UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

BACHELORS DEGREE

INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY: ZOOL 211

(UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET (UoE) LECTURERS)

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 1

 COURSE OUTLINE

WEE TOPIC
K
1 Introduction to invertebrates. Levels of structural
organization. Body symmetry and plan.
2 Protozoa: general characteristics, classification;
Mastigophora, Sarcodina, Sporozoa, Ciliophora.
Diseases caused by Protozoa.
3 Phylogenetic classification of invertebrates
(metazoans): the parazoa; phylum radiata (cnidaria
& ctenophora).
4 The Coelomates: Platyhelminthes; turbellaria,
Trematoda, Monogenea, Cestoda.
5 CAT 1
6 The pseudocoelomates: Phylum Rotifera and
Nematoda
7 The coelomates: Mollusca & Annelida
8 Arthropoda: Trilobites, Myriapods, Chelicerata,
crustacea, Hexapoda
9 Deuterostomes, coeloms: phylum Echinodermata
10 Economic importance of different invertebrate
phyla
11 CAT 2
12-13 REVISION

Course Assessment
1. Continuous Assessment Tests (C.A.Ts) (2 CATs) 15
Marks
2. Laboratory sessions 15
Marks
3. End of semester exams 70
Marks

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 2

 Total Marks 100
Marks

INVERTEBRATES

INTRODUCTION

lnvertebrate is any animal that lacks a vertebral column, or backbone but often possesses a hard
outer skeleton (as in most mollusks, crustaceans, and insects) that serves, as well, for body
protection. They are the most numerous animals on earth comprising about 97% of the animal
kingdom.

Presently, there are 30 invertebrate phyla and these are characterized by a unity of basic
structural pattern.

Some invertebrates have common phylogenetic origins, others are only remotely related.
phylogenetic tree are levels at which species /groups have stemmed from lines of evolution.

Classification of invertebrates based on the phylogenetic tree

Are classified into two groups i.e.

(a) The lower invertebrates - have simple body organization and occupy lower positions in
phylogenetic tree. Include various phyla such as Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes,
and Nematoda.
(b) Higher invertebrates - have complex body organization and occupy higher position in
phylogenetic tree. Include various phyla like Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda and
Echinodermata.

Classification of invertebrates based on their cellular composition

and organization

The invertebrates are divided into four groups, based on their cellular composition and
organization namely;

(i) Protozoa

Are unicellular organisms i.e. made up of a single cell or also described as being acellular i.e.
not divided into cells. They include; cilliophora, flagellates, sporozoa

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 3

(ii) Mesozoa

Are intermediate between true multicellular animals and protozoans. They do not have more
than two cell “layers”; the outer layer ciliated and the inner reproductive. They have no organs
nor body cavity and are mostly marine. They include; octopuses and squids.

(iii) Parazoa

Multicellular invertebrates, which possess collared flagellated cells that make them unique
among the other multicellular invertebrates. However, the many cells in their body are not
organized into tissues and organs (cellular level organization). Are composed of sponges.

(iv) Metazoa

Invertebrates with marked cellular differentiation. They include; cnidaria, platyhelminthes and
nematodes (lower invertebrates), annelida, Mollusca, arthropoda and echinodermata (higer
invertebrates).

Metazoa are organized into two group levels i.e.

(a) Diploblastic – animals with two cell layers showing tissue level of organization,
where the body is composed of an inner endoderm and outer ectoderm.
(b) Triploblastic – animals with three layers showing organ level of organization; they
possess a third body layer, the mesoderm between the outer ectoderm and inner
endoderm.

Levels of structural organization in invertebrates

The level of organization of cells varies from one animal to another.

Cellular level of organization- these animals have a loose mass of cells which may be similar or
show minor division of labour e.g. sponges.

Tissue level of organization- the cells are organized into function units, generally as tissues and
organ with specific roles which support the life of whole animal. The cells form poorly defined
tissues e.g. Cnidarians (=coelenterates), ctenophores.

Organ level of organization – Some animals have specialized organs for specific physiological
functions. Eg. Phylum Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes, Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs,
Echinoderms, and Chordates.

Body symmetry of Invertebrates

Two types i.e. Radial and bilateral symmetry.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 4

Radial symmetry- is where any plane passing through the central axis divides the body into two
equal halves. Ex. Coelenterates, ctenophores and adult echinoderms.

Bilateral symmetry - only a single plane divides the body into two equal halves. Ex. Annelids,
Arthropods, and Molluscs etc.

Crab showing bilateral symmetry Starfish showing radial symmetry

NB: Some animals do not show any symmetry, i.e. their body can’t be divided into two halves in
any plane passing through the centre. Such animals are said to be asymmetrical e.g. Poriferan

Body Plans of Invertebrates

They exhibit three body plans i.e.

1) Cell Aggregate Plan: The body consists of a cluster or aggregation of cells eg. sponges.
2) Blind Sac Plan: The body has a single cavity with one opening to the outside. The single
opening functions as both mouth for ingestion and anus for egestion. Eg. Cnidarians
(=coelenterates) and flatworms.
3) Tube-within-a-Tube Plan: The body has two tubes i.e., body cavity and gut cavity. Gut
cavity is a continuous tube-like structure within body cavity and has two openings, a
mouth for ingestion and anus for egestion. Eg. Arthropods

Feeding in invertebrates
Feeding mechanisms in invertebrates can be grouped into three major categories based on the
size and type of food utilized i.e.
1) Microphagy: invertebrates that feed on particulate food material of very small
size. They use cilia or setae for obtaining food and are They are therefore
commonly known as ciliary feeders.
2) Macrophagy: invertebrates that feed on large masses of food. Generally, large
invertebrates are macrophagous organisms.
3) Fluid or Soft Tissue Feeding: These types of feeders generally suck fluid food.
Some pierce and then suck the body fluid of the prey and some simply absorb the
liquid food from the substrate through body surface.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 5

 PROTOZOA

What is a Protozoa?
Protozoa are microscopic unicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that consist either of a
single cell or of a colony of nearly identical cells. They are either free-living or parasites.
There are around 65000 species of protozoans categorized in different groups.
They lack a cell wall. There are many different cell organelles, that perform various tasks
performed by different organs in higher animals, e.g. mouth, anus, intestinal tract, etc.

