTIFF (.tif, .tiff)
 Description: An extension of the standard TIFF format with georeferencing metadata.
 Key Features:
o Stores spatial resolution, coordinate reference systems, and map projection.
o Supports multiple bands (e.g., RGB or multispectral data).
 Applications: Satellite imagery, elevation models, and land cover analysis.
2. ASCII Grid (.asc)
 Description: A simple text format representing raster grids.
 Key Features:
o Stores data in a plain text file with spatial metadata (rows, columns, cell size).
o Easy to read and process in scripts.
 Applications: Digital elevation models (DEM) and basic spatial data sharing.
3. NetCDF (.nc)
 Description: Network Common Data Form used for multi-dimensional scientific data.
 Key Features:
o Designed for climate, meteorological, and oceanographic data.
o Handles large datasets efficiently.
 Applications: Climate modeling and temporal raster data storage.
4. HDF (Hierarchical Data Format)
 Description: Designed for storing and managing complex data.
 Key Features:
o Supports multi-dimensional arrays, including raster grids.
o Widely used in remote sensing (e.g., MODIS data).
 Applications: Earth observation and large-scale environmental datasets.
5. ERDAS Imagine (.img)
 Description: A proprietary format used in ERDAS Imagine software.
 Key Features:
o High performance for large datasets.
o Supports multiple bands and compression.
 Applications: Remote sensing and GIS analysis.
6. Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF (COG)
 Description: A modernized GeoTIFF format designed for web-based access.
 Key Features:
o Enables efficient access via HTTP/HTTPS without downloading the entire file.
o Suitable for cloud storage.
 Applications: Online map services and web GIS platforms.
7. JPEG2000 (.jp2)
 Description: A compressed raster format with georeferencing capabilities.
 Key Features:
o Lossless or lossy compression for efficient storage.
o Smaller file sizes compared to GeoTIFF.
 Applications: Aerial photography and satellite imagery.
8. PNG (.png) and JPEG (.jpg)
 Description: General-purpose image formats.
 Key Features:
o Not inherently georeferenced (metadata can be added separately).
 o Lightweight and widely supported.
 Applications: Simple visualizations or overlays.
9. Esri Grid
 Description: A proprietary raster format used in Esri's ArcGIS software.
 Key Features:
o Available in integer or floating-point versions.
o Supports efficient spatial analysis within ArcGIS.
 Applications: Terrain modeling and raster analysis.
10. Binary Raster (.bil, .bsq, .bip)
 Description: Raw binary files often accompanied by header files (.hdr).
 Key Features:
o Stores grid values in binary form for efficiency.
o Requires metadata files for interpretation.
 Applications: Custom raster processing.
Choosing a Format:
 High precision and georeferencing: GeoTIFF, Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF.
 Climate and temporal data: NetCDF, HDF.
 Web-based visualization: JPEG2000, COG.
 Basic or lightweight needs: ASCII Grid, PNG/JPEG.

GEOREFERENCING
Georeferencing in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is the process of associating
spatial data with a specific geographic location on the Earth's surface. This allows users to map,
analyze, and visualize data accurately. Here’s a detailed overview of the key concepts and
processes involved in georeferencing:
1. Definition
Georeferencing involves aligning spatial data (such as maps, images, or surveys) to a
coordinate system that allows for accurate spatial analysis and visualization. It ensures that the
data corresponds to real-world locations.
2. Coordinate Systems
 Geographic Coordinate System (GCS): Uses latitude and longitude to define
locations on the Earth’s surface. It’s not suitable for measuring distances accurately due
to the curvature of the Earth.
  Projected Coordinate System (PCS): Transforms the Earth’s three-dimensional
surface onto a two-dimensional plane, allowing for accurate distance and area
measurements. Examples include UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) and State
Plane Coordinate System.
3. Types of Data for Georeferencing
 Raster Data: Images or scanned maps that can be georeferenced using identifiable
points.
 Vector Data: Point, line, or polygon data that can be overlaid with existing spatial data
to verify its location.
4. Georeferencing Process
The georeferencing process typically involves several steps:
a. Collect Reference Data
Gather data with known geographic coordinates, such as:
 GPS data
 Existing georeferenced maps
 GIS datasets
b. Identify Control Points
Control points are specific locations on the image that can be accurately identified in
both the image and the reference dataset. They should be evenly distributed across the area for
better accuracy.
c. Transformation
This step involves applying mathematical transformations to align the image with the
reference data. Common transformations include:
 Affine Transformation: Adjusts the scale, rotation, translation, and skew of the image.
 Polynomial Transformation: Used for more complex distortions, often involving
higher-order polynomials.
 Rubber Sheeting: Allows for flexible adjustments to fit the image to the control points.
d. Resampling
After applying the transformation, resampling is used to create a new raster dataset with
pixel values. Methods include:
 Nearest neighbor
 Bilinear interpolation
 Cubic convolution
5. Accuracy Assessment
 Root Mean Square Error (RMSE): Measures the average deviation between the
control points and the transformed points.
 Visual Inspection: Overlaying the georeferenced data with known data to visually
assess alignment.
6. Applications
 Urban Planning: Integrating historical maps with current data for better spatial
analysis.
 Environmental Monitoring: Tracking changes in land use or natural resources over
time.
 Disaster Management: Analyzing areas affected by natural disasters to plan for
recovery efforts
7. Tools and Software
 ArcGIS: Offers extensive georeferencing tools for raster and vector data.
 QGIS: A free, open-source option with robust georeferencing capabilities.
 Google Earth: Provides basic georeferencing features for overlaying data.
8. Challenges
 Data Quality: Poor quality or resolution of images can lead to inaccuracies.
 Control Point Selection: Selecting points that are easily identifiable and well-
distributed is critical.
 Distortion: Some historical maps may have distortions that complicate the
georeferencing process.
Advantages
1. Spatial Accuracy:
Georeferencing ensures that spatial data corresponds to real-world locations, improving
the accuracy of analyses and visualizations.
2. Integration of Data:
Enables the combination of various data sources (raster and vector) for comprehensive
analysis, such as overlaying historical maps with current satellite imagery.
3. Enhanced Decision-Making:
Provides a clearer understanding of spatial relationships, helping stakeholders make
informed decisions in fields like urban planning, environmental management, and disaster
response.
4. Temporal Analysis:
Facilitates the comparison of datasets over time, allowing for effective monitoring of
changes in land use, environmental conditions, or urban development.
5. Improved Communication:
Visualizing data in a geospatial context can make complex information more accessible
and easier to understand for non-technical audiences.
Disadvantages
1. Data Quality and Availability:
The accuracy of georeferencing heavily depends on the quality and resolution of the
source data. Poor-quality images or outdated reference data can lead to inaccuracies.
2. Time-Consuming:
The georeferencing process can be labor-intensive, especially when identifying control
points or performing complex transformations.
3. Technical Expertise Required:
Proper georeferencing often requires knowledge of GIS software and an understanding
of coordinate systems and transformations, which may pose a barrier for some users.
4. Cost:
High-quality data and advanced GIS software can be expensive, which might limit
access for smaller organizations or individual users.
5. Distortion Issues:
Some historical maps or images may have inherent distortions that complicate the
georeferencing process, leading to potential inaccuracies.
6. Dependence on Control Points:
The success of georeferencing depends on the selection of appropriate control points.
Poorly chosen or insufficient points can result in significant errors.

VECTOR DATA INPUT

Digitization
Digitizing is the process of interpreting and converting paper map or image data to
vector digital data.
Heads down digitization
Digitizers are used to capture data from hardcopy maps. Heads down digitization is
done on a digitizing table using a magnetic pen known as Puck. The position of a cursor or
puck is detected when passed over a table inlaid with a fine mesh of wires. The function of a
digitizer is to input correctly the coordinates of the points and the lines. Digitization can be
done in two modes:
 Point mode: In this mode, digitization is started by placing a point that marks the
beginning of the feature to be digitized and after that more points are added to trace the
particular feature (line or a polygon). The number of points to be added to trace the
feature and the space interval between two consecutive points are decided by the
operator.
 Stream mode: In stream digitizing, the cursor is placed at the beginning of the feature,
a command is then sent to the computer to place the points at either equal or unequal
intervals as per the position of the cursor moving over the image of the feature.
Heads-up digitization
This method uses scanned copy of the map or image and digitization is done on the
screen of the computer monitor. The scanned map lays vertical which can be viewed without
bending the head down and therefore is called as heads up digitization. Semi-automatic and
automatic methods of digitizing requires post processing but saves lot of time and resources
compared to manual method and is described in the following section.
Digitizers for Vector Data Input
Tablet digitizers with a free cursor connected with a personal computer are the most
common device for digitizing spatial features with the plan metric coordinates from analog
maps.

 The analog map is placed on the surface of the digitizing tablet as shown in Figure.
 The size of digitizer usually ranges from A3 to A0 size.
The digitizing operation is as follows.
 Step 1: a map is affixed to a digitizing table.
 Step 2: control points or tics at four corners of this map sheet should be digitized by
the digitizer and input to PC together with the map coordinates of the four corners.
  Step 3: map contents are digitized according to the map layers and map code system in
either point mode or stream mode at short time interval.
 Step 4: editing errors such as small gaps at line junctions, overshoots, duplicates etc.
should be made for a clean dataset without errors.
 Step 5: conversion from digitizer coordinates to map coordinates to store in a spatial
database.
Major problems of Map Digitization:
 The map will stretch or shrink day by day which makes the newly digitized points
slightly off from the previous points.
 The map itself has errors discrepancies across neighboring map sheets will produce dis-
connectivity.
 Operators will make a lot of errors and mistakes while digitizing .

DIGITIZER
A digitizer is a device or tool used to convert analog information, such as physical maps,
drawings, or images, into digital format. This process involves tracing or scanning the data to
produce a digital representation that can be used in GIS (Geographic Information Systems),
CAD (Computer-Aided Design), and other software.
Types of Digitizers
1. Tablet Digitizer:
o A flat surface with a grid and a stylus (or puck) used to trace features.
o Converts traced lines or points into digital coordinates.
o Common in manual digitizing of maps and blueprints.
 2. Scanner Digitizer:
o A device that scans paper documents or images and converts them into raster
(image) data.
o Often used for high-resolution scanning of maps or aerial photographs.
3. Mobile/Tablet Devices with Stylus:
o Devices like tablets with stylus support can function as digitizers for on-the-go
data collection or editing.
o Example: Tablets running GIS applications like ArcGIS Field Maps.
4. Photogrammetric Digitizers:
o Specialized equipment for digitizing aerial photographs and creating 3D models
or maps.
o Often used in surveying and remote sensing.
Digitizing Methods
1. Manual Digitizing:
o The user manually traces features (e.g., boundaries, rivers, roads) on a tablet
digitizer or within GIS software using a mouse or stylus.
o Useful for vectorizing specific map features.
2. Automatic Digitizing:
o Involves software tools that convert scanned raster images into vector data.
o Techniques like edge detection and feature recognition are employed.
3. Heads-Up Digitizing:
o Performed directly in GIS software by overlaying and tracing features visible
on digital maps or satellite images.
Applications of Digitizers
 GIS: Converting analog maps into digital layers for spatial analysis.
 Engineering: Digitizing design sketches and blueprints for CAD systems.
 Cartography: Creating digital maps from hand-drawn ones.
 Remote Sensing: Extracting features from aerial or satellite imagery.
 Historical Data Preservation: Converting old maps, manuscripts, or technical
drawings into digital archives.
Benefits of Digitizing
 Increases data accuracy and precision.
 Enables integration with GIS and other digital platforms.
 Facilitates easier editing, storage, and sharing of spatial data.
  Preserves physical documents by converting them into accessible digital formats.

DATUM PROJECTION AND REPROJECTION

These concepts are critical in working with geospatial data to ensure accurate
representation and analysis of Earth's features in GIS and mapping systems.
1. Datum
A datum is a mathematical model of the Earth used as a reference for geographic
coordinates (latitude, longitude, and elevation). It defines the size, shape, and position of the
Earth for mapping and navigation.
Key Types of Datums:
 Geodetic Datum: Used for positioning and mapping.
o Example: WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984), NAD83 (North American
Datum 1983).
 Vertical Datum: Used for elevation or depth.
o Example: Mean Sea Level, NAVD88 (North American Vertical Datum 1988).
Importance of Datum:
 Different datums can result in slightly different coordinate values for the same location
due to variations in the Earth's shape and center of origin.
2. Projection
A projection is a method of flattening the three-dimensional Earth onto a two-
dimensional surface, such as a map. It defines how geographic coordinates (latitude and
longitude) are transformed into planar coordinates (X, Y).
Types of Projections:
 Conformal Projections: Preserve shapes.
o Example: Mercator Projection.
 Equal-Area Projections: Preserve area.
o Example: Albers Equal-Area Projection.
 Equidistant Projections: Preserve distances.
o Example: Equirectangular Projection.
 Azimuthal Projections: Preserve directions from a central point.
o Example: Stereographic Projection.
Examples of Common Projections:
 UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator): Divides the world into zones for accurate
local mapping.
  Web Mercator: Widely used for online mapping (e.g., Google Maps).
Why Projections Matter:
 Projections introduce distortions in shape, area, distance, or direction.
 The choice of projection depends on the purpose of the map (e.g., navigation,
population density).
3. Reprojection
Reprojection is the process of converting spatial data from one projection or coordinate
system to another. This is necessary when working with multiple datasets that use different
projections or coordinate systems.
Steps in Reprojection:
1. Identify the Current Datum and Projection: Check the metadata of the data.
2. Choose the Target Datum and Projection: Based on the analysis or output
requirements.
3. Apply a Transformation: Use GIS software (e.g., QGIS, ArcGIS) to perform the
reprojection.
Reprojection Challenges:
 Datum Transformation: When changing datums, a transformation method is needed
to account for differences (e.g., Helmert transformation).
 Loss of Precision: Some data may lose accuracy if not reprojected carefully.

COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION
Coordinate transformation is the process of converting spatial data from one coordinate
system to another. This is essential in GIS and mapping to ensure data from different sources
aligns accurately.
1. Why is Coordinate Transformation Needed?
 Spatial data from different datasets may use different coordinate systems or projections.
 Coordinate transformation allows for the integration, analysis, and comparison of these
datasets.
 Ensures accurate spatial representation and measurement.
2. Key Components of Coordinate Transformation
a. Coordinate Systems
 Geographic Coordinate System (GCS):
o Based on latitude and longitude.
o Example: WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984).
  Projected Coordinate System (PCS):
o A planar system derived from a geographic coordinate system.
o Example: UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator), State Plane.
b. Datums
 Coordinate systems are tied to specific datums, which define the Earth's shape and size.
 Common datums: WGS84, NAD83, NAD27.
c. Projections
 Projections flatten the Earth onto a 2D plane.
 Coordinate transformation often involves reprojection (e.g., from WGS84 to UTM).
3. Types of Coordinate Transformations
a. Horizontal Transformation
 Converts spatial data between different datums (e.g., WGS84 to NAD83).
 Involves datum transformation with mathematical models (e.g., Helmert
transformation).
b. Vertical Transformation
 Converts elevation or depth data from one vertical datum to another.
 Example: From mean sea level (MSL) to NAVD88.
c. Map Projection Transformation
 Converts data between different projections (e.g., Mercator to Albers Equal-Area).
d. Affine Transformation
 Includes translation, scaling, rotation, and skewing.
 Commonly used in image registration or aligning scanned maps with GIS layers.
4. Steps in Coordinate Transformation
1. Identify the Source Coordinate System:
o Check the metadata of the spatial data to determine the current coordinate
system.
2. Choose the Target Coordinate System:
o Select based on project requirements (e.g., UTM for local accuracy, WGS84 for
global consistency).
3. Apply Transformation:
o Use GIS software to perform the transformation.
o Example tools:
 ArcGIS: "Project" or "Define Projection" tools.
 QGIS: "Reproject Layer" or "Transform Geometries".
 4. Validate Results:
o Check for alignment and accuracy with other datasets.
5. Methods for Coordinate Transformation
a. Using Transformation Parameters
 Helmert Transformation:
o A seven-parameter model (translation, rotation, and scale).
o Used for transforming between datums.
 Polynomial Transformation:
o Fits data using a polynomial equation, often for image rectification.
 Grid-Based Transformation:
o Uses pre-defined grid files to adjust coordinates.
o Example: NADCON (North America), OSTN15 (UK).
b. Tools and Software
 GIS Software:
o ArcGIS, QGIS, GRASS GIS.
 Libraries:
o PROJ, GDAL (Geospatial Data Abstraction Library).
 Online Services:
o EPSG.io for CRS definitions.
6. Challenges in Coordinate Transformation
 Datum Shifts: Different datums may cause significant shifts in coordinates.
 Data Precision: Repeated transformations may reduce accuracy.
 Projection Distortions: Some projections distort shapes, distances, or areas.
 Incomplete Metadata: Missing source CRS information can lead to errors.
Applications of Coordinate Transformation
 Geospatial Data Integration: Merging datasets from different coordinate systems.
 Navigation: Converting between global and local systems (e.g., GPS data).
 Remote Sensing: Aligning satellite images with map layers.
 Urban Planning: Ensuring accurate placement of infrastructure layers.

TOPOLOGY
 In geo-databases, a topology is a set of rules that defines how point, line, and polygon
features share coincident geometry. Topology describes the means whereby lines,
borders, and points meet up, intersect, and cross. This includes how street centrelines
 and census blocks share common geometry, and adjacent soil polygons share their
common boundaries.
 Another example could be how two counties that have a common boundary between
them will share an edge, creating a spatial relationship.
 Common terms used when referring to topology include: dimensionality, adjacency,
connectivity, and containment, with all but dimensional dealing directly with the spatial
relationships of features.
 Dimensionality - the distinction between point, line, area, and volume, which are said
to have topological dimensions of 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

ADJACENCY
Adjacency including the touching of land parcels, counties, and nation-states (They
share a common border).

CONNECTIVITY
Connectivity including junctions between streets, roads, railroads, and rivers (Very
common topological error. See diagrams about "Overshoot" below).
CONTAINMENT
Containment when a point lies inside rather than outside an area.

 Topology defines and enforces data integrity rules (there should be no gaps between
polygons). It supports topological relationship queries and navigation (navigating
feature adjacency or connectivity), sophisticated editing tools, and allows feature
construction from unstructured geometry (constructing polygons from lines).
 Addressing topology is more than providing a data storage mechanism. In GIS,
topology is maintained by using some of the following aspects:
  The geo-database includes a topological data model using an open storage format for
simple features (i.e., feature classes of points, lines, and polygons), topology rules, and
topologically integrated coordinates among features with shared geometry. The data
model includes the ability to define the integrity rules and topological behaviour of the
feature classes that participate in a topology.
 Most GIS programs include a set of tools for query, editing, validation, and error
correction of topology.
 GIS software can navigate topological relationships, work with adjacency and
connectivity, and assemble features from these elements. It can identify the polygons
that share a specific common edge; list the edges that connect at a certain node; navigate
along connected edges from the current location; add a new line and "burn" it into the
topological graph; split lines at intersections; and create resulting edges, faces, and
nodes.

TOPOLOGICAL CONSISTENCY

Topological consistency describes the trustworthiness of the topological and logical

relationships between the dataset segments (Joksic and Bajat, 2004). These relations typically
involve spatial data inconsistencies such as incorrect line intersections, polygons not properly
closed, duplicate lines or boundaries, or gaps in lines. It deals with the structural integrity of a
given data set based on a formal framework for modelling of spatial data and relationships
among objects. These types of errors must be corrected to avoid incomplete features and to
ensure data integrity. Topological errors, which occur during digitizing and data exploration
processes, are also known as semantic errors (Ubeda and Egenhofer, 1997).
Topological errors exist due to violation of predefined topology rules. The most
common topology errors in map data are shown in above figure including: - Duplicate Lines -
Overshoots -Undershoots - Micro Segments - Pseudo Nodes - Merge Adjacent Endpoints - Self
Intersection.

NON TOPOLOGICAL FILE FORMATS

Raster formats
 ADRG – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s ARC Digitized Raster
Graphics
 Binary file – An unformatted file consisting of raster data written in one of several data
types, where multiple band are stored in BSQ (band sequential), BIP (band interleaved
by pixel) or BIL (band interleaved by line). Geo-referencing and other metadata are
stored one or more sidecar files.
 Digital raster graphic (DRG) – digital scan of a paper USGS topographic map
 ECRG – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s Enhanced Compressed
 ARC Raster Graphics (Better resolution than CADRG and no color loss)
 ECW – Enhanced Compressed Wavelet (from ERDAS). A compressed wavelet format,
often lossy.
 Esri grid – proprietary binary and meta-dataless ASCII raster formats used by Esri
 GeoTIFF – TIFF variant enriched with GIS relevant metadata
 IMG – ERDAS IMAGINE image file format
 JPEG2000 – Open-source raster format. A compressed format, allows both lossy and
lossless compression.
 MrSID – Multi-Resolution Seamless Image Database (by Lizardtech). A compressed
wavelet format, allows both lossy and lossless compression.
 netCDF-CF – netCDF file format with CF medata conventions for earth science data.
 Binary storage in open format with optional compression. Allows for direct webaccess
of subsets/aggregations of maps through OPeNDAP protocol.
 RPF – Raster Product Format, military file format specified in MIL-STD-2411
 CADRG – Compressed ADRG, developed by NGA, nominal compression of 55:1 over
ADRG (type of Raster Product Format)
  CIB – Controlled Image Base, developed by NGA (type of Raster Product Format)
Vector formats
 MapInfo TAB format – MapInfo's vector data format using TAB, DAT, ID and MAP
files
 National Transfer Format (NTF) – National Transfer Format (mostly used by the UK
Ordnance Survey)
 Spatialite – is a spatial extension to SQLite, providing vector geo-database
functionality. It is similar to Post-GIS, Oracle Spatial, and SQL Server with spatial
extensions
 Shapefile – a popular vector data GIS format, developed by Esri
 Simple Features – Open Geospatial Consortium specification for vector data
 SOSI – a spatial data format used for all public exchange of spatial data in Norway
 Spatial Data File – Autodesk's high-performance geo-database format, native to
MapGuide
 TIGER – Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing
 Vector Product Format (VPF) – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s
format of vectored data for large geographic databases
Grid formats
 USGS DEM – The USGS' Digital Elevation Model
 GTOPO30 – Large complete Earth elevation model at 30 arc seconds, delivered in the
USGS DEM format
 DTED – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s Digital Terrain Elevation
Data, the military standard for elevation data
 GeoTIFF – TIFF variant enriched with GIS relevant metadata
 SDTS – The USGS' successor to DEM

ATTRIBUTE DATA LINKING

Before you can use your spatial data as a basis for exploring your attribute data, you
must link the attribute data to the spatial data. One way to use the attribute data after you have
linked it to the spatial data is by creating a theme to control the appearance of features in the
spatial data. See Overview of SAS/GIS Software for more information.
In the layer bar, right-click the COUNTY layer name to open the pop-up menu for the
COUNTY layer. Select Edit to open the GIS Layer window. In the definition for the COUNTY
layer, select Thematic. The GIS Attribute Data Sets window appears for you to define the link
to the theme data set.
In the GIS Attribute Data Sets window, select New to define a new link. In the resulting
select a Member window, select MAPS.USAAC. You must next specify the values that are
common to both the attribute and spatial data, because the common values provide the
connection between the spatial data and the attribute data.
The spatial database and the MAPS.USAAC data set share compatible state and country
codes, so first select STATE in both the Data Set Vars and Compositeslists, and then select
COUNTY in both lists. Select Save to save the link definition to the Links list. Finally, select
Continue to close the GIS Attribute Data Setswindow.
After the GIS Attribute Data Sets window closes, the Var window automatically opens
for you. Select which variable in the attribute data provides the theme data for your theme.
Select the CHANGE variable to have the counties colored according to the level of change in
the county population. Select OK to close the Var window.
The counties in the spatial data are colored according to the demographic values in the
attribute data set, as shown in the following display.

LINKING EXTERNAL DATABASES

The ArcGIS Maps Connect workflow supports external content from Microsoft SQL
Server 2008 R2, 2012, 2012 R2, and 2014, including the SQL Server Express editions. The
external content must contain data that can be geo-coded, such as an address, U.S. city, U.S.
state, ZIP code, or world city. The external content must also contain a primary key column.
 Alternatively, the table can contain an existing SQL server spatial data type (geography
or geometry) column that is then converted by the Arc-GIS Maps Connect workflow for use in
ArcGIS Maps for SharePoint.
If the external table has an existing spatial column that contains no data, the ArcGIS
Maps Connect workflow populates the column based on other location information in the table
(for example, address). If no spatial column exists, the ArcGIS Maps Connect workflow creates
a geography spatial type column named EsriShape with a Spatial Reference Identifier (SRID)
of 4326 (WGS 84). The EsriShape field supports all geometries including points, lines, and
polygons. In all scenarios, the external content can be enriched with additional geographic data
variables from ArcGIS.

GPS DATA INTEGRATION

GPS data integration involves combining location data obtained from GPS devices with
other spatial datasets in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for analysis, mapping, and
decision-making. This process ensures that GPS data is aligned with the coordinate systems
and projections of the GIS datasets for accurate results.
1. Characteristics of GPS Data
 Coordinate Format: Latitude and Longitude in decimal degrees (e.g., 45.1234, -
93.4567).
 Datum: Usually based on the WGS84 geodetic datum.
 Accuracy: Depends on factors like device quality, satellite signals, and atmospheric
conditions.
2. Steps for Integrating GPS Data into GIS
Step 1: Data Collection
 Collect GPS data using GPS-enabled devices (e.g., handheld GPS units, smartphones,
drones).
 Export the data in common file formats such as:
o GPX (GPS Exchange Format): Standard for GPS data.
o KML/KMZ (Keyhole Markup Language): Used in applications like Google
Earth.
o CSV (Comma-Separated Values): Often contains latitude, longitude, and
attribute information.
Step 2: Importing GPS Data into GIS
 Use GIS software to load the GPS data:
 o QGIS: Import through "Add Vector Layer" or GPX tools.
o ArcGIS: Import using the "GPX to Features" or "XY Data to Points" tools.
 Ensure the data's coordinate system is correctly identified as WGS84 (EPSG:4326).
Step 3: Transform Coordinates (if needed)
 If the GIS project uses a different coordinate system, transform the GPS data:
o Reproject the GPS data to match the target projection (e.g., UTM, State Plane).
o Tools:
 QGIS: "Reproject Layer".
 ArcGIS: "Project" tool.
Step 4: Integrate with Other Data
 Overlay GPS data onto basemaps or spatial layers:
o Road networks: For routing or navigation.
o Land use maps: For urban planning.
o Aerial imagery: For validation and visualization.
Step 5: Attribute and Spatial Analysis
 Link attributes to GPS data points (e.g., timestamps, field observations).
 Perform spatial analysis:
o Proximity analysis (e.g., finding nearest facilities).
o Path optimization (e.g., shortest route analysis).
o Area or feature mapping.
3. Tools and Software for GPS Data Integration
GIS Software
 QGIS: Free and open-source; supports GPX, KML, and other formats.
 ArcGIS: Offers advanced GPS data processing and analysis tools.
 Google Earth Pro: Useful for visualizing GPS data in KML/KMZ format.
Specialized Tools
 GPS Babel: Converts GPS data between formats.
 GDAL/OGR: Command-line tool for processing spatial data.
Mobile Applications
 Field Maps (Esri): Collect and sync GPS data directly into ArcGIS.
 Locus Map: GPS tracking and offline map integration.
 Avenza Maps: Integrates field GPS data with georeferenced maps.
4. Challenges in GPS Data Integration
 Datum Mismatch: Most GPS devices use WGS84, but GIS datasets might use other
datums like NAD83.
o Solution: Perform datum transformations during integration.
 Projection Issues: GPS data is unprojected; GIS layers may use planar projections.
o Solution: Reproject GPS data to the map's coordinate system.
 Data Quality: GPS accuracy can be affected by signal interference or device
limitations.
o Solution: Use correction techniques like Differential GPS (DGPS) or Post-
Processing.
5. Applications of GPS Data Integration
 Urban Planning: Track and map urban infrastructure.
 Environmental Monitoring: Map animal movements or habitat changes.
 Precision Agriculture: Integrate GPS with field boundaries and crop data.
 Disaster Management: Plot affected areas and evacuation routes.
 Transportation: Optimize routes and monitor vehicle fleets.
 UNIT IV - DATA QUALITY AND STANDARDS
Data quality - Basic aspects - completeness, logical consistency, positional accuracy, temporal
accuracy, thematic accuracy and lineage – Metadata – GIS Standards –Interoperability - OGC
- Spatial Data Infrastructure