The two main stages of protozoa life cycle include the cyst stage and the trophozoite stage.
The cyst stage is dormant or resting stage that helps an organism to survive in unfavorable
condition while the trophozoite stage is reproductive or active, feeding, multiplying stage and it
causes disease.
There are many protozoa, that cause various diseases in animals and humans, e.g. Plasmodium
(malarial parasite), Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness), Trichomonas (trichomoniasis), etc.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTOZOA

Habitat
They occur in all habitats including marine, freshwater, terrestrial and including soil. Some of
the species are found in extreme environments like hot springs. Some are free-living and some
are parasitic in plants and animals. Some of them form resting cyst to overcome dry
environments.
Size and shape
Vary greatly, from microbial (1µm) to large enough and can be seen by the naked eye.
Cellular structure in protozoa
They are unicellular having a eukaryotic cell.
The metabolic functions are performed by some specialized internal structures.
The cellular structure comprise of the following;

A. The nucleus

They mostly have one membrane-bound nucleus in the cell that is divided into two kinds:

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 6

 (a) Compact nuclei- contain a large amount of chromatin and a small amount of nuclear
juice.
(b) Vesicular nuclei - contain a little amount of chromatin and a large amount of nuclear
juice.
Have nucleolus - like ball shape called endosome or nucleoli. Nucleoli of apicomplexans have
DNA, whereas amoeboids lack DNA in their endosome.

B. The plasma membrane

Encloses the cytoplasm and other locomotory projections like flagella, pseudopodia and cilia.
Some of the genera have a membranous envelope called pellicle, which gives a definite shape to
the cell.

C. The cytoplasm

Is differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm. Ectoplasm is transparent and
endoplasm contains cell organelles

D. Cytostome

Some of the protozoa have cytostome for ingesting food. Food vacuoles are present for ingestion
of food particles using phagocytosis.

E. The contractile vacuole

Its main function is to pump water out of the cell through a process called osmoregulation, the
regulation of osmotic pressure.

F. Membrane-bound cell organelles

Specialized structures such as mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and lysosomes are present.

Nutrition in protozoa
Protozoa are heterotrophic and their nutrition may be;
(a) Holozoic (animal like) i.e. intake of complex organic matter either solids or liquids,
(b) Holophytic (plant like) i.e. they manufacture their own food,
(c) Sporozoic i.e. absorption of dissolved salt and simple organic molecules from the
surrounding environment or

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 7

(d) Parasitic i.e. one organism (a parasite) lives in/on the body of another organism (host) to
derive nutrients from it
They ingest their food by phagocytosis. Some of the protozoan groups have a specialized
structure called cytostome for phagocytosis.
The pseudopodia of amoeboids help in catching the prey.
Thousands of cilia present in ciliates drive the food-laden water into the gullet.
The ingested food comes to the food vacuole and gets acted on by lysosomal enzymes. Digestion
takes place inside the food vacuoles, i.e. intracellular. The digested food gets distributed
throughout the cell.

Locomotion in protozoa
Locomotion is the movement in which animal changes its place and position in search of food,
partners, protection and suitable environment in response to stimulus. Unicellular animals swim
by cilia or flagella and crawl about with pseudopodia.

Locomotor organelles include; cilia, flagella, or pseudopodia.

A. Cilia
Are slender, fine, and more or less short hair-like appendages extending from the surface of the
living cell and, are many (hundreds) per cell. Found in Eukaryotic cells.

Cilia differ from flagella in the following respects;

(i) They are relatively much shorter when compared to the size of the body.
(ii) They are more in number and cover the entire body.
(iii) The cilia move differently from those of the flagella.

B. Flagella
These are fine, delicate and thread-like extensions of the protoplasm.
The number of flagella varies from species to species.
One or two flagella are mostly present but parasitic forms may have more flagella.
Found in Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells.
C. Pseudopodia
Pseudopodia are extruded from body protoplasm of naked protozoa. They are of different types
i.e.
(i) Lobopodia- These are broad, lobe-like, and sometimes branched pseudopodia with rounded
tips. Lobopodia is characteristic of Amoeba.
(ii) Filopodia - are thread-like hyaline projections with pointed tips that radiate from the body in
all directions. Filopodia is characteristic of Euglypha.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 8

(iii) Rhizopoda/Reticulopodia - are branched pseudopodia and branches anastomose, often
produces large, complex networks which mainly help in food capturing. It is characteristic of
foraminiferans like Elphiduim, Globigerina and Chlamydophyrs.
(iv) Axopodia - are spine like pseudopodia which radiate from the surface of rounded body. It is
characteristic of heliozoans and radiolarians, eg.,Actinophrys.

NB: Sporozoa, which don’t have any locomotory structure, have subpellicular microtubules,
which help in the slow movement.
Life cycle of protozoa
The life cycle of most of the protozoa alternates between dormant cyst stage and proliferating
vegetative stage, e.g. trophozoites.
The cyst stage can survive harsh conditions without water and nutrients. It can remain outside
the host for a longer duration and get transmitted.
The trophozoite stage is infectious, and they feed and multiply during this stage.

Reproduction in protozoa
Mostly they reproduce by asexual means but may also reproduce through sexual means.
Asexual reproduction includes;
(a) Binary fission, (b) Multiple fission (Sporulation) and (c) Transverse fission or budding.

1. Binary fission
Cell divided into two cells. DNA of the nucleus of a mature cell divide first and then the cell is
divided into two daughter cells of almost the same. Ex. Amoeba.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 9

 2. Multiple fission (Sporulation)
One of the cells enlarges and forms the sporangium. The nucleus is divided many times and then
the daughter nuclei are surrounded with protoplasm bits to form daughter cells called spores that
are covered with a thick wall called the cyst. On maturation the sporangium bursts and releases
the spores. Ex. Plasmodium.

3. Budding
A new individual develops from some generative anatomical point of the parent organism.
In some species buds may be produced from almost any point of the body but in many cases
budding is restricted to specialized areas.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 10

Sexual reproduction in protozoa
In some of the species, sexual reproduction is present. The sexual reproduction is by;
 Conjugation- two lower organisms of the same species, such as protozoans exchange
nuclear material during a temporary union completely transfer one or organism's contents
to the other organism or fuse together to form one organism
 Syngamy- the complete and permanent fussion of the two sex cells gametes to form
zygote which gives rise to adult.
 Gametocytes formation- eg. In malaria parasite. Male and female gametes are formed
in the human host and the maturation of gametes is done in bone marrow and spleen.
However this depend on the species

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM PROTOZOA

Protozoa is a phylum having unicellular heterotrophs. It comes under Kingdom Protista.
Protozoa are broadly divided into four phyla based mainly on their organelles and modes of
locomotion as follows;
a) Sarcomastigophora or flagellellets
b) Sporozoa
c) Cnidospora
d) Cilliophora

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 11

 1. SUBPHYLUM SARCOMASTIGOPHORA

The locomotion in this subphylum is brought about by flagella or pseudopodia or both. This
subphylum is further divided in to 3 super classes i.e. mastigophora, opalinata and Sarcodina.

(a) Super class mastigophora

 They are parasites or free-living.
 They possess one or more thread-like flagella for locomotion
 Their body is covered by a cuticle or pellicle (pellicle gives definite shape to the cell)
 The nucleus is usually vesicular.
 Freshwater forms have a contractile vacuole.
 Reproduction is asexual by binary fission (longitudinal division)

Mastigophora have two sub-classes i.e.

(a) Phytomastigophora- Chlorophyll-bearing flagellates Ex: Euglena.

(b) Zoomastigophora – have no chlorophyll and are mostly parasitic Ex:
Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Trichomonas.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 12

Euglena sp. (plant flagellates)

(b) Superclass Sarcodina or Amoeboids

 Living in water, including lakes, Ponds, moist soil, Streams, and Rivers. Some can live in
the bodies of animals.
 They so tiny so need a microscope to see them.
 The movement is by pseudopodia. They capture their prey by pseudopodia
 There is no definite shape and pellicle is absent.
 The contractile vacuole is present in the amoeboids living in freshwater and its main role
is to maintain osmotic equilibrium by excreting excess water from the cell.
 Reproduction is by binary fission and cyst formation.
 Cytoplasm divided into two parts (Endpolasm & Ectoplasm) both enclosed within
flexible plasma membrane.
 Cell contain single granular nucleus containing DNA.
 Nutrition is by holozoic or saprozoic.

Examples: Amoeba, Entamoeba, etc

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 13

 2. SUBPHYLUM SPOROZOA

 This class contains exclusively endoparasites.

 They don’t have any specialized organ for locomotion
 The pellicle is present, which has subpellicular microtubules, that help in movement
 Food is absorbed through the cell membrane from the surrounding medium, and
metabolic wastes are eliminated by diffusion.
 Reproduction is by sporozoite formation
 They have a complex life cycle that begin with a liberated spore (sporozoite) that
penetrates into cells of an animal host. Examples: Plasmodium, Myxidium, Nosema,
Globidium, etc.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 14

 3.SUBPHYLUM CNIDOSPORA
 Are parasitic.
 Lack any special kind of locomotory organelles.
 Spores are present with one or more polar filaments which are special and unique
features.
 When these spores infect a host, the polar filament is discharged and it gets attached to
the host tissue.

4. SUB PHYLUM CILIOPHORA

 They are aquatic and move actively with the help of thousands of cilia.
 They have fixed shape due to the covering of the pellicle
 They may have tentacles, e.g. in the sub-class Suctoria
 Contractile vacuoles are present
 Some species have an organ for defense called trichocysts
 They move with the help of cilia and the movement of cilia also helps in taking food
inside the gullet
 They reproduce by transverse division and also form cysts

Examples: Paramecium, Vorticella, Balantidium, etc.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 15

 Figure: Paramecium

Examples of Diseases caused by Protozoa

Many of the protozoans are parasites and are disease causing pathogens. Find below the common
diseases caused by protozoans.

List of diseases caused by protozoans

Name of the Causal Vector Pathogenesis Disease

Disease organism symptoms

Malaria Plasmodium Female The parasite attacks the liver Fever,

falciparum, P. Anopheles and RBCs. It multiplies headache,
vivax, P. mosquito within liver cells, enters the vomiting,
malariae, P. bloodstream and ruptures abdominal pain
ovale RBCs. It releases a toxic and it may lead
substance to fatal
called ‘hemozoin’, which conditions if not
causes fever. The sporozoite treated like
is the infectious stage organ failure
and convulsions

Amoebiasis or Entamoeba None. It gets Invades intestinal mucosa Abdominal

Amoebic histolytica transmitted by and spreads to other parts pain, loose

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 16

dysentery contaminated like liver. Causes dysentery bowel
food or water and liver abscesses. movement,
The infected stage is bloody stool,
trophozoites loss of appetite,
nausea, fever