DATA QUALITY
BASIC ASPECTS - COMPLETENESS - LOGICAL CONSISTENCY - POSITIONAL
ACCURACY - TEMPORAL ACCURACY - THEMATIC ACCURACY AND LINEAGE
Data quality refers to the accuracy, reliability, and suitability of data for its intended
purpose. In geospatial contexts, data quality ensures that spatial analyses and decision-making
processes are based on precise and credible information.
1. Key Dimensions of Data Quality
a. Accuracy
 Positional Accuracy: How close the recorded spatial location is to the actual location
on the ground.
o Example: GPS points may have an accuracy of ±3 meters depending on device
and conditions.
 Attribute Accuracy: The correctness of descriptive information linked to spatial
features.
o Example: A building's height or land use category should be correct.
 Temporal Accuracy: How current the data is.
o Example: Outdated satellite imagery may not reflect recent urban development.
b. Completeness
 Refers to whether all necessary data is present.
o Example: Missing roads in a transportation network dataset reduce its usability.
c. Consistency
 Ensures that data conforms to expected rules or formats.
o Example: Attribute values should not mix units (e.g., meters and feet in the same
field).
d. Resolution
 Spatial Resolution: The smallest feature that can be distinguished in the data.
o Example: Satellite imagery at 30m resolution is less detailed than at 10m
resolution.
 Temporal Resolution: Frequency at which data is updated.
 o Example: Weather models may provide hourly vs. daily updates.
 Thematic Resolution: The level of detail in attribute classifications.
o Example: Land use categories (e.g., "urban," "residential") could be generalized
or detailed.
e. Lineage (Provenance)
 Tracks the source and processing history of the data.
o Example: Knowing if data comes from GPS, satellite, or manual digitization
helps assess its reliability.
2. Factors Affecting Data Quality
 Data Collection Methods:
o Manual surveys may introduce human error.
o GPS accuracy varies based on device quality, signal obstruction, and correction
methods.
 Datum and Projection Mismatch:
o Misaligned spatial data due to inconsistent datums or projections.
 Processing Errors:
o Errors introduced during data transformation, editing, or integration.
 Temporal Issues:
o Data becomes outdated over time, especially in dynamic environments.
3. Assessing Data Quality
To ensure high-quality data:
1. Review Metadata:
o Check documentation for details about source, resolution, accuracy, and
processing.
2. Validate Against Ground Truth:
o Compare spatial data with real-world measurements.
3. Consistency Checks:
o Look for anomalies like overlapping polygons or inconsistent attribute values.
4. Accuracy Testing:
o Use statistical methods to measure positional and attribute accuracy.
4. Improving Data Quality
 Data Cleaning:
o Correct errors such as missing values, duplicates, and inconsistent formats.
 Integration and Validation:
 o Align datasets using common coordinate systems and validate overlaps.
 Field Surveys:
o Collect updated data using GPS or field mapping tools.
 Quality Control Measures:
o Implement automated checks (e.g., topology rules in GIS).
 Correction Techniques:
o Apply post-processing corrections (e.g., Differential GPS).
5. Applications of High-Quality Data
 Urban Planning: Ensures accurate placement of infrastructure and zoning.
 Precision Agriculture: Facilitates site-specific crop management.
 Environmental Monitoring: Tracks changes in ecosystems or habitats.
 Disaster Response: Guides accurate mapping of affected areas.
 Transportation: Improves routing and navigation systems.
6. Challenges in Maintaining Data Quality
 Dynamic Environments:
o Data may quickly become outdated in rapidly changing areas.
 Data Heterogeneity:
o Integrating data from multiple sources with varying standards.
 Resource Constraints:
o High-quality data collection and validation require time and resources.

METADATA
Metadata in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is essential for understanding,
managing, and utilizing spatial data effectively. It provides detailed information about the
data's origin, quality, structure, and purpose.
Types of Metadata
 Descriptive Metadata: Provides information about the content, quality, and context of
the data. This includes titles, abstract, keywords, and purpose.
 Structural Metadata: Describes the organization of the data, such as how it is
formatted and how different datasets relate to each other.
 Administrative Metadata: Includes information on how the data was created,
maintained, and managed, including access rights, file types, and data lineage.
Importance of Metadata
 Data Discovery: Helps users find relevant datasets for their projects.
  Data Management: Facilitates organization and maintenance of datasets.
 Data Sharing: Promotes collaboration by providing clear documentation.
 Quality Assessment: Assists users in evaluating the reliability and appropriateness
Tools for Managing Metadata
Many GIS software platforms (like ArcGIS, QGIS) include tools for creating and
editing metadata. Additionally, there are standalone tools and libraries, such as:
 Metadata Editor: Tools integrated into GIS software.
 GeoNetwork: Open-source catalog application for sharing geospatial data.
 FGDC Metadata Tool: A tool for generating FGDC-compliant metadata.
1. Data Discovery
Metadata helps users find relevant datasets by providing essential information such as
titles, keywords, and descriptions. This makes it easier for researchers and practitioners to
locate data that meets their needs.
2. Understanding Data Quality
Metadata provides insights into the accuracy, completeness, and reliability of the data.
This information is vital for users to assess whether the dataset is suitable for their specific
application.
3. Facilitating Data Sharing
When datasets are shared, accompanying metadata ensures that others can understand
and utilize the data effectively. This promotes collaboration and enhances the utility of shared
information.
4. Ensuring Proper Use
Metadata includes information about access restrictions and usage rights, helping users
understand any legal or ethical considerations related to the data.
5. Data Management
Effective metadata supports the organization and maintenance of datasets over time. It
helps keep track of data versions, sources, and updates, ensuring that data remains relevant and
accurate.
6. Supporting Interoperability
Standardized metadata formats allow different systems and applications to exchange
and use GIS data seamlessly, enhancing integration across platforms.
7. Improving Decision-Making
With detailed metadata, users can make informed decisions based on reliable and
relevant data, leading to better outcomes in projects and analyses.
8. Documentation of Data Provenance
Metadata captures the history of the data, including how and when it was collected,
processed, and modified. This information is essential for understanding the context and
reliability of the data.
9. Enhancing User Experience
Clear and comprehensive metadata helps users navigate datasets and understand their
structure and content, leading to more efficient data exploration and analysis.
Advantages of Using Metadata in GIS
1. Improved Data Discovery:
o Metadata facilitates easy searching and retrieval of datasets, helping users find
relevant data quickly.
2. Enhanced Data Quality Assessment:
o It provides insights into data accuracy, completeness, and reliability, allowing
users to evaluate the suitability of datasets for their purposes.
3. Facilitated Data Sharing:
o Metadata promotes collaboration by ensuring that shared datasets come with
comprehensive documentation, making it easier for others to understand and use
them.
4. Efficient Data Management:
o Helps organize, track, and maintain datasets over time, ensuring that users can
keep up with changes and updates.
5. Legal and Ethical Clarity:
o Metadata includes usage rights and access constraints, guiding users on how to
legally and ethically use the data.
6. Support for Interoperability:
o Standardized metadata formats enable different systems and applications to
work together, facilitating data integration across platforms.
7. Documentation of Data Provenance:
o Captures the history and lineage of the data, providing context that is vital for
assessing its credibility.
Disadvantages of Using Metadata in GIS
1. Time-Consuming:
o Creating and maintaining metadata can be resource-intensive, requiring time
and effort that could be spent on data collection and analysis.
 2. Complexity:
o Users may find metadata standards and formats confusing, especially if they are
not familiar with them, leading to potential misinterpretation.
3. Inconsistency:
o If not properly managed, metadata can become inconsistent or outdated,
undermining its usefulness and reliability.
4. Overhead Costs:
o Implementing robust metadata practices may require additional software,
training, and personnel, leading to increased operational costs.
5. Potential for Information Overload:
o Excessive or overly detailed metadata can overwhelm users, making it difficult
to find the essential information they need.
6. Dependence on Quality:
o The effectiveness of metadata is contingent on its accuracy and completeness;
poor metadata can mislead users rather than help them.
7. Limited Adoption:
o Some organizations may underutilize metadata, either due to lack of awareness
or insufficient training, which can diminish its benefits.

GIS STANDARDS
Geographic Information System (GIS) standards are a set of guidelines, protocols,
and specifications that ensure data interoperability, quality, and consistency within GIS
applications. These standards facilitate data sharing, integration, and analysis across different
GIS platforms and organizations. Here’s an overview of key GIS standards:
1. ISO (International Organization for Standardization) Standards
ISO 19100 Series: This family of standards is dedicated to geographic information and
covers various aspects, from data modeling and quality to metadata and spatial referencing.
Key standards include:
 ISO 19107: Spatial schema for geometric and topological data.
 ISO 19115: Metadata standard for describing geographic information.
 ISO 19119: Services standard for managing geographic data web services.
2. OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium) Standards
The OGC develops standards for GIS data and web services, promoting interoperability
across different GIS systems. Some important standards include:
  WMS (Web Map Service): Provides a protocol for serving georeferenced map
images over the internet.
 WFS (Web Feature Service): Allows users to access and manipulate vector data
features through web services.
 WCS (Web Coverage Service): A protocol for serving raster data (e.g., satellite
images).
 GML (Geography Markup Language): An XML-based format for encoding
geographic information.
 KML (Keyhole Markup Language): Originally developed by Google, it’s used
for representing geographic data in web-based applications.
3. Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) Standards
In the United States, FGDC oversees GIS standards to ensure the quality and
interoperability of geospatial data within federal agencies. Key standards include:
 CSDGM (Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata): Sets metadata
requirements for spatial data sets.
 NSDI (National Spatial Data Infrastructure): Establishes policies and best
practices for sharing geospatial data.
4. INSPIRE Directive (Europe)
The Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE) is a
directive that aims to standardize spatial data and services across Europe for environmental
policies. It sets guidelines for metadata, data sharing, and services.
5. Data and Metadata Standards
 GeoTIFF: A widely used format for raster data with georeferencing information
embedded.
 Shapefile: A popular vector data format developed by Esri, widely adopted due to
its simplicity and support across GIS platforms.
6. Other Standards and Guidelines
Coordinate Reference Systems (CRS): Defines how geographic data is projected.
Standards like WGS84 (used in GPS) and UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) are
commonly used.
7. GIS Software-Specific Standards
Some GIS platforms (e.g., Esri ArcGIS, QGIS) have their own standards or best
practices for data format, symbology, and interoperability with external GIS standards. Using
these standards ensures that GIS data remains consistent, accessible, and useful across various
applications, aiding in effective data management and decision-making.

INTEROPERABILITY
Definition
Interoperability is the capability of systems to work together, allowing users to access,
integrate, and share data across different platforms without the need for extensive
customization or translation.
Importance of Interoperability
 Data Sharing and Collaboration: Enables organizations to share and collaborate on
geospatial data, enhancing decision-making processes and project efficiency.
 Cost Efficiency: Reduces duplication of efforts and resources, as users can leverage
existing data rather than creating new datasets from scratch.
 Integration of Diverse Data Sources: Facilitates the integration of various data
sources, including satellite imagery, survey data, and social media feeds, allowing for
more comprehensive analysis.
 Informed Decision-Making: Enhances the ability to conduct complex analyses by
combining datasets from multiple sources, leading to better insights and outcomes.
Standards for Interoperability
Several standards promote interoperability in GIS, including:
 OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium): Develops and promotes open standards for
geospatial content and services, such as:
o WMS (Web Map Service): Allows users to retrieve maps as images over the
internet.
o WFS (Web Feature Service): Enables users to access and manipulate
geospatial features.
o WCS (Web Coverage Service): Facilitates access to raster data.
 ISO Standards: Various ISO standards (e.g., ISO 19100 series) provide frameworks
for geographic information and promote interoperability among systems.
 GeoJSON and GML (Geography Markup Language): Data formats that support the
representation of geographic features in a standardized way.
Technologies Supporting Interoperability
 APIs (Application Programming Interfaces): Enable different software applications
to communicate, allowing for data exchange and integration.
  Web Services: Protocols like REST (Representational State Transfer) and SOAP
(Simple Object Access Protocol) facilitate the sharing of data and functionalities across
the web.
 Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI): Frameworks that promote the sharing of spatial
data among various stakeholders, often built on standardized protocols and services.
Challenges to Interoperability
 Data Quality and Consistency: Variations in data quality and definitions can
complicate integration and lead to misinterpretations.
 Legacy Systems: Older systems may lack support for modern standards and protocols,
hindering interoperability.
 Cultural and Organizational Barriers: Different organizations may have distinct
data governance policies, making collaboration difficult.
Best Practices for Achieving Interoperability
 Adopt Open Standards: Utilize widely accepted standards (like those from OGC) to
facilitate data exchange and integration.
 Invest in Training: Ensure staff are trained on interoperability principles and tools to
foster a culture of collaboration.
 Promote Data Documentation: Comprehensive metadata can help clarify data origins,
quality, and intended use, aiding interoperability.
 Encourage Collaboration: Foster relationships between organizations to establish
common goals and shared data practices.
Future Trends in Interoperability
 Increased Use of Cloud Services: Cloud-based GIS solutions will likely enhance
interoperability through standardized APIs and shared resources.
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning: These technologies can help
automate data integration and improve semantic interoperability by enhancing data
understanding.
 Open Data Initiatives: Growing movements towards open data policies will promote
accessibility and interoperability of geospatial data across platforms.
Types of Interoperability
1. Technical Interoperability
This type involves the ability of different systems and applications to communicate and
exchange data using common technical protocols and formats. Key elements include:
  Data Formats: Support for standardized data formats like GeoJSON, Shapefiles, and
GML.
 Protocols: Use of web services such as WMS (Web Map Service), WFS (Web Feature
Service), and WCS (Web Coverage Service) to enable data exchange over the internet.
2. Syntactic Interoperability
Syntactic interoperability ensures that data can be exchanged and interpreted by
different systems based on agreed-upon formats and structures. This includes:
 Data Schema: Shared definitions of data structures, including attribute names and data
types.
 Encoding Standards: Use of common encoding methods (e.g., XML, JSON) for
transmitting data.
3. Semantic Interoperability
This type focuses on ensuring that the meaning of the data is preserved and understood
across different systems. It includes:
 Common Vocabularies: Establishing shared terminology and definitions (ontologies)
to ensure consistent interpretation.
 Data Models: Use of standardized models that define how geographic features and
attributes relate to one another.
4. Organizational Interoperability
Organizational interoperability addresses the policies, practices, and relationships that
facilitate data sharing across organizations. It involves:
 Collaboration Frameworks: Agreements between organizations that establish how data
can be shared and used.
 Data Governance: Policies that define data ownership, access rights, and usage
restrictions.
5. Cultural Interoperability
This type recognizes the influence of cultural differences on data sharing and
interpretation. It includes:
 Stakeholder Engagement: Involving diverse stakeholders to ensure that data practices
align with varying cultural norms and expectations.
 User-Centric Design: Tailoring systems and data presentation to accommodate the
needs and preferences of different user groups.
OGC
The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), an international voluntary consensus
standards organization, originated in 1994. In the OGC, more than 500 commercial,
governmental, nonprofit and research organizations worldwide collaborate in a consensus
process encouraging development and implementation of open standards for geospatial content
and services, sensor web and Internet of Things, GIS data processing and data sharing.
Standards
Most of the OGC standards depend on a generalized architecture captured in a set of
documents collectively called the Abstract Specification, which describes a basic data model
for representing geographic features. Atop the Abstract Specification members have developed
and continue to develop a growing number of specifications, or standards to serve specific
needs for interoperable location and geospatial technology, including GIS.
The OGC standards baseline comprises more than thirty standards, including:
 CSW – Catalog Service for the Web: access to catalog information
 GML – Geography Mark-up Language: XML-format for geographical information
 Geo-XACML – Geospatial eXtensible Access Control Mark-up Language
 KML – Keyhole Mark-up Language: XML-based language schema for expressing
geographic annotation and visualization on existing (or future) Web-based, two
dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers
 Observations and Measurements
 OGC Reference Model – a complete set of reference models
 OLS – Open Location Service (Open-LS)
 OGC Web Services Context Document defines the application state of an OGC
Integrated Client
 OWS – OGC Web Service Common
 SOS – Sensor Observation Service
 SPS – Sensor Planning Service
 Sensor-ML – Sensor Model Language
 Sensor Things API - an open and unified framework to interconnect IoT devices, data,
and applications over the Web. Currently a candidate standard waiting for votes.
 SFS – Simple Features – SQL
 SLD - Styled Layer Descriptor
 SRID, an identification for spatial coordinate systems
  Water-ML – Information model for the representation of hydrological observation data
 WCS – Web Coverage Service: provides access, sub setting, and processing on
coverage objects
 WCPS – Web Coverage Processing Service: provides a raster query language for adhoc
processing and filtering on raster coverage’s
 WFS – Web Feature Service: for retrieving or altering feature descriptions
 WMS – Web Map Service: provides map images
 WMTS – Web Map Tile Service: provides map image tiles
 WPS – Web Processing Service: remote processing service
 Geo-SPARQL – Geographic SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query
The design of standards were originally built on the HTTP web services paradigm for
message-based interactions in web-based systems, but meanwhile has been extended with a
common approach for SOAP protocol and WSDL bindings. Considerable progress has been
made in defining Representational State Transfer (REST) web services, e.g., OGC Sensor
Things API.
SPATIAL DATA INFRASTRUCTURE
A spatial data infrastructure (SDI), also called geospatial data infrastructure, is a data
infrastructure implementing a framework of geographic data, metadata, users and tools that are
interactively connected in order to use spatial data in an efficient and flexible way. Another
definition is "the technology, policies, standards, human resources, and related activities
necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data". Most
commonly, institutions with large repositories of geographic data (especially government
agencies) create SDIs to facilitate the sharing of their data with a broader audience.