African Sleeping Trypanosoma Tsetse fly B-lymphocyte proliferation High fever,

sickness or brucei leading to tissue damage muscle and joint
Trypanosomiasis gambiense, T. pain, irritability,
brucei swollen lymph
rhodesiense nodes, skin
rashes. If left
untreated,
neurological
problems
develop, which
become fatal

Trichomoniasis Trichomoniasis Sexually Destroys epithelial cells and Itching and

vaginalis transmitted cytotoxic substances are burning in
disease (STD) released. Vaginal pH genital organs
increases and the number of and discharge.
leukocytes also increases in Mostly
response to the toxic asymptomatic in
substance released by the males, but in
pathogen females it may
lead to many
complications
such as
complication
during
pregnancy and
after birth

Giardiasis Giardia lamblia None. It gets Mucosal damage is related to The parasite is
or duodenalis transmitted by the mucosal inflammation present in the
contaminated and release of lectin or duodenum.
food or water proteinases. Malabsorption Watery or foul-
may also be due to inhibition smelling
of pancreatic enzymes and diarrhoea,
depletion of bile nausea,
concentration flatulence,
weight loss

Leishmaniasis or Leishmania Female The flagellated Enlarged liver

Kala-azar donovani Sandflies (of promastigotes of the parasite and spleen,

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 17

 the genus bind to macrophages present fever, skin turns
Phlebotomus) in the skin. There is marked dark
suppression of cell-mediated
immunity

CLASSIFICATION OF INVERTEBRATES ACCORDING TO THE PHYLOGENETIC

TREE

The major invertebrate phyla consists of the following phyla;

1. Porifera (sponges)
2. Radiata/Cnidariana (Jelly fish, corals)
3. Platyhelminthes (flatworms, tapeworms, flukes)
4. Nematoda (roundworms)
5. Rotifera
6. Mollusca (snails, clams, squids)
7. Annelida (earthworms, leeches, marine worms)
8. Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crustaceans, centipedes, millipedes)
9. Echinodermata (sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers)

I. PHYLUM PORIFERA

The representative main Phylum in this group is the sponges.

They are multicellular organisms; invariably sessile and aquatic; with a single cavity in the body,
lined in part or almost wholly by collared flagellate cells.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 18

They have numerous pores in the body wall through which water passes in, and one or more
larger openings through which it passes out.
Are generally with a skeleton, calcareous, siliceous, or horny.

They are among the oldest known animal fossils.

Are composed of three distinct groups,
a) the Hexactinellida (glass sponges),
b) the Demospongia, and
c) the Calcarea (calcareous sponges).

Characteristics of sponges

1. Adults are sessile, with a basal-apical axis, and generally asymmetric.

2. Feeding and digestion – apart from a few carnivorous species, they feed by filtering food
particles suspended in the surrounding water. Digestion is intracellular.
3. Reproduction – reproduce both sexually and asexually.
 Asexual is by regeneration or budding.
 Sexual reproduction, where the zygote forms several exclusive types of mobile
larvae with cilia or flagella and anteroposterior symmetry.
4. Cell organization - are organized at the cellular level, (no true tissues or organs). {They
lack mesoderm, nervous tissue, digestive system, musculature, respiratory structures, and
gonads}.
5. They have cells more or less independent of each other that, when necessary, can
transform into other cell types and even form new sponges.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 19

 6. The cells are embedded in an extracellular matrix supported by skeletal elements made
up of collagen fibers and calcareous or siliceous spicules.
7. Size ranges from 1 cm to 2 m

Figure. Diagram of a typical sponge

II. SUPER PHYLUM RADIATA

Comprises of Jellies, corals, and sea anemones.

This classification gets its name from the radial symmetry that the animals have.

The Radiates have true tissues (i.e. specialized tissues and cells).

Shared Characteristics of Radiata

1. The Radiata body structure is made of two layers of tissue: the external epidermis and
the internal gastrodermis.
2. They have only one opening where food comes in, and then later waste goes out.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 20

 3. Have a middle layer called mesoglea in between the inner and outer 'skins.’

The superphylum radiata is composed of phylum: (a) Cnidaria and (b) Ctenophora

A. Phylum Cnidaria
Cnidarians have radial symmetry, a gastrovascular cavity (primary organ of digestion), and
cnidocytes (sting cells).
Cnidarians use cnidocytes to capture prey and defend against predators.
There are more than 10,000 species in the phylum Cnidaria, most of which are marine.
This phylum contains hydras, jellyfish, sea anemones, and coral animals.

Main characteristics of Cnidarians

1. All Cnidaria are aquatic, mostly marine, organisms.

2. They all have tentacles with stinging cells called nematocysts that they use to capture
food.
3. Are diploblastic i.e., have two body layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, separated by a
jelly-like layer called the mesoglea.
4. Have a gastrovascular cavity, a central digestive cavity with only one opening (functions
as mouth and anus).
5. Most have radial symmetry; however, sea anemones exhibit biradial symmetry.
6. The body wall comprises stinging cells referred to as cnidocytes. Cnidocytes are
functional in defending and capturing prey.
7. Reproduce asexually by fission, budding, and fragmentation.
8. The alternation of asexually reproducing polyp form in species having polyp and medusa
phases and in sexually reproducing medusa form is referred to as metagenesis
9. They exhibit regeneration i.e., can replace lost or damaged parts of their body e.g.
damaged tentacles can often grow back.
10. Body forms - There are two possible cnidarian body forms i.e.
(a) a polyp which is attached to a surface and mouth orientation is upward
(b) a medusa form which is an upside-down free-floating form (bell or umbrella-
shaped).
(c) However, some are dimorphic i.e. have both polyp and medusa stages in their life
cycles.