 A further definition is given in Kuhn (2005): "An SDI is a coordinated series of

agreements on technology standards, institutional arrangements, and policies that
enable the discovery and use of geospatial information by users and for purposes other
than those it was created for."
Key components of SDI in GIS
1. Data
 Spatial Data: This is the core of SDI. It includes geospatial data sets like maps, satellite
images, vector and raster data, terrain models, and other geospatial information that
represents the physical locations and attributes of natural and human-made phenomena.
 Non-Spatial Data: Associated descriptive data (metadata) that describes the attributes
and characteristics of the spatial data. Metadata makes the data meaningful, describing
what it represents, where it was collected, and how it can be used.
2. People (Stakeholders)
 Data Producers: Individuals or organizations that collect, process, and provide spatial
data, such as governmental agencies, private companies, and research institutions.
 Data Users: Stakeholders who utilize the spatial data for decision-making, planning, or
research. This includes scientists, engineers, planners, developers, and government
officials.
 Data Managers: Those responsible for organizing, storing, and maintaining spatial data
within the SDI, ensuring that the data remains accurate, accessible, and up-to-date.
3. Policies and Legal Framework
 Data Sharing Policies: Defines how data is shared between stakeholders, including
issues like data ownership, licensing, and restrictions. Open data policies encourage
easier access and use of spatial data.
 Privacy and Security Policies: Rules governing the use of sensitive geospatial data to
protect individual and national security interests, ensuring that sensitive locations (e.g.,
military bases, personal addresses) are not exposed unnecessarily.
 Data Standards: These ensure consistency and interoperability between datasets from
different sources. International standards organizations such as the Open Geospatial
Consortium (OGC) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
provide guidelines for data formats, metadata, and quality.
4. Technological Infrastructure
 Hardware: Physical infrastructure such as servers, data storage systems, and networking
equipment that enable the storage and distribution of spatial data.
 Software: GIS software tools and platforms (e.g., ESRI ArcGIS, QGIS) that allow for
data creation, manipulation, analysis, and visualization.
 Web Services and APIs: Platforms that provide access to spatial data through the
internet, often in the form of map services or Application Programming Interfaces
(APIs), allowing users to interact with the data remotely.
 Databases: Geospatial databases that store and organize spatial data. Examples include
PostgreSQL/PostGIS, Oracle Spatial, and others, which enable efficient storage, query,
and retrieval of large spatial datasets.
5. Standards and Interoperability
 Data Standards: These ensure that data from different sources can be used together,
including consistent formats for coordinates, attributes, and projections. Common
 standards include WMS (Web Map Service), WFS (Web Feature Service), and GML
(Geography Markup Language).
 Interoperability: Refers to the ability of different systems, software, and databases to
work together seamlessly, allowing for data exchange and integration across platforms
and organizations. Interoperability is essential for collaborative geospatial projects and
is achieved through adherence to standards.
6. Metadata
 Metadata provides detailed information about the spatial data, such as its source,
quality, format, scale, and accuracy. It allows users to understand the content and
context of the data and determine its suitability for specific applications.
 Common metadata standards include the ISO 19115 standard and the Federal
Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) metadata standards.
7. Network
 Data Delivery Mechanisms: Systems that enable the transfer and sharing of spatial data
between users. This includes internet-based platforms such as geoportals, data
repositories, and cloud services, where users can access and download data.
 Geoportals: Web-based platforms that provide access to spatial data and services. They
serve as a central hub for users to search, view, and download geospatial datasets.
8. Institutional Framework
 Coordinating Bodies: Organizations or agencies responsible for overseeing the
development and maintenance of the SDI at local, national, or international levels. For
example, the United Nations Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information
Management (UN-GGIM) plays a significant role in global SDI development.
 Collaboration and Partnerships: Effective SDI depends on cooperation between
governments, private sectors, academia, and non-governmental organizations. This
includes sharing data, establishing standards, and contributing resources for the
maintenance of the infrastructure.
9. Capacity Building
 Training and Education: Ongoing efforts to educate and train data producers, users, and
managers on how to collect, manage, analyze, and use spatial data effectively. This
ensures the proper functioning and development of the SDI.
 Technical Support: Providing resources and expertise to stakeholders in maintaining
and utilizing the SDI, including troubleshooting issues related to hardware, software,
or data.
10. Access and Usability
 User Interfaces: These include map viewers, dashboards, and applications that allow
users to interact with and query spatial data. These tools are designed to make data
accessible and usable for non-experts, as well as specialists.
 Data Accessibility: Ensuring that the spatial data within the SDI is easy to find and
retrieve, often through metadata catalogs or geoportals. This includes ensuring that
datasets are openly available or appropriately licensed.
Purpose and Importance of Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) in GIS
1. Efficient Data Sharing and Accessibility:
One of the primary purposes of SDI is to provide easy access to geospatial data across
different organizations, governments, private sectors, and the public. In a typical GIS
environment, data can come from multiple sources, and without a well-structured SDI, data-
sharing can be cumbersome, time-consuming, and costly. SDI overcomes these issues by
creating a structured environment where spatial data can be easily discovered, accessed, and
shared.
2. Interoperability and Data Integration:
GIS applications often require the integration of various types of geospatial data from
multiple sources, such as satellite imagery, maps, sensor data, demographic information, etc.
SDI establishes a standardized framework for interoperability, ensuring that different data
formats and systems can work together seamlessly.
3. Enhanced Decision-Making and Policy Formulation:
The ultimate goal of SDI within GIS is to provide accurate, timely, and relevant
information for decision-making. Governments, businesses, and organizations rely on
geospatial data to make informed decisions, particularly in sectors like environmental
management, urban development, transportation, and agriculture. SDI ensures that decision-
makers have access to reliable spatial data that can guide policies and actions.
4. Collaboration and Coordination Among Organizations:
SDI promotes collaboration by enabling multiple organizations to work together
through shared access to spatial data. Whether between government departments, between
public and private sectors, or across international boundaries, SDI fosters cooperation by
providing a common platform for sharing geospatial information.
5. Resource Optimization and Cost Savings:
SDI reduces the costs of acquiring, processing, and maintaining geospatial data by
avoiding duplication of efforts. It optimizes the use of resources by ensuring that spatial data
is available to multiple users, minimizing the need for each organization to generate its own
datasets.
6. Real-Time Data Integration for Emergency and Disaster Management:
SDI is particularly important in disaster management. It enables real-time data
integration from various sources such as IoT sensors, imagery, and crowd sourced data,
allowing for timely and efficient responses to emergencies.
7. Environmental Monitoring and Sustainable Development:
SDI is crucial for environmental management and sustainable development because it
enables long-term monitoring of natural resources like forests, water bodies, and biodiversity.
SDI allows integration of various datasets that track environmental changes over time, enabling
effective conservation efforts.
Examples of SDI:
1. National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI):
 In the United States, the NSDI facilitates sharing geospatial data among various levels
of government and the public.
2. INSPIRE (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community):
 A European Union initiative aimed at creating a common framework for sharing
environmental spatial information across member states.
Challenges of SDI Implementation:
Data Quality and Consistency:
 Ensuring the accuracy and compatibility of data from different sources can be difficult.
Legal and Privacy Issues:
 Policies regarding data sharing, intellectual property, and privacy can vary widely,
making international collaboration challenging.
Funding and Resources:
 Developing and maintaining an SDI requires significant investment in infrastructure,
personnel, and technology.
Technological Challenges:
 Managing and integrating large volumes of spatial data, especially real-time data from
sensors and IoT devices, requires advanced technologies like cloud computing and
machine learning.
 UNIT V - DATA MANAGEMENT AND OUTPUT
Import/Export – Data Management functions- Raster to Vector and Vector to Raster
Conversion - Data Output - Map Compilation – Chart/Graphs – Multimedia – Enterprise Vs.
Desktop GIS-Distributed GIS.