Differences between medusa and polyp cnidarians

Polyp Medusa

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 21

 Polyps are sessile Medusae are mobile
Polyps possess a tubular shape Medusa has a bell-shaped body
The mouth of polyps faces the water upwards Medusa have their mouths facing the
water downwards
Polyps have no sense organs Medusae have Photoreceptors and
statocyst as sense organs
Reproduce both asexually and sexually Reproduce exclusively sexually
Polyps can give rise to more polyps as well as Medusae can only give rise to medusae
medusae through budding
Polyps are a relatively primitive form of Medusae are much more evolved and
cnidarians complex form of cnidarians

Figure: forms of cnidarians

Major clades of phylum Cnidaria

The phylum Cnidaria is divided into four major clades i.e.
 Hydrozoa - Most hydrozoans alternate between the polyp and medusa forms. When
environmental conditions are favorable, a hydra reproduces asexually by budding, and
When conditions deteriorate, hydras can reproduce sexually, forming resistant zygotes
that remain dormant until conditions improve.
 Scyphozoa - The medusa is the predominant stage in the life cycle. Include sea jellies.
 Cubozoa - cubozoans have a box-shaped medusa stage and are strong swimmers.
 Anthozoa – Comprises of Sea anemones and corals and they all occur as polyps.

Phylum Ctenophora
This phylum contains the comb jellies. There are about 100 species, all of which are marine.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 22

Main characteristics of Ctenophora

1. Are exclusively marine animals, are solitary and free swimming.

2. Body Organization - They are diploblastic acoelomate organisms (have two layers to
their bodies i.e., outer and inner endoderm).

The body is transparent, gelatinous, soft, and without segmentation, along with a pair of
long, solid, retractile tentacles.

3. Body Symmetry - are bi-radially symmetrical.

4. Level of structural organization- tissue level of organization.
5. Locomotion - they have eight strips of cilia, called comb rows that help in locomotion.
6. Reproduction - they are hermaphrodite animals (have both male and female
reproductive organs), and reproduction occurs through sexual means.
7. Fertilization -They have external fertilization (fertilization occurs outside the female's
body, where the sperm fertilizes the egg) and indirect development (indirect means the
larva stage is distinctively different from the adult).
8. They have both extracellular and intracellular digestive systems.

Extracellular digestion is where food is taken to the gastrovascular cavity where enzymes
will break down the food before nutrients are absorbed into the cells.

Intracellular digestion refers to nutrient processing and absorption that take place inside
the cells within special structures known as lysosomes.

9. They do not have specific organs for respiration and excretion, and generally, the body
surface does this process.
10. Body size - 1 - 10 cm in diameter (spherical/ovoid forms) or up to 1 m long (ribbonlike
forms).

III. THE ACOELOMATES

An acoelomate is an animal that lacks a true formal body cavity. The tissues touch back-to-back,
without any space in between.

An acoelomate is the simplest form of animals which have 3 true tissues.

These tissues are:

 Endoderm- the innermost layer of cells or tissues of an embryo in early development. It

forms the digestive tract
 Mesoderm- middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo. It forms blood vessels,
kidneys.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 23

  Ectoderm – outer layer of cells or tissues of an embryo in early development. It gives
rise to the nervous system, sense organs and skin.

The acoelomates comprise a number of the following phyla:

(a) Platyhelminthes (b) The Nemertea or ribbon worms and (c) Gnathostomulida or jaw worms

PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES

Comprises of flatworms.
Flatworms are parasitic or free-living dorsoventrally flattened acoelomates and are
unsegmented.
They have an incomplete gut, with one opening through which food is both ingested and
excreted. However, they have a high degree of cephalization, meaning they have a centralized
nervous system toward their head.
Below is an example of a large turbellarian, a type of free-living flatworm.

Characteristic features of Phylum Platyhelminthes

1. Their body is dorsoventrally flattened.

2. They exhibit bilateral symmetry.
3. They are triploblastic, with three germ layers.
4. They do not have a body cavity (acoelomate).
5. The body is soft and unsegmented.
6. They are mostly parasitic with a few free-living
7. They exhibit an organ system grade of organization.
8. The digestive system is incomplete or absent. In fact, there is a single opening that leads
to a well-developed gastro-vascular cavity. Also, the anus is absent. And there is no true
stomach structure.
9. Respiration generally occurs by simple diffusion through the body surface.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 24

 10. The flame cells help in excretion. The excretory system has protonephridia with the
flame.
11. A primitive nervous system is present.
12. These animals are hermaphrodites i.e. both male and female organs are present in the
same body
13. Sexual reproduction happens through gametic fusion.
14. Asexual reproduction also happens in a few species through regeneration and fission.
15. Fertilization is internal.
16. The life cycle of these organisms can be complex, especially if they are parasitic, as this
may involve one or more host animals.

Classes of phylum Platyhelminthes

There are more than 20,000 species of Platyhelminthes which are divided into four classes:
1. Class Turbellaria
2. Classes Trematoda
3. Class Monogenea
4. Class Cestoda

1. Class Turbellaria
 Mostly free-living, marine species; a few species are found in freshwater and moist
terrestrial habitats. (Planarians are familiar and common freshwater forms).
 Carnivorous species feed on small animals and carrion.
 Lack specialized organs for gas exchange or circulation. Gas exchange is by diffusion
(flattened body form places all cells close to water).
 Have fine branching gastrovascular cavity that distributes food throughout the animal.
 Have flame cell excretory apparatus present which functions primarily to maintain
the osmotic balance of the animal. Nitrogenous waste (ammonia) diffuses directly
from cells to the water.
 Move by using cilia on the ventral dermis to glide along a film of mucus.
 On the head are a pair of eyespots that detect light and a pair of lateral auricles that
are olfactory sensors.
 Possess a rudimentary brain that is capable of simple learning.
 Reproduce is either asexually by regeneration or sexually by cross-fertilization of the
hermaphroditic forms.