IMPORT/EXPORT
In GIS (Geographic Information Systems), import/export in data management refers
to the processes of transferring spatial and attribute data between different formats or systems,
while output pertains to the creation of maps, reports, and other visual or analytical
representations of the data.
Import in GIS Data Management
This involves bringing external data into a GIS environment. It includes:
1. Supported Formats:
o Vector Data: Shapefiles (.shp), GeoJSON, KML, GML, DXF.
o Raster Data: GeoTIFF, JPEG, PNG, NetCDF, HDF.
o Tabular Data: CSV, Excel, database files (e.g., SQLite, PostGIS).
2. Tools and Techniques:
o Software-specific tools like ArcGIS's Import Data Wizard or QGIS's Data
Source Manager.
o ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) tools for bulk data handling.
o Use of APIs or plugins for direct import from web services (e.g., WMS, WFS).
3. Considerations:
o Ensuring coordinate system consistency.
o Cleaning and formatting attribute data for compatibility.
o Validating topology for vector data.
Export in GIS Data Management
This involves saving GIS data in a specific format for use in other systems.
1. Commonly Exported Formats:
o GIS-specific: Shapefiles, GeoJSON, GeoTIFF.
o Web-ready: KMZ (compressed KML), WMS, WFS services.
o Analytical tools: CSV or Excel for attribute data analysis.
2. Use Cases:
o Sharing spatial data with collaborators or publishing online.
 o Converting data to formats compatible with non-GIS tools.
3. Challenges:
o Loss of data attributes or metadata during conversion.
o Format-specific limitations (e.g., shapefile's 10-character field name limit).
Output in GIS
Refers to the generation of visual or analytical results for communication or analysis
purposes:
1. Maps:
o Static Maps: Printable PDFs, PNGs, or JPEGs.
o Interactive Maps: Web maps using platforms like Leaflet, ArcGIS Online, or
Mapbox.
2. Reports:
o Tables summarizing spatial analysis results (e.g., area calculations, buffer
distances).
o Automated reports generated using tools like Python (e.g., with Matplotlib or
Seaborn for charts).
3. Web Services:
o Publishing GIS data for web use (WMS, WFS, WMTS).
4. 3D Models:
o Using tools like ArcGIS Pro or Blender for creating 3D terrain models or
buildings.
5. Data Analytics Outputs:
o Graphs, histograms, and other visualizations integrated with spatial data.
Tools for Data Import/Export and Output in GIS
 Software: QGIS, ArcGIS, GRASS GIS, PostGIS.
 Programming: Python libraries (e.g., GeoPandas, PyProj, Fiona, Rasterio).
 Web GIS: GeoServer, MapServer, OpenLayers.
Import Data Formats
1. Importing Vector Data
GIS (Geographic Information System) software supports various vector data formats,
enabling users to import and analyze spatial data from different sources. Vector data represents
geographic features as points, lines, and polygons.
Common Vector Data Formats
1. *Shapefile (.shp)*: ESRI's popular format for storing geospatial data.
2. *GeoJSON (.geojson)*: Open standard for encoding geospatial data in JSON.
3. *KML (.kml)*: Keyhole Markup Language for Google Earth and Maps.
4. *DXF (.dxf)*: AutoCAD format for exchanging vector data.
5. *PostGIS (.sql)*: Spatial database format for PostgreSQL.
6. *GML (.gml)*: Geography Markup Language for XML-based data.
7. *CSV (.csv)*: Comma-separated values for tabular data with spatial references.
8. *GPS (.gpx)*: GPS Exchange Format for tracking and route data.
9. *SHPX (.shpx)*: ESRI's shapefile index format.
10. *MIF (.mif)*: MapInfo format for interchange.
Importing Vector Data in GIS Software
ArcGIS
1. Open ArcMap or ArcCatalog.
2. Click "File" > "Import" > "Vector Data".
3. Select the format and navigate to the file.
4. Choose the coordinate system and click "OK".
QGIS
1. Open QGIS.
2. Click "Layer" > "Add Layer" > "Add Vector Layer".
3. Select the format and navigate to the file.
4. Choose the coordinate system and click "OK".
2. Importing Raster Data Formats
Raster Data Formats
Raster data formats store geographic information as a grid of pixels or cells, where each
cell represents a value.
Common Raster Data Formats:
1. GeoTIFF (.tif)
2. ERDAS Imagine (.img)
3. ESRI Grid (.grd)
4. JPEG (.jpg)
5. PNG (.png)
6. BMP (.bmp)
7. DEM (Digital Elevation Model)
8. DTED (Digital Terrain Elevation Data)
9. GeoJPEG (.jpe)
10. MrSID (.sid)
Importing Raster Data in GIS Software:
ArcGIS
1. Open ArcMap or ArcCatalog.
2. Click "File" > "Import" > "Raster Data".
3. Select the format and navigate to the file.
4. Choose the coordinate system and click "OK".
QGIS
1. Open QGIS.
2. Click "Layer" > "Add Layer" > "Add Raster Layer".
3. Select the format and navigate to the file.
4. Choose the coordinate system and click "OK".
Export Data Formats
Two types of export data formats
1. Exporting Vector Data Formats
GIS (Geographic Information System) software allows users to export vector data in
various formats, facilitating sharing, integration, and analysis with other applications.
Common Vector Data Formats for Export
1. _Shapefile (.shp)_: ESRI's popular format for storing geospatial data.
2. _GeoJSON (.geojson)_: Open standard for encoding geospatial data in JSON.
3. _KML (.kml)_: Keyhole Markup Language for Google Earth and Maps.
4. _DXF (.dxf)_: AutoCAD format for exchanging vector data.
5. _GML (.gml)_: Geography Markup Language for XML-based data.
6. _CSV (.csv)_: Comma-separated values for tabular data with spatial references.
7. _GPS (.gpx)_: GPS Exchange Format for tracking and route data.
8. _SHPX (.shpx)_: ESRI's shapefile index format.
9. _MIF (.mif)_: MapInfo format for interchange.
10. _GeoTIFF (.tif)_: Raster format with geospatial information.
Exporting Vector Data in GIS Software
ArcGIS
1. Open ArcMap or ArcCatalog.
2. Select the layer(s) to export.
3. Right-click > "Data" > "Export" > "Export Data".
4. Choose the format and specify options.
5. Click "OK" to export.
QGIS
1. Open QGIS.
2. Select the layer(s) to export.
3. Click "Layer" > "Export" > "Save Vector Layer as".
4. Choose the format and specify options.
5. Click "OK" to export.
2. Exporting Raster Data Formats
Raster data in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) represents continuous
phenomena, such as imagery, elevation, or temperature. Exporting raster data allows sharing
and integration with other applications.
Common Raster Data Formats for Export:
1. *GeoTIFF (.tif)*: Tagged Image File Format with geospatial information.
2. *JPEG (.jpg)*: Joint Photographic Experts Group image format.
3. *PNG (.png)*: Portable Network Graphics image format.
4. *BIL (.bil)*: Binary Image Format.
5. *BSQ (.bsq)*: Binary Square Image Format.
6. *ECW (.ecw)*: Enhanced Compressed Wavelet image format.
7. *MrSID (.sid)*: Multi-Resolution Seamless Image Database.
8. *IMG (.img)*: ERDAS Imagine image format
Exporting Raster Data in GIS Software:
ArcGIS
1. Open ArcMap or ArcCatalog.
2. Select the raster layer.
3. Right-click > "Data" > "Export" > "Export Raster Data".
4. Choose format, resolution, and projection.
5. Click "OK" to export.
QGIS
1. Open QGIS.
2. Select the raster layer.
3. Click "Layer" > "Export" > "Save Raster Layer as".
4. Choose format, resolution, and projection.
5. Click "OK" to export.
DATA MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
 Data management functions in GIS enable efficient handling, administration, and
maintenance of spatial and non-spatial data. The process of collecting, organizing,
storing and maintaining data to ensure its quality, security and accessibility.
Data Management Functions
 Data Input/Creation
 Data Storage
 Data Validation
 Data Cleaning
 Data Transformation
 Data Integration
 Data Analysis
 Data Visualization
 Data Query
 Data Output/Export
Data Management Processes
 Geodatabase Design
 Spatial Data Conversion
 Data Harmonization
 Data Generalization
 Data Merging
 Data Splitting
 Data Updating
 Data Versioning
Five types of data in GIS:
 Map data
 Remote sensing data
 Field Surveying data
 Digital data
 Text report
Map Data in GIS
Map data in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) refers to the digital representation
of geographic features, attributes, and relationships stored in a database. This data enables GIS
software to visualize, analyze, and understand spatial relationships.
Types of Map Data
1. Vector Data: Represented as points, lines, and polygons, vector data stores geographic
features' shapes and locations.
- Points (e.g., landmarks, cities)
- Lines (e.g., roads, rivers)
- Polygons (e.g., countries, buildings)
2. Raster Data: Represented as grid cells or pixels, raster data stores information on spatial
phenomena (e.g., satellite imagery, elevation).
- Satellite imagery
- Aerial photography
- Elevation data (DEM)
3. Attribute Data: Non-spatial information associated with geographic features.
- Demographic data (population, income)
- Land use/land cover data
- Climate data
Field Surveying Data in GIS
Field surveying data in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) refers to spatial and
attribute data collected through direct observation and measurement in the field.
Field Surveying Data Types:
1. Geodetic Data: Precise location and orientation information.
2. Topographic Data: Terrain features and elevation information.
3. Attribute Data: Non-spatial information about features (e.g., land use, soil type).
4. Photographic Data: Visual documentation.
5. Sensor Data: Environmental and atmospheric measurements.
Remote Sensing Data in GIS
Remote sensing data in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) refers to data acquired
through aerial or satellite-based sensors, capturing information about the Earth's surface
without physical contact.
Remote Sensing Data Types:
1. Optical/Infrared Imagery (e.g., Landsat, MODIS)
2. Radar Imagery (e.g., SAR, TerraSAR-X)
3. Hyperspectral Imagery (e.g., AVIRIS, Hyperion)
4. Multispectral Imagery (e.g., Sentinel-2, WorldView)
5. Thermal Imagery (e.g., ASTER, Landsat 8)
6. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) Data
Digital Data in GIS
Digital data in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) refers to spatial and non-spatial
information stored, processed, and analyzed in binary format (0s and 1s) using computers and
software.
Types of Digital Data in GIS:
Spatial Data
1. Vector Data: Points, lines, polygons (e.g., shapefiles, GeoJSON)
2. Raster Data: Grid cells, pixels (e.g., satellite imagery, DEMs)
3. 3D Data: Triangulated Irregular Networks (TINs), 3D meshes
Non-Spatial Data
1. Attribute Data: Tables, databases (e.g., CSV, Excel)
2. Text Data: Documents, reports (e.g., PDF, Word)
3. Image Data: Photos, scans (e.g., JPEG, TIFF)
Text Report in GIS
A text report in GIS (Geographic Information System) is a written summary of spatial
data analysis, interpretation, and findings, presented in a clear and concise manner.
Types of Text Reports in GIS:
1. Research Reports
2. Technical Reports
3. Policy Briefs
4. Project Reports
5. Academic Papers
6. Thesis/Dissertation
Steps in Data Management
There are two types
1. Data gathering
2. Data processing
Data Gathering
Data gathering in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) involves collecting,
acquiring, and compiling spatial and non-spatial data from various sources.
Data Processing
Data processing in GIS involves transforming, cleaning, integrating, and analyzing
collected data to produce usable information.
RASTER TO VECTOR AND VECTOR TO RASTER CONVERSION
1. Raster-to-Vector Conversion
Definition: Converting raster data (pixel-based) into vector data (point, line, or polygon
geometries).
How It Works
1. Tracing Boundaries:
o Raster pixels with similar values (e.g., same color or intensity) are grouped.
o Boundaries of these groups are traced to create polygons or lines.
2. Thresholding:
o For binary or categorized rasters, specific values are used to determine areas to
vectorize.
3. Point Conversion:
o For continuous rasters, points can represent the center of pixels with specific
attributes (e.g., elevation values).
Applications
 Converting scanned maps or satellite imagery into vector format for analysis.
 Generating vector contours from Digital Elevation Models (DEMs).
 Converting classified land-use raster maps into vector polygons.
Tools for Raster-to-Vector
 QGIS: Raster to Vector tool.
 ArcGIS: Raster to Polygon or Contour tools.
 GDAL: gdal_polygonize.py for raster polygonization.
Challenges
 Precision: Raster resolution affects the quality of the vector output.
 Complexity: Complex raster features may require smoothing or simplification.
 Topology Errors: May need post-processing to fix overlaps or gaps.
2. Vector-to-Raster Conversion
Definition: Converting vector data (points, lines, polygons) into raster data (grid of pixels).
How It Works
1. Gridding:
o The spatial extent is divided into a grid of pixels.
o Each pixel is assigned a value based on the vector feature it overlaps.
2. Cell Assignment Rules:
o Presence/Absence: A pixel is given a value if it intersects a feature.
 o Attribute Mapping: Assign attribute values of vector features to corresponding
pixels.
3. Resolution:
o The output raster resolution determines the level of detail.
Applications
 Rasterizing vector data for compatibility with raster-based analyses.
 Creating raster layers for terrain analysis, hydrology, or remote sensing.
 Representing discrete data (e.g., administrative boundaries) in raster format.
Tools for Vector-to-Raster
 QGIS: Rasterize (vector to raster) tool.
 ArcGIS: Polygon to Raster or Point to Raster tools.
 GDAL: gdal_rasterize for rasterization of vector data.
Challenges
 Resolution: High-resolution rasters require more storage and processing power.
 Data Loss: Detailed vector data may lose precision when converted to raster.
 Attribute Handling: Proper attribute assignment is essential for meaningful outputs.

DATA OUTPUT
Geographic Information System (GIS) data outputs represent the results obtained from
processing and analyzing geospatial data. These outputs are essential for communicating
spatial patterns, performing analysis, and supporting decision-making. GIS outputs can be
broadly classified into cartographic and non-cartographic outputs.
1. Cartographic Outputs
Cartographic outputs are maps designed following standard cartographic conventions. These
visualizations help communicate geospatial data clearly and effectively by employing scales,
symbols, legends, and color schemes.
Purpose of Cartographic Outputs
 Convey spatial relationships and patterns effectively.
  Serve as tools for navigation, planning, and public communication.
 Provide visual insights into trends like population density, crop yield, or rainfall
distribution.
Types of Cartographic Outputs
1. Thematic Maps
 Highlight specific themes such as land use, rainfall, or population.
 Example: A choropleth map showing population density across different regions.
2. Topographic Maps
 Depict natural and man-made features, including elevation and rivers.
 Example: A topographic map of a region showing mountains, roads, and water bodies.
3. Choropleth Maps
 Use color gradients to represent data intensity.
 Example: A map displaying rainfall levels in shades of blue, with darker shades
indicating higher rainfall.
4. Proportional Symbol Maps
 Use symbols (e.g., circles) whose sizes represent data values.
 Example: A map showing city populations with larger circles for larger populations.
5. Dot Density Maps
 Represent quantities with dots, where each dot corresponds to a specific count or value.
 Example: A map displaying the distribution of wheat farms across a state.
6. 3D Terrain Maps
 Provide a three-dimensional view of the landscape to highlight elevation and slopes.
 Example: A 3D map showing how topography affects water flow in a region.
Tools Used for Cartographic Outputs
 ArcGIS
 QGIS
 Google Earth
 Tableau
2. Non-Cartographic Outputs
Non-cartographic outputs focus on data models, analysis, and visualization systems
beyond traditional maps. These outputs enable deeper exploration of geospatial data through
models, dashboards, and reports.
Purpose of Non-Cartographic Outputs
 Provide analytical insights and support decision-making processes.
  Simulate spatial phenomena for future predictions.
 Enable real-time monitoring and reporting.
Types of Non-Cartographic Outputs
1. Spatial Models
 Simulate scenarios such as crop growth or flood risks.
 Example: A model predicting crop yield based on soil type and rainfall patterns.
2. Information Systems
 Provide interactive GIS platforms for data management and decision-making.
 Example: An agricultural management system monitoring crop health and irrigation.
3. Interactive Dashboards
 Consolidate real-time spatial data for monitoring and decision-making.
 Example: A dashboard tracking weather conditions and crop growth across different
regions.
4. Heat Maps
 Use color gradients to show data intensity, often representing hotspots.
 Example: A heat map showing high-crime areas in a city using warmer colors.
5. Statistical Charts and Reports
 Provide numerical summaries of spatial data.
 Example: A bar chart comparing crop yields across different states.
6. Attribute Tables
 Store detailed information about map features.
 Example: A table listing farms along with soil types, crop types, and productivity.
7. Predictive Models
 Forecast future outcomes based on spatial data trends.
 Example: A model predicting future water demand based on population growth.
Tools Used for Non-Cartographic Outputs
 ArcGIS Dashboards
 Python (GeoPandas, Scikit-learn)
 Google Earth Engine, Power BI and Tableau
Comparison of Cartographic and Non-Cartographic Outputs
Non-Cartographic
Aspect Cartographic Outputs
Outputs
Communicate spatial data Provide analytical insights
Purpose
effectively and predictions
 Thematic maps, topographic Dashboards, predictive
Examples
maps models, heat maps
Interactive or real-time
Format Static or printable maps
visualizations
Tools used ArcGIS, QGIS Python, Tableau, Power BI
Forecasting, real-time
Applications Navigation, urban planning
monitoring
Best Practices for GIS Outputs
1. Clarity and Simplicity
 Keep maps and visuals easy to interpret.
 Avoid overloading maps with too many layers or symbols.
2. Effective Use of Color
 Use color schemes that enhance readability.
 Opt for colorblind-friendly palettes for accessibility.
3. Consistent Styling and Formatting
 Maintain consistency across maps, dashboards, and reports.
 Use standardized legends and scales.
4. Real-time Data Integration
 Include real-time updates where applicable (e.g., dashboards).
 Ensure data accuracy through reliable sources.
5. Interactivity for Exploration
 Enable users to interact with data via dashboards and web maps.
 Incorporate filtering options to explore different scenarios.
6. Scalability
 Ensure outputs are adaptable for both digital and print formats.
 Design outputs that fit multiple screen sizes.