2. Classes Monogenea

 Are small parasitic flatworms (platyhelminths) that have no intermediate hosts.

 The majority are ectoparasitic (external parasite) and found on the skin, gills, and fins of
fish.
 They have a simple direct life cycle.
 The body is usually flat and oval, and rarely longer than about 2cm.
 Adults are hermaphrodites.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 25

 3. Class Trematoda (flukes)

 All trematodes are endoparasites of molluscs and vertebrates i.e. they attach to the
internal tissue of the host such as the digestive tract or the liver.
 Most are dorsoventrally flattened and typically have two suckers i.e.
an oral sucker around the mouth for feeding and
a ventral sucker, which they use to attach to the host.
 A typical life cycle of a digenean trematode species will involve at least one intermediate
host and a definitive host.
 There are over 18,000 species of Trematoda found throughout the world.

There are several species which infect humans, including Paragonimus westermani, the lung
fluke, and blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma.

Figure: liver fluke

4.Class Cestoda
 Are adult tapeworms which parasitize the digestive system of vertebrates.
 Possess a scolex (head) which contain suckers and/or hooks that help maintain position
by attaching to the intestinal lining.
 Posterior to the scolex is a long ribbon of units called proglottids. A proglottid is filled
with reproductive organs. Mature proglottids filled with eggs are released from the
posterior end of the worm and pass from the body with the feces.
 No digestive system is present.
 The life cycle of a tapeworm includes an intermediate host. Eggs are eaten by an
intermediate host and a larva develops, usually in muscle tissue. The final host becomes
infected when it eats an intermediate host containing larvae.

Note: Humans can become infected with some species of tapeworms by eating undercooked beef
or pork containing larvae.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 26

 IV. THE PSEUDOCOELOMATES

A pseudocoelomate is an organism with a false body cavity.

They have a fluid-filled body cavity separating the gut of the organism from the body wall.
Body fluids bathe the organs and receive nutrients and oxygen from the cavity fluid.
Examples of pseudocoelomates include rotifers and nematodes

A. Phylum Rotifera

There are approximately 1800 species of rotifers.

Rotifers are tiny multicellular organisms that live by attaching to a substrate and filter feeding
on water and have jaws and a crown of cilia.

Filter feeding is a form of food procurement in which food particles or small organisms are
randomly strained from water.

They have a distinctive head region with hundreds of cilia that work together to create water
currents that direct food particles to the mouth. They have three distinct tissues, or are
triploblastic.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 27

Characteristics of rotifers

1. They are small, mainly freshwater organisms, although some are marine and others are
found in damp soil.
2. Size ranges from 0.05-2.0 mm
3. Have pseudocoelomic fluid that serve as a hydrostatic skeleton and as a medium that
transports nutrients and wastes when the body moves.
4. Complete digestive system is present.
5. Have a jaw-like organ at the posterior of the mouth that grinds the microscopic food
organisms suspended in the water.
6. Have no regeneration or repair abilities.
7. Rotifers contain a certain and consistent number of cells as adults. The zygotes undergo a
specific number of divisions and the adult contains a fixed number of cells.
8. Reproduction in rotifers may be by parthenogenesis or sexual.

Figure: Rotifer

B. Phylum Nematoda
Comprises of Roundworms that are unsegmented and cylindrical with tapered ends.
There are about 90,000 species of roundworms.
Size ranges from less than 1.0 mm to more than 1 m.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 28

Nematodes have adapted to nearly every environment on the planet due to their advanced
reproductive systems.
Characteristics of nematodes

1. Bodies are cylindrical with tapered ends

2. Very numerous in both species and individuals
3. Found in freshwater, marine, moist soil, tissues of plants, and body fluids of animals
4. A complete digestive tract is present and nutrients are transported through the body in the
pseudocoelomic fluid
5. A tough, transparent cuticle forms the outer body covering.
6. Longitudinal muscles are present and provide for whip-like movements
7. Dioecious with females larger than males.
8. Sexual reproduction only, with internal fertilization. Female may produce 100,000 or
more resistant eggs per day
9. Like rotifers, nematodes have a fixed number of cells as adults.
10. Free-living forms are important in decomposition and nutrient cycling.
11. Plant parasitic forms are important agricultural pests.
Animal parasitic forms can be hazardous to health (e.g. Trichinella spiralis in humans via
undercooked infected pork).

One species, Caenorhabitis elegans, is cultured extensively and is a model species for the study
of development.

Figure:plant-parasitic nematode.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 29

 V. THE COELOMATES/EUCOELOMATES

The eucolomates/coelomates are invertebrates that possess a true body cavity (the coelom is
between the body wall and the digestive tract).
On the basis of embryonic development, coelomates are further divided into two i.e.
(a) Protostome – an organism whose mouth develops first before the anus during
embryonic development. Protostomes include; arthropods, molluscs, and
annelids.
(b) Deuterostome – an organism whose anus forms before the mouth during
embryonic development. Deuterostomes include vertebrates such as sea stars,
and echinoderms.

Differences between Protostomia and Deuterostomia

Protostomia Deuterostomia
1. Mouth originates from blastopore Anal opening originates from blastopore
2. Coelom is formed from schizocoely Coelom is formed from enterocoely
3. Cleavage is spiral and determinate Cleavage is radial and indeterminate
4. Composed of a solid ventral nerve cord Composed of hollow dorsal nerve cord

A. THE PROTOSTOMES
Include Pylla; arthropoda, mollusca, and annelida.

(I) PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

Mollusks have a muscular foot, visceral mass, and a mantle.
There are more than 50,000 species of snails, slugs, oysters, clams, octopuses, and squids.

General characteristics of phylum Mollusca

1. Mollusks are mainly marine though some inhabit fresh water and many snails and slugs
are terrestrial.
2. Most are bilaterally symmetrical and are triploblastic.
3. They are non-metameric or un-segmented
4. Possess soft bodies covered by a calcareous (calcium carbonate) shell.
Squids and octopuses have reduced internalized shells or no shell.
5. The molluscan body consists of three primary parts:
a. muscular foot (broad and flat) used for locomotion, digging, attachment, and prey
capture.
b. a visceral mass containing most of the internal organs, and
c. a mantle, which is a heavy fold of tissue that surrounds the visceral mass, protects
the soft body and secretes the shell.
6. The digestive system is complex and includes a rasping organ called the radula.
The radula bears many rows of teeth (a rasping tongue) whose main functions is to
obtain, scrap food from surfaces and hold food.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 30

 7. Some species are monoecious while most are dioecious.
8. Gonads are located in the visceral mass.
9. Most mollusks have an open circulatory system.

Figure: external anatomy of a snail

Classification of phylum Mollusca

Phylum mollusca comprises of seven classes namely: Aplacophora, Monoplacophora

Polyplacophora, Scaphopoda, Gastropoda, Bivalvia, and Cephalopoda.

The following four classes will be discussed; Polyplacophora, Gastropoda, Bivalvia, and
Cephalopoda

1. Class Polyplacophora (bearing numerous plates)

 They have an oval shape with the shell divided into eight dorsal plates.
 Head indistinct without eyes and tentacles.
 Flat, broad, muscular ventral foot for creeping and anchorage
 Body covered by leathery mantle and lateral portion of mantle called girdle.
 Numerous pairs of gills in pallial groove.
 Buccal cavity with radula that is used to cut and ingest (“graze”) algae.
 Tri-locular heart and primitive ladder-like nervous system.
 Sexes are separate (dioecious).

An example of Polyplacophora is the marine species known as chitons.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 31

 Figure: Chiton

2. Class Gastropoda (Stomach foot)

 Largest molluscan class with more than 40,000 species that includes marine, freshwater,
and terrestrial forms.
 Head distinct with eyes and sensory tentacles.
 Well-developed feet acting as a creeping sole.
 Body protected by a shell (absent in slugs and nudibranchs) which may be conical or
flattened.
 Most gastropods are herbivorous, using the radula to graze on plant material; several
groups are predatory and possess modified radulae.
 Most aquatic gastropods exchange gases via gills while terrestrial forms utilize a
vascularized lining of the mantle cavity (pulmonary sac) for gas exchange.
 Trilocular myogenic heart and excretory organ are nephridia.
 Mostly dioecious and some are monoecious.

Torsion
This is an evolutionary characteristic of the class gastropoda.
Torsion is the twisting of the visceral mass through an angle of 180 0 rotation. This occurs as a
result of uneven growth of left and right sides of their visceral mass.
 1st 900 rotation usually occurs at the veliger (larval) stage
 The 2nd 900 rotation usually takes longer and occurs later
 After torsion, the anus and mantle cavity end up over the head posing a serious fouling
problem and many gastropods have lost their right gills, kidneys and heart auricles.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 32

Significance of torsion in gastropods
It is an adaptive feature and is useful to the larva for protection against enemies. The mantle
cavity provides protected space in adult mollusks for the withdrawal of the foot and the head in
case of danger.

The class Gastropoda contains the snails and slugs.

3. Class Bivalva or Pelecypoda (Hatchet foot)

 Possess a shell divided into two halves.

 Bivalves may extend the foot for motility or anchorage when the shell is open.
 The mantle cavity (between shells) contains gills which function in gas exchange and
feeding.
 Most are suspension-feeders and they trap small food particles in the mucus coating of
the gills and then use cilia to move the particles to the mouth.
 No radula or distinct head is present.
 Bivalves lead sedentary lives.
 Have separate sexes.
The class Bivalvia contains clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 33

 Figure: an oyster

4.Class Cephalopoda (Head foot)

The Class Cephalopoda contains the squids and octopuses.

 All are fast-swimming predators in the ocean.

 The foot is modified into several grasping tentacles.
 The mouth is at the center of several long tentacles.
 Are carnivorous and use beak-like jaws to crush the prey.
 Most squid are less than 75 cm long but the giant squid may reach 17 m and weigh 2
tons.
 Cephalopods are the only mollusks with a closed circulatory system in which the blood is
always contained in vessels.
 Cephalopods have well-developed nervous systems with complex brains capable of
learning. They also have well-developed sense organs.

Figure: squid

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 34

 (II) PHYLUM ANNELIDA
Annelids are segmented worms (Protostomes).