MAP COMPILATION
Map compilation in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) refers to the process of
gathering, integrating, and organizing geospatial data to create accurate and meaningful maps.
This involves multiple steps, including data collection, preprocessing, spatial analysis,
symbolization, and map layout design. Below is a detailed guide to the key stages involved in
map compilation.
Introduction to Map Compilation in GIS
 Map compilation is the process of collecting, integrating, analyzing, and designing
geospatial data to produce accurate and meaningful maps.
  It involves working with vector and raster data, spatial analysis, and cartographic design
to create maps that suit specific purposes (e.g., thematic, topographic, cadastral maps).
 GIS software tools (like QGIS, ArcGIS) provide a platform to perform these tasks
efficiently, ensuring high-quality spatial representation.
Steps in Map Compilation
1. Objective and Purpose Definition
 Identify the goal of the map and the audience.
 Decide on the type of map (e.g., population density map, land-use map).
 The purpose determines the type of data and layout design.
2. Data Collection and Sources
Common data sources:
 Satellite imagery (e.g., Landsat, Sentinel)
 GPS data for precise coordinates
 Census datasets (for demographic mapping)
 OpenStreetMap or government data portals
Data types:
 Vector data: Points, lines, and polygons (e.g., roads, buildings).
 Raster data: Gridded data (e.g., elevation models, imagery).
3. Data Preprocessing
 Georeferencing: Aligning datasets to a specific geographic coordinate system.
 Projections: Transform data to a suitable map projection (e.g., UTM, WGS84).
 Data Cleaning: Remove errors, duplicates, or irrelevant data.
 Data Transformation: Convert between raster and vector if needed.
4. Spatial Analysis
 Overlay analysis: Combine datasets (e.g., land use over a topographic map).
 Buffering: Create zones around features (e.g., 500 meters around roads).
 Interpolation: Predict values between known points (e.g., rainfall distribution).
 Network analysis: Find the shortest routes or optimal paths.
5. Cartographic Design and Symbolization
 Select appropriate colors, styles, and symbols to represent the data.
 Use classification methods (e.g., natural breaks, quantiles) to categorize data.
Important visual elements:
 Legend: Describes symbols and color codes.
 Scale Bar: Indicates distances.
  North Arrow: Provides orientation.
6. Map Layout Design
 Arrange elements aesthetically on the map canvas:
o Title: Summarizes the map’s content.
o Legend: Explains the meaning of symbols.
o Scale and Orientation: Adds context to distances and directions.
 Ensure a balanced layout with minimal clutter.
7. Validation and Quality Check
 Verify the accuracy of spatial data and correct any misalignments.
 Check for labeling errors or visual inconsistencies.
 Ensure attribute data (e.g., population values) is accurate.
8. Exporting the Final Map
 Choose an appropriate file format (e.g., PDF, PNG, GeoPDF) for sharing.
 Adjust resolution based on the output medium (print or screen).
 Include metadata (source, date, projection) for transparency.
GIS Tools for Map Compilation
 QGIS: Open-source tool with powerful cartographic capabilities.
 ArcGIS: Industry-standard software with advanced spatial analysis features.
 GRASS GIS: Useful for spatial data management and analysis.
 Google Earth Engine: Ideal for satellite imagery and remote sensing.
 Map box: Allows the creation of web-based interactive maps.
Best Practices in Map Compilation
1. Consistency: Use uniform colors, fonts, and symbols.
2. Clarity: Avoid overcrowding the map with too much information.
3. Metadata: Include data sources, projection, and map creation date.
4. Testing: Get feedback from different users to ensure map readability.
5. Accuracy: Always double-check spatial and attribute data for errors.

CHART/GRAPHS
Charts and graphs in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are vital for analyzing,
summarizing, and presenting spatial data in ways that reveal patterns, relationships, and trends
not immediately visible on maps alone. Integrating charts and graphs into GIS allows for both
quantitative and visual exploration of geographic data, enhancing decision-making and
communication.
1. Core GIS Components (Central Layer):
 Spatial Database: Stores geographic data such as locations, boundaries, and spatial
attributes.
 Attribute Data: Provides detailed, non-spatial information linked to each geographic
feature, like population, income levels, land use, etc.
 Analytical Tools: GIS-based analytical tools for performing spatial queries,
geostatistical analysis, and generating visual summaries.
2. Chart and Graph Types (Connecting Layers):
 Bar Charts: Visualize categorical or grouped data, useful for comparing values (e.g.,
population per region).
 Line Graphs: Show changes over time, especially useful in time-series data like
temperature or rainfall.
 Pie Charts: Display the proportional distribution of categorical data, such as land cover
types in an area.
 Histograms: Represent frequency distributions of data, helpful for analyzing elevation
ranges or income brackets.
 Scatter Plots: Reveal relationships between two variables, like pollution vs. population
density.
 Heatmaps: Color-coded maps indicate density or intensity, commonly used to represent
population clusters or crime hotspots.
1. Bar Charts
 Purpose: Bar charts compare values among categories, such as population across
different regions or land use types in an area.
 Example in Use: An urban planner uses a bar chart in GIS to compare residential and
commercial land areas within different districts, making it easier to identify
underdeveloped regions.
 Technology: GIS software like ArcGIS and QGIS can generate bar charts directly from
attribute data tables, allowing for automatic updates when data changes.
2. Line Graphs
 Purpose: Line graphs represent changes over time, allowing users to observe trends,
peaks, and troughs in spatial data.
 Example in Use: Environmental scientists might use a line graph to plot temperature
data over several decades within a specific location to analyze climate change effects.
  Technology: Line graphs in GIS can be linked to time-series data, automatically
updating as new temporal data is added.
3. Pie Charts
 Purpose: Pie charts depict the proportional distribution of categorical data, helping to
show how different categories contribute to a whole.
 Example in Use: In a land cover analysis, a GIS-based pie chart shows the proportions
of forest, water, urban, and agricultural land in a region.
 Technology: GIS tools generate pie charts using attribute data fields, which can be
customized by color, category labels, and data source.
4. Histograms
 Purpose: Histograms display frequency distributions, useful for visualizing the range
and distribution of numerical data like elevation or income levels.
 Example in Use: A histogram in a GIS shows the distribution of elevation values across
a mountainous region, helping to understand terrain variations.
 Technology: GIS software can create histograms based on numerical data fields, and
these histograms are dynamically updated when new data is added.
5. Scatter Plots
 Purpose: Scatter plots reveal relationships or correlations between two variables, which
can help identify patterns or anomalies.
 Example in Use: Health agencies use scatter plots in GIS to study the relationship
between air pollution levels and population density, identifying areas with higher health
risks.
 Technology: GIS programs generate scatter plots that can link directly to map features,
making it easy to visualize and explore correlations.
6. Heatmaps
 Purpose: Heatmaps visualize density or intensity by using color gradients to represent
data values, commonly used for high-density areas like populations or crime hotspots.
 Example in Use: A heatmap in GIS shows crime hotspots in an urban area, helping law
enforcement allocate resources effectively.
 Technology: Heatmaps are generated by spatial analysis tools in GIS, which calculate
density values for given data points and apply color gradients to show variations.
3. GIS Applications (External Layer):
 Urban Planning: Uses bar and pie charts for demographic analysis, and line graphs for
tracking growth trends.
  Environmental Monitoring: Line graphs and histograms track changes in temperature,
rainfall, or air quality over time.
 Disaster Management: Scatter plots, line graphs, and heatmaps display risk levels, event
frequencies, and affected populations.

MULTIMEDIA
Multimedia in GIS refers to the integration and use of various multimedia elements
such as images, videos, audio, animations, and interactive content within GIS systems for data
management, analysis, and presentation. Multimedia enhances GIS by improving data
visualization, interactivity, and user engagement, making complex spatial information more
understandable.
Roles of Multimedia in GIS Management
1. Data Input:
o Images: Aerial photos, satellite imagery, or scanned maps as base layers.
o Videos: Drone footage or CCTV feeds for real-time spatial monitoring.
o Audio: Geo-tagged audio notes for field observations.
o Annotations: User-created overlays with multimedia links for contextual data.
2. Data Storage and Management:
o Multimedia elements are stored alongside spatial data in GIS databases.
o Example: Storing geo-tagged photos of infrastructure conditions in a database.
3. Data Integration:
o Integrating multimedia from various sources, such as IoT sensors or
crowdsourcing platforms (e.g., citizen-reported photos and videos).
o Geo-referencing multimedia elements (e.g., tagging the location of a sound
recording).
4. Analysis:
o Using multimedia data (e.g., time-lapse imagery or video) for change detection
and temporal analysis.
o Audio analysis in environmental studies, such as identifying bird calls in a
specific region.
Roles of Multimedia in GIS Outputs
1. Enhanced Maps:
o Interactive maps that include photos, videos, or audio clips linked to specific
locations.
 o Example: Tourism maps showing videos of attractions or historical narratives.
2. Animations and Simulations:
o Time-lapse animations of land use changes, urban growth, or weather patterns.
o 3D fly-through animations of landscapes or urban areas.
3. Interactive Dashboards:
o Dashboards combining spatial data with multimedia elements for dynamic
presentations.
o Example: Real-time dashboards showing live CCTV feeds overlaid on maps.
4. Web GIS Applications:
o Online maps with embedded multimedia content for public or professional use.
o Example: StoryMaps by Esri, which integrates multimedia with GIS
storytelling.
5. Virtual and Augmented Reality (VR/AR):
o Immersive experiences using multimedia and GIS for applications like urban
planning, disaster response training, or tourism.
o Example: Virtual tours of archaeological sites using GIS-based VR.
Applications of Multimedia in GIS
1. Environmental Monitoring:
o Geo-tagged photos and videos documenting ecosystem changes.
o Audio recordings for studying biodiversity, like bird or animal calls.
2. Disaster Management:
o Real-time video feeds and photos from affected areas.
o Annotated maps with multimedia reports from first responders.
3. Urban Planning:
o 3D visualizations of proposed developments with multimedia overlays.
o Simulated animations of traffic patterns or urban growth.
4. Cultural Heritage and Tourism:
o Interactive maps with historical photos, videos, or narratives.
o Multimedia-enhanced trails or guides for tourists.
5. Education and Awareness:
o Multimedia-rich GIS tools for teaching geography or environmental science.
Technologies and Tools for Multimedia GIS
1. GIS Software:
o ArcGIS: Supports multimedia integration in maps, StoryMaps, and 3D scenes.
 o QGIS: Allows linking multimedia files to spatial data layers.
2. Web Platforms:
o Esri StoryMaps: For multimedia-rich web GIS storytelling.
o Mapbox: Customizable maps with embedded multimedia.
3. Database Management:
o Storing multimedia in spatial databases like PostgreSQL/PostGIS.
o Using cloud storage (e.g., Google Drive) for large multimedia datasets.
4. Multimedia Tools:
o Video and photo editing software for preprocessing multimedia.
o Geotagging tools to link multimedia to specific spatial locations.
5. IoT and Drones:
o Collecting real-time multimedia data like drone videos or sensor-captured
images.
Advantages of Using Multimedia in GIS
 Improved Understanding: Makes complex spatial phenomena more relatable.
 Engagement: Increases user interaction with GIS applications.
 Communication: Communicates findings more effectively to stakeholders.
 Documentation: Offers rich, geo-referenced archives for future analysis.
Challenges in Multimedia GIS
1. Data Management:
o Large storage requirements for high-resolution multimedia.
o Organizing and indexing multimedia for easy retrieval.
2. Compatibility:
o Ensuring multimedia formats are compatible with GIS software.
o Maintaining metadata integrity during file conversion.
3. Performance and cost.
o Handling high-resolution multimedia in real-time applications.
o Network bandwidth requirements for web GIS with multimedia.
o High costs for collecting, storing, and managing multimedia data.

ENTERPRISE VS. DESKTOP GIS

Enterprise GIS
Enterprise GIS (Geographic Information Systems) refers to the integration of GIS
technology and data across an entire organization, providing centralized access to geographic
information and tools for spatial analysis. It involves the deployment of GIS at a large scale,
enabling multiple departments, teams, or users within an organization to share, manage,
analyze, and leverage geospatial data in their operations.
The system is typically built to be scalable, secure, and able to support a wide variety
of tasks, including data storage, analysis, and visualization of geographic data.
Key components of an enterprise GIS include:
 Centralized Data Storage: All spatial and non-spatial data is stored in a central database,
often in a relational database management system (RDBMS) like Oracle, SQL Server,
or PostgreSQL.
 Data Sharing: Enterprise GIS allows seamless data sharing and collaboration between
different departments, reducing data duplication and ensuring consistency.
 Web and Cloud Integration: Often, enterprise GIS systems are accessible via web
browsers or cloud services, making GIS tools available to non-specialist users and
mobile users.
 Security and Access Control: Enterprise GIS typically includes strict security measures
and access control policies to ensure that only authorized personnel can access or
modify data.
 Scalability: It is designed to scale with the needs of the organization, from small teams
to global operations.
 Integration with Other Systems: Enterprise GIS often integrates with other enterprise
systems like ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), CRM (Customer Relationship
Management), and asset management systems, providing geographic insights into other
business processes.
 It’s used in a variety of industries including urban planning, utilities, transportation,
environmental management, and more, to support decision-making, improve
operations, and optimize resources.
Desktop GIS
Desktop GIS is a type of Geographic Information System software that runs on personal
computers and is designed for individual users to analyze, manage, and visualize geospatial
data. It is a powerful tool for handling geographic data in various formats, performing spatial
analysis, creating maps, and generating reports.
Unlike enterprise GIS, which is designed for use across an entire organization, desktop
GIS is typically used by a single user or a small team for localized analysis or project-specific
tasks.
Key features of desktop GIS include:
 Data Analysis: Desktop GIS allows users to perform advanced spatial analysis, such as
overlaying multiple datasets, performing buffer analysis, calculating distances, and
conducting statistical operations on spatial data.
 Data Management: Users can manage, edit, and update both vector (points, lines,
polygons) and raster (images, grids) data formats. Common data formats include
shapefiles, GeoTIFF, and geodatabases.
 Cartography: Desktop GIS provides tools for creating high-quality, detailed maps with
full control over the layout, symbology, and labeling. These maps can be printed or
exported for reports and presentations.
 Geoprocessing Tools: It includes tools for performing complex data processing tasks
such as data transformation, spatial joins, and creating new data layers based on
geographic relationships.
 Customization: Many desktop GIS applications can be customized through scripting
(Python, for example) or plug-ins to automate workflows or add new functionality.
 Offline Use: Desktop GIS can be used without an internet connection, which is
beneficial for users working in remote locations or on standalone systems.
Popular Desktop GIS software includes:
 ArcGIS Desktop: A widely-used commercial GIS application from Esri, offering a
comprehensive suite of tools for spatial analysis and map creation.
 QGIS (Quantum GIS): A free and open-source desktop GIS software that provides
similar functionality to commercial software, with extensive plugin support.
 MapInfo Professional: Another commercial desktop GIS used for mapping and spatial
analysis, particularly popular in business applications.
Enterprise Vs Desktop
Scope & Purpose: Scope & Purpose:
 Designed for large-scale,  Designed for individual use or small
organization-wide use. teams, typically on standalone
 Supports multiple users machines.
simultaneously, often across various  Users perform specialized tasks like
departments. map creation, spatial analysis, and
 Centralized data storage, typically in data editing.
a server or cloud-based environment.
  Emphasizes data sharing,  Data is often stored locally on the
collaboration, and accessibility user's computer or in small shared
throughout the entire organization. databases.
 Ideal for organizations that require  Focuses more on detailed spatial
geospatial data integration into analysis and cartography for single
business processes (e.g., utilities, projects.
city planning, government).  Best for individuals or departments
needing powerful GIS tools for
specific tasks without necessarily
integrating them into a larger
organizational system.
Data Management: Data Management:
 Centralized data management in  Localized data management, often in
enterprise databases (e.g., Oracle, file-based systems (e.g., shapefiles,
SQL Server, PostgreSQL). GeoTIFFs) or small databases.
 Ensures consistent, up-to-date  Data sharing is manual and often
information across the organization. involves exporting/importing files.
 Scalable to manage large datasets  Primarily suitable for managing
across multiple locations. smaller datasets.
Collaboration & Accessibility: Collaboration & Accessibility:
 Designed for multiple users,  Primarily used by a single user or a
allowing different teams to access, small group.
analyze, and update data in real time.  Limited or no real-time collaboration
 Web-based access allows users to unless combined with other systems.
interact with GIS data from different  Typically installed on a local machine
devices, including mobile. with less focus on multi-user data
 Ideal for organizations that need access.
collaborative access to spatial data
from various locations.
Performance & Scalability: Performance & Scalability:
 Highly scalable to accommodate the  Better suited for smaller datasets and
needs of large organizations. more limited geographic scope.
  Can handle large volumes of data  Performance may degrade with very
and complex geospatial operations large datasets or complex analyses.
across networks.  Runs on a personal computer and
 Requires a more robust depends on the local machine’s
infrastructure (servers, cloud hardware capabilities.
platforms) to maintain performance.
Security & User Management: Security & User Management:
 Allows for tracking changes and  Security is typically limited to the
managing permissions for large local machine or network where the
groups of users. data is stored.
 Ensures that sensitive geospatial data  Few controls over user permissions,
is protected and accessible only to making it less suited for environments
authorized users. where data security and multi-user
management are critical.
Integration: Integration:
 Can integrate with other enterprise  Primarily focused on standalone
systems (e.g., ERP, CRM, asset geospatial analysis, with some ability
management) to support business to import/export data to and from
processes that involve spatial data. other systems.
 Used to enhance decision-making  Limited integration capabilities
across different business units like compared to enterprise GIS but can
logistics, supply chain management, interact with various GIS formats and
and public utilities. databases.
Cost: Cost:
 Typically more expensive due to the  Less expensive since it is designed for
need for server infrastructure, cloud individual use, and there are free
services, and licensing for multiple open-source options (e.g., QGIS).
users.  Licensing costs are generally limited
 Involves ongoing costs for system to a single user or machine, making it
maintenance, updates, and IT more affordable for smaller teams or
support. organizations.
Examples: Examples:
 Esri ArcGIS Enterprise  Esri ArcGIS Desktop
  MapInfo Stratus  QGIS (Quantum GIS)
 Google Maps API (as part of larger  MapInfo Professional
systems)

DISTRIBUTED GIS
Distributed GIS refers to a framework where GIS data, processing, and functionality
are spread across multiple systems, locations, or networks rather than being confined to a single
machine or environment.
Key Features of Distributed GIS
1. Data Distribution:
o Data is stored in multiple locations, often on remote servers or in the cloud.
o Accessed via web services such as Web Map Services (WMS), Web Feature
Services (WFS), or APIs.
2. Decentralized Processing:
o Geospatial processing tasks, like spatial analysis or map rendering, are
distributed across multiple servers or systems.
o Reduces the load on any single machine, enabling faster computations.
3. Interoperability:
o Supports integration of data and tools from various sources using standards
4. Real-time Capabilities:
o Enables real-time data updates, such as live traffic monitoring, weather data
integration, or IoT sensor data streams.
5. Scalability:
o Easily scales to accommodate increasing users, data size, or processing
demands.
Architecture of Distributed GIS

1. Client Layer:
o User interfaces, such as web GIS applications, desktop GIS software, or mobile
apps.
 o Examples: ArcGIS Online, QGIS with WMS/WFS plugins, or Mapbox.
2. Server Layer:
o Centralized servers hosting spatial data and web services.
o Examples: GeoServer, ArcGIS Server, PostGIS.
3. Database Layer:
o Distributed databases for spatial data storage and management.
o Examples: PostgreSQL/PostGIS, Oracle Spatial, or cloud-native databases like
Amazon Aurora.
4. Network Infrastructure:
o Uses the internet or intranet for communication between clients, servers, and
databases.
Applications of Distributed GIS
1. Urban Planning:
o Integrating multiple datasets (e.g., zoning, transportation, utilities) from
different agencies.
2. Disaster Management:
o Accessing real-time data on weather, emergency services, and affected areas for
decision-making.
3. Transportation and Logistics:
o Real-time routing and fleet management using distributed data sources.
4. Environmental Monitoring:
o Accessing and analyzing satellite imagery, IoT sensor data, and other resources
in real-time.
5. Crowdsourcing and Public Participation:
o Platforms like OpenStreetMap rely on distributed GIS for data input and
sharing.
Technologies Supporting Distributed GIS
1. Cloud Platforms:
o AWS, Google Cloud, and Microsoft Azure for scalable storage and processing.
o Esri's ArcGIS Online and ArcGIS Enterprise for cloud-based GIS.
2. Web Services:
o OGC-compliant services like WMS, WFS, WCS for data sharing.
o REST and SOAP APIs for custom integrations.
3. Big Data Tools:
 o Hadoop, Apache Spark for managing and processing vast spatial datasets.
4. IoT Integration:
o Real-time data streaming from sensors using MQTT, Kafka, or similar
technologies.
Advantages of Distributed GIS
 Flexibility: Allows integration of diverse data sources.
 Accessibility: Enables global access to spatial data and services.
 Efficiency: Reduces data transfer bottlenecks and improves processing speeds.
 Collaboration: Supports multi-user environments for collaborative GIS projects.
Challenges in Distributed GIS
 Data Security: Ensuring secure access and sharing of sensitive spatial data.
 Interoperability Issues: Dealing with diverse data formats and standards.
 Bandwidth Requirements: High-speed internet is often essential.
 Complexity: Requires robust infrastructure and technical expertise.
Examples of Distributed GIS Systems
 Google Earth Engine: A cloud-based platform for geospatial analysis.
 Esri ArcGIS Enterprise: Distributed GIS for organizations.
 GeoServer with PostGIS: Open-source distributed GIS setup.
 OpenStreetMap: A crowdsourced mapping platform leveraging distributed GIS.
 UNIT - I
PART - A
1. What is GIS?
GIS (Geographic Information System) is a system designed to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. It helps visualize,
question, and interpret data to understand spatial relationships and patterns.
2. What are the basic spatial concepts in GIS?
Basic spatial concepts include location (where things are), distance (how far apart
things are), area (size of a spatial feature), and topology (relationships between spatial features).
These are foundational in analyzing and interpreting geographic data.
3. What is a coordinate system?
A coordinate system provides a framework to locate points on Earth using numerical
coordinates. It can be a geographic coordinate system (latitude and longitude) or a projected
coordinate system (e.g., UTM, which projects the Earth's surface onto a flat plane).
4. What is the difference between GIS and Information Systems?
An Information System (IS) manages and processes data, while GIS is a specialized
type of IS that manages spatial (geographic) data. GIS integrates data layers with maps for
spatial analysis, adding a location-based dimension to traditional IS.
5. Define spatial data in GIS.
Spatial data represents the location, shape, and size of physical objects on Earth. It is
usually represented through coordinates and stored as points, lines, or polygons, showing real-
world features such as roads, rivers, and cities.
6. What is attribute data?
Attribute data provides descriptive information about spatial features. For example, a
spatial feature like a river may have attributes such as length, name, or water quality, providing
additional context beyond its location.
7. What are the two main types of GIS software?
GIS software can be categorized into proprietary (licensed, commercial software like
ArcGIS) and open-source (free, community-supported software like QGIS). Both types support
spatial data management and analysis.
8. What are the components of a GIS?
GIS consists of five components: hardware (computers), software (GIS programs), data
(spatial and attribute), people (users and analysts), and methods (techniques and procedures for
analysis).
9. What are the main levels of measurement in GIS data?
The levels of measurement include nominal (categories without order), ordinal (ranked
categories), interval (numerical values with equal intervals but no true zero), and ratio
(numerical values with a true zero, like population density).
10. What is the significance of hardware in GIS?
Hardware refers to the physical equipment used for GIS, including computers, servers,
and GPS devices. High-performance hardware is essential for storing, processing, and
visualizing large sets of geographic data efficiently.
11. What is topology in GIS?
Topology refers to the spatial relationships between geographic features, such as
adjacency, containment, and connectivity. It ensures that data layers maintain consistency, like
ensuring roads connect at intersections in a GIS map.
12. What is the difference between raster and vector data?
Raster data represents spatial data as a grid of pixels (used for images or continuous
data like elevation), while vector data represents features as points, lines, and polygons (used
for discrete features like buildings or roads).
13. What are spatial data types?
The main types of spatial data are points (e.g., locations of trees), lines (e.g., roads),
and polygons (e.g., boundaries of lakes). Each type represents a different level of spatial detail
and is used for different purposes in GIS.
14. What is meant by georeferencing?
Georeferencing is the process of aligning spatial data to a known coordinate system so
that it can be accurately mapped. It ensures that data from different sources can be combined
and analyzed spatially.
15. What is an open-source GIS?
Open-source GIS refers to GIS software that is freely available for use, modification,
and distribution. QGIS is a popular example, offering robust tools for spatial analysis and
mapping without the need for expensive licensing fees.
16. What is a proprietary GIS?
Proprietary GIS software, such as ArcGIS, is developed by commercial companies and
typically requires the purchase of licenses. It often includes advanced features, customer
support, and regular updates, but can be costly.
17. What is meant by scale in GIS?
 Scale in GIS refers to the relationship between the distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on the ground. It influences the level of detail visible in a map, with
smaller scales showing less detail and larger scales showing more.
18. What is the role of methods in GIS?
Methods in GIS refer to the techniques and processes used to analyze spatial data, such
as spatial querying, overlay analysis, and buffer creation. They help derive meaningful insights
from geographic data.
19. What is the historical significance of GIS?
GIS emerged in the 1960s, with early developments like Canada's CGIS (Canadian
Geographic Information System). Since then, GIS technology has evolved rapidly, enabling
the integration of digital mapping and spatial analysis for numerous fields.
20. What is spatial analysis in GIS?
Spatial analysis involves examining spatial data to identify patterns, trends, and
relationships. It includes techniques like proximity analysis, interpolation, and spatial statistics,
helping users make data-driven decisions based on geography.

PART - B & C
1. Explain the key developments in the history of GIS and their significance in shaping
the technology today.
2. Compare and contrast geographic coordinate systems (GCS) and projected coordinate
systems (PCS) in GIS.
3. Discuss about any three open source software used for GIS with its applications and
advantages.
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of various scales of measurement in GIS.
5. Explain various types of data involved in GIS.
6. Describe various components of GIS.
 UNIT - II
PART - A
1. What is spatial data?
Spatial data is any type of information that has a locational attribute. This data can
include information about the location, size, shape and configuration of objects.
2. What are the spatial methods of GIS?
 Six types of spatial analysis are queries and reasoning, measurements, transformations,
descriptive summaries, optimization, and hypothesis testing.
 Uncertainty enters GIS at every stage.
 It occurs in the conception or definition of spatial objects.
3. Why is data structure important in GIS?
Geospatial data structures are critical for managing, processing, and storing geospatial
data in an efficient and organized manner. There are several popular geospatial data structures
such as R-Tree, Quad-Tree, Uniform Grid, Space-Filling Curves, and Geo Hashing, each with
its own strengths and weaknesses.
4. What are the 4 data structures?
The four basic data structure types are linear data structures, tree data structures, hash
data structures and graph data structures.
5. What are the applications of data structure?
Application of data structures involves organizing and manipulating data efficiently.
They enable efficient storage, retrieval, and processing of information, benefiting various fields
like computer science, databases, algorithms, and software development.
6. What is relational data structure?
A relational database is a collection of information that organizes data in predefined
relationships where data is stored in one or more tables (or "relations") of columns and rows,
making it easy to see and understand how different data structures relate to each other.
7. What is the object-oriented model of GIS?
The object-oriented (OO) geographic information systems (GIS) data model is a new
development in GIS technology that offers common storage of spatial data inside relational
database management systems (RDBMS).
8. What is an entity in GIS?
In a GIS, an entity is any fact that can be localized spatially. Attributes or characteristics
attached to the entities. Each attribute has a limited domain of possible values, i.e. the quality
of a road can be bad, average, good, very good. Relations or mechanisms that allow to relate
entities.
9. What is a data model in GIS?
GIS data models are often interchangeable so that the same geographic entity or
phenomenon may be represented by different models.
As an example, topographic relief of mountains may be portrayed as a Continuous
surface or as a series of lines (discrete objects) representing contours of equal elevation.
10. Difference between conceptual, logical and physical models in GIS?
Aspect Conceptual Model Logical Model Physical Model
High-level
Detailed schema of data Implementation
Definition representation of data
organization specifics for data storage
and relationships
Captures user Addresses performance
Defines structure, data
Purpose requirements and entity and storage
types, and relationships
relationships considerations
More detailed than Most detailed, specific
Detail Level Simplified view
conceptual to a DBMS
Tables, fields, and Physical storage
Representation Diagrams or flowcharts
relationships structures, indexing
Independence Still platform- Tied to specific DBMS
Platform-independent
independent features
11. What are the limitations of conceptual model?
The main weaknesses of conceptual models are that they are usually simpler than reality
and that they can stretch the truth during oversimplification.
12. What are types of logical database models?
a) relational data models
b) network data models and
c) hierarchical data models.
13. What is the function of a physical model?
One of the main benefits of a physical modeling approach is to model a large system
on a small scale. The purpose of using a small scale is to provide a better overview of the
individual components involved in the system. As a result, a physical model can show the
invisible inner parts of the particular system.
14. What are the different types of raster structures?
There are three types of raster data that can be stored in a geodatabase: raster datasets,
raster catalogs, and raster as attributes. Raster datasets are single images that are stored in the
database.
15. What is the application of data compression?
Data compression is extensively used in multimedia applications to compress audio,
image, and video files. Compression algorithms like MP3, JPEG, and MPEG are used to reduce
the size of multimedia files while preserving acceptable quality.
16. What is compression in GIS?
Data compaction or compression is common in GIS and is based on different algorithms
that reduce the size of a computer file, but maintains all the information intact. Compression
algorithms may be “lossless” (where no information is lost) or “lossy” (where some
information is lost).
17. What is vector data structure in GIS?
Vector data is used to represent real world features in a GIS. A vector feature can have
a geometry type of point, line or a polygon. Each vector feature has attribute data that describes
it. Feature geometry is described in terms of vertices. Point geometries are made up of a single
vertex (X, Y and optionally Z).
18. Difference between raster models and vector models?
Aspect Raster Models Vector Models
Continuous data (e.g., elevation, Discrete data (e.g., roads,
Representation
temperature) boundaries, landmarks)
Easier for spatial analysis and Better for attribute data handling
Data Processing
modeling (e.g., overlay analysis) and detailed mapping
Smooth gradients and color Sharp edges and defined
Display
representation geometries
Simpler structure but larger data More complex structure with
Complexity
volume relationships
19. What is TIN data model in GIS?
The triangulated irregular network data model, called TIN, is an alternative to the raster
data model for representing continuous surfaces. It allows surface models to be generated
efficiently to analyze and display terrain and other types of surfaces. It is a special type of
vector data model.
20. What is the definition of grid in GIS?
A grid is a network of evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines used to identify
locations on a map. For example, you can place a grid that divides a map into a specified
number of rows and columns by choosing the reference grid type.
 PART - B & C
1. Examine how various database structure models influence the efficiency and scalability
of GIS applications.
2. Investigate the benefits and drawbacks of using raster data structures in GIS.
3. Investigate the benefits and drawbacks of using vector data structures in GIS.
4. Explain the concept of raster data compression and describe its primary techniques.
5. Describe the TIN data model in GIS.
 UNIT - III
PART - A
1. What is Scanner and their functions?
A scanner is a device that allows you to digitize physical documents, images, or even
objects, and convert them into a digital format that can be viewed, edited, and stored on a
computer. It's like a digital photocopier that captures the content of a document or image and
saves it as a file.
2. What is raster data input?
Raster data input in geographic information systems (GIS) is the process of capturing
map data in a grid of pixels. Each pixel has a unique value that represents a data point, such as
temperature, rainfall, or elevation.
3. What is a raster data file format?
The five most common raster formats are JPEG, PNG, GIF, BMP, and TIFF.
4. What are the advantages of raster data?
 Raster data is more suited to mathematical modeling and analyses.
 Due to the fact that raster surfaces represent one attribute or value, calculations,
algorithms and quantitative processing can be very quick and simple to run.
 The grid surface is ideally suited for presenting and storing continuous values.
5. What is meant by georeferencing in GIS?
Georeferencing means that the internal coordinate system of a digital map or aerial
photo can be related to a ground system of geographic coordinates.
6. What are the applications of georeferencing?
Various applications, ranging from map creation tools to navigation systems, employ
methods introduced by the domain of georeferencing, which investigates techniques for
uniquely identifying geographical objects.
7. What is vector data input?
Vector data input in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is the process of digitizing
base data to represent the world using points, lines, and polygons. Vector data is one of the two
primary types of spatial data in GIS, along with raster data.
8. What is the definition of a digitizer?
A digitizer is a device that receives processes and records digitally any analog
information such as light, sound, touch, or pressure.
9. What does datum mean in GIS?
 The reference specifications of a measurement system, usually a system of coordinate
positions on a surface (a horizontal datum) or heights above or below a surface (a vertical
datum).
10. What is the application of datum?
The purpose of a datum on a blueprint is to define the key features to be used during
inspection as a theoretical exact location to ensure that the product conforms to the fit and
function desired by the designer. A datum reference frame is three datum planes that are
perpendicular and intersecting.
11. Difference between datum projection and reprojection?
Feature Datum Projection Reprojection
Conversion of geographic Conversion of spatial data from one
Definition coordinates from a specific datum to coordinate reference system to
a projected coordinate system. another.
To align and integrate datasets using
To accurately represent the Earth's
Purpose different coordinate reference
surface on a 2D map.
systems.
Focuses on the initial conversion for Involves changing between two
Scope
mapping. different coordinate systems.
Mapping GPS data in a suitable Converting NAD27 data to WGS84
Use Case
projection (e.g., WGS84 to UTM). for analysis alongside other datasets.
May occur frequently when
Typically a one-time process for
Frequency combining or analyzing multiple
specific datasets.
datasets.
12. What is a coordinate transformation?
Coordinate transformation refers to the process of warping a source image to match a
target brain image using a specific set of parameters such as rotation, translation, and scale.
13. What are the three types of topology GIS?
Three basic topological relationships are usually stored: connectivity, adjacency, and
enclosure. Connectivity describes how lines are connected to each other to form a network.
Adjacency describes whether two areas are next to each other, and enclosure describes whether
two areas are nested.
14. What is the difference between topological and non topological data?
A second oft-cited advantage of topological data structures is smaller file sizes because
shared vertices of adjacent polygons are not stored twice. Theoretically these files should be
up to half the size of non topological files.
15. What is the attribute data in GIS?
 Attribute Data Attribute data are the information linked to the. geographic features
(spatial data) that describe them. That is, attribute. data are the “non-graphic information
associated with a point, line, or. area elements in a GIS.”
16. What are databases in GIS?
A GIS database is a collection of spatial data that can be used for various purposes such
as map production and market analysis, by providing the capability to enter, edit, retrieve,
analyze, map, and visualize spatial data.
17. What is data integration in GIS?
GIS data integration is the process of combining spatial data from multiple sources and
formats to create a comprehensive, integrated dataset for analysis and decision-making.
18. What are the types of data integration?
 Data Warehousing
 Middleware Data Integration
 Data Consolidation
 Application-Based Integration
 Data Virtualization
19. What is adjacency in GIS?
A type of spatial relationship in which two or more polygons share a side or boundary.
The state or quality of lying close or contiguous.
20. What are topology rules in GIS?
Topology rules allow you to define the spatial relationships that meet the needs of your
data model. Topology errors are violations of the rules that you can easily find and manage
using the editing tools found in Arc Map.

PART - B & C
1. Explain how scanners are used in GIS data input.
2. Describe the process of raster data input in GIS.
3. Describe the process of vector data input in GIS.
4. Write briefly the process of digitization by using point, polyline and polygon.
5. Summarize how to project a geographic data to a projected coordinate system.
6. Evaluate the GPS data integration with GIS and its potential in improving the efficiency
of mapping.
7. Explain the working principle of GPS with neat sketch.
 UNIT - IV
PART - A
1. What is data quality?
Data quality refers to the condition of a dataset, measured by how well it meets the
intended purpose in terms of accuracy, consistency, and reliability.
2. What is completeness in data quality?
Completeness refers to the extent to which all required data values are present in a
dataset without missing information.
3. Define logical consistency.
Logical consistency ensures that the data follows predefined rules, such as correct
topology and attribute relationships in a GIS dataset.
4. What is positional accuracy?
Positional accuracy refers to how closely the spatial coordinates of data match their true
location on the earth.
5. Define temporal accuracy.
Temporal accuracy measures how well the data represents the correct time or period it
refers to, ensuring that timestamps are precise.
6. What is thematic accuracy?
Thematic accuracy assesses the correctness of attribute information associated with
spatial data, such as land-use classifications or population figures.
7. What is data lineage?
Lineage refers to the history of data, including the sources, processes, and
transformations it has undergone from its origin to its current state.
8. What is metadata?
Metadata is descriptive information about a dataset, including details such as the source,
format, accuracy, and date of creation.
9. Why is metadata important?
Metadata provides essential information for understanding, using, and sharing data
effectively, ensuring transparency and usability.
10. What are GIS standards?
GIS standards are guidelines and protocols that ensure the interoperability, accuracy,
and quality of geographic data and GIS systems.
11. What is interoperability?
 Interoperability is the ability of different systems, software, or datasets to work together
and exchange data seamlessly.
12. What is OGC?
OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium) is an international organization that develops
standards to ensure interoperability in the use of spatial data and services.
13. Name two OGC standards.
 WMS (Web Map Service)
 WFS (Web Feature Service)
14. What is Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI)?
SDI refers to the framework of policies, standards, and technologies that enable the
sharing, management, and accessibility of spatial data.
15. Why is positional accuracy important in GIS?
Positional accuracy ensures that spatial data accurately represents the location of
features, which is critical for navigation and decision-making.
16. How does temporal accuracy affect GIS data?
If temporal data is inaccurate, it may lead to outdated or misleading analyses, especially
in time-sensitive applications like weather forecasting.
17. What is the role of thematic accuracy in GIS?
Thematic accuracy ensures that attribute data, such as soil types or population density,
is correctly classified, improving decision-making.
18. How does logical consistency improve data quality?
Logical consistency ensures that data relationships and structures follow predefined
rules, reducing errors in spatial analysis.
19. What is the significance of data lineage?
Data lineage helps users trace the origin and transformations of data, ensuring
transparency and accountability.
20. How does SDI benefit spatial data management?
SDI facilitates efficient data sharing, access, and management across organizations,
improving collaboration and decision-making.
 PART - B & C
1. Describe quality of data and its various aspects.
2. Evaluate the data quality and GIS standards for interoperability and various
applications.
3. Evaluate the role of the Open Geospatial Consortium in promoting open-source
geospatial tools and their adoption in both public and private sectors.
4. Elaborate on spatial data infrastructure.
 UNIT - V
PART - A
1. What is the data management function in GIS?
Data management is the practice of collecting, storing, and using data securely and
efficiently, helping organizations make informed decisions. From imagery to 3D, real-time,
and unstructured data, the volume and types of data are constantly increasing.
2. What are the 4 functions to manage database?
The four functions that database management systems perform on data residing in a
database are: create data, search data, update data, and delete data.
3. What is import?
Importing refers to buying goods and services from foreign sources and bringing them
back into the home country.
4. What is Export?
Exporting is the sale of products and services in foreign countries that are sourced or
made in the home country.
5. What is difference between import and export?
Import refers to goods that a country buys from another country, whereas exports are
goods that a country sells to another.
6. What are the types of imports?
 Industrial and consumer goods.
 Intermediate goods and services.
7. What is the process of converting raster to vector called?
The process of vectorisation refers to the conversion of raster to vector dataset. The
raster dataset can be converted to vector point, polyline or polygon.
8. What is raster and vector in GIS?
 Raster Data Model: A spatial data model that uses a grid and cells to represent the
spatial variation of a feature.
 Vector Data Model: A data model that uses points and their x-, y- coordinates to
construct spatial features.
9. Why would you convert vector to raster?
Converting vector data to raster format is a common GIS task, essential for analyses
that require uniform spatial representation, like surface modeling or overlay analyses.
10. What is the main difference between raster and vector?
 Raster graphics are made up of orderly arranged colored pixels to display any image
whereas; vector graphics are composed of paths using a mathematical formula that is a vector
that directs the route and shape.
11. What is the output device for GIS?
Output devices such as printers and plotters are needed when planning for a GIS so that
maps, charts, graphs, and tabular information can be printed. Additional output may include
files that can be distributed via the Web and other media.
12. What is GIS data output?
There are two broad categories of GIS outputs, viz., cartographic and non- cartographic
outputs. Cartographic outputs are maps prepared adhering to the cartographic conventions,
while non-cartographic outputs are map models and information system and primarily used for
visualization purposes.
13. What is Map compilation?
Map compilation in a geographic information system (GIS) is the process of gathering
geographical data and arranging it on a map according to a scale and projection.
14. What is Multimedia?
Multimedia in GIS is the use of multiple types of content, such as text, audio, video,
and images, to represent geographic features and data. This can help to create a more engaging
and immersive experience than traditional GIS, which is limited to text, images, and graphs.
15. Mention some of the Multimedia GIS components?
 Web-based GIS application
 Web-based interactive multimedia application
 Linking mechanism
16. What is the enterprise GIS?
Enterprise GIS encompasses organization-wide use with multiple users editing and
creating data simultaneously, offering real-time data collection and extensive scalability.
17. What is GIS in desktop?
GIS is a technology that is used to create, manage, analyze, and map all types of data.
GIS connects data to a map, integrating location data (where things are) with all types of
descriptive information (what things are like there).
18. What is the difference between Arc GIS desktop and enterprise?
To share data between Arc GIS Online organizations, use partnered collaboration. A
key difference between the two products is that Arc GIS Enterprise can connect to user-
managed data stores, whether cloud storage, folders, or databases.
19. What is Distributed GIS?
Distributed Geographic Information Systems (DGIS) is a modern approach to GIS that
allows users to share geospatial data and computing resources across a network.
20. What are the advantages of distributed GIS?
With a distributed web GIS, you connect multiple Arc GIS deployments so users can
leverage authoritative data from other organizations, improve engagement and communication,
and glean new insights.

PART - B & C
1. Describe on various data management functions.
2. How does raster-to-vector conversion work in GIS?
3. How does vector-to-raster conversion work in GIS?
4. What are the advantages and limitations of different GIS output formats for data sharing
and collaboration?
5. How do the architectures of Desktop GIS and Enterprise GIS support data sharing and
integration with other systems?
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