General characteristics of phylum Annelida

1. Habitat varies from marine, fresh water and some are terrestrial and burrow in the
ground.
2. The body is bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and vermiform.
3. Body is soft, elongated, and metamerically segmented.
4. Body ranges in size from less than 1 mm to 3 m.
5. The anterior end of the body is known as the prostomium which bears the head and the
sex organs. The posterior end is pygidium includes the anus and the first segments behind
the
prostomium is called peristomium.
6. The body is covered externally by a thin cuticle.
7. Have a true coelom which serves as;
 a hydrostatic skeleton, that permits the development of complex organ systems
 protects internal structures, and
 permits the internal organs to function separately from the body wall muscles.
8. The body wall consists of two types of muscles; outer circular and inner longitudinal.
9. No distinct head and no paired appendages.
10. The locomotory organs are segmentally arranged few to many chitinous bristles termed
as setae
11. They have a complete digestive system which is a straight tube leading from the ventral
mouth to a terminal anus (Pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine).
12. The respiration is performed chiefly by epidermis or by gills in some tube dwellers.
13. Annelids have a closed circulatory system. Hemoglobin is present in blood cells. Dorsal
and ventral longitudinal vessels are connected by segmental pairs of vessels.
Numerous tiny vessels in the skin permit gas exchange across the body surface.
14. An excretory system of paired metanephridia (excretory gland) is found in each
segment.
15. The annelid nervous system is composed of a pair of cerebral ganglia lying above and
anterior to the pharynx.
16. Annelids are hermaphroditic but cross-fertilize during sexual reproduction.
17. Asexual reproduction occurs in some species by fragmentation followed by regeneration.
18. Movement involves coordinating longitudinal and circular muscles in each segment with
the fluid-filled coelom functioning as a hydrostatic skeleton.

Classification of phylum Annelida

There are three classes of phylum annelida namely: Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, and Hirudinia.

1. Class Oligochaeta (Oligo-few = few setae)

 They are terrestrial and freshwater annelids
 The head is indistinct, prostomium is distinct but without any appedages (eyes and
tentacles).

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 35

  Parapodia and bristle are absent. Setae are embedded in the integument.
 They are hermaphrodites i.e. bi-sexual development is direct without any larval
form.
The class Oligochaeta contains earthworms and a variety of aquatic species (Pheretima,
Tubifex, Lumbricus).

2. Class Polychaeta (Polychaete means many hairs).

 These are exclusively marine and carnivorous.
 Body is elongated and consists of numerous segments.
 Anterior end of the body is modified to form the head which bears eyes, tentacles, and
sensory palps
 Each segment of the body bears a pair of lateral outgrowth of the integument known as
parapodia provided with numerous setae.
 Fertilization is external.
 Sexes separate, development includes trochophore larva.

Polychaetes include such forms as sand worms, tube worms, and clam worms.

Figure: sandworm

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 36

 3. Class Hirudinea
 Mostly aquatic either marine or freshwater but few are terrestrial.
 The body is elongated and usually dorsoventrally flattened or cylindrical with a fixed
number of segments.
 Setae and parapodia are absent.
 Blood vascular system is haemocoelomic type.
 They are bi-sexual and development is direct.
 Many are carnivorous and feed on small invertebrates, while some attach temporarily to
animals to feed on blood. They may invest up to ten times their weight in blood at a
single meal and may not feed again for several months.
 Size ranges from 1 – 30 cm in length.
They are mostly leeches e.g Hirudinaria , Pantobdella, Acanthobdella etc.

Figure: Hirudinaria

(III) PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

The phylum Arthropoda (grouped under protostome) is the largest phylum of animals with
approximately one million described species.
Arthropods are the most successful phylum based on species diversity, distribution, and number
of individuals.
Arthropods have regional segmentation, jointed appendages, and exoskeletons

General Characteristics of Arthropods

1. Have jointed appendages that may be modified in several ways to form antennae, mouth parts,
and reproductive organs
2. Arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 37

3. They are triploblastic i.e. 3 germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm)
4. They have hardened exoskeleton made of chitin that may be further stiffened by calcium
carbonate
5. Body cavity or coelom is much reduced and acts as haemocoel
6. Have an open circulatory system.
7. Many have diverse and specialized mouthparts.
8. Highly developed sense organ.
9. Digestive tract is complete; mouth and anus lie at opposite ends of the body.
10. Respiration through general body surface, by gills in aquatic forms, tracheae or book lungs
in terrestrial forms.
11. Sexes are generally separate.
12. Fertilization is internal.

Classification of Arthropods
Major sub phyla
There are 4 main kinds of living arthropods (plus one extinct group)
1. Trilobites (4,000 species): All are extinct and were mostly marine
2. Myriapods (14,000 species): Include centipedes and millipedes.
3. Chelicerates (74,000 species): Spiders, crabs, ticks, mites, scorpions.
4. Crustacea (67,000 species): Shrimp, crab, banacles, crayfish.
5. Hexapoda/insecta (more than 1,100,000 species): Mostly terrestrial, a few fresh and hardly
any marine.

i. Myriapods
Include Millipedes (Diplopoda) and centipedes (Chilopoda).
The key characteristics of myriapods include:
 Many pairs of legs
 Two body sections (head and trunk)
 One pair of antennae on the head
 Simple eyes
 Have segmented bodies
 Mandibles (lower jaw) and maxillae (upper jaw)
 Respiratory exchange occurring through a tracheal system
 Grow by molting or shedding external skeletons

ii. Chelicerates/Arachnida
General Characteristics of Chelicerata
 Species lack antennae and Mandibles
 Most suck liquid food from prey
 Most have two compound eyes
 Two tagmata: Cephalothorax and abdomen
 6 pairs of appendages (Chelicerae: appendages used for feeding, Pedipalps: Second
appendages for sensing or feeding)
 Four pairs of walking legs
 The abdomen lacks appendages, contains digestive, reproductive, excretory and

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 38

 respiratory organs
e.g horse shoe crab, sea spiders, scorpions, ticks
iii. Crustacea
General characteristics
 Mainly aquatic, generally marine but few freshwater and few live in moist places.
 Generally free living but few are parasitic forms.
 Head often fused with thorax to form cephalothorax covered dorsally by carapace.
 Head bears a pair of compound eyes and five pairs of appendages.
 Thorax and abdomen often with a pair of biramous appendages in each segment;
appendages modified for various purpose.
 Respiration either by gills or general body surface.
 Coelom greatly reduced, it is in the form of haemocoel
 Blood vascular system comprises a dorsal contractile heart communicating by valvular
ostia with an enclosing pericardial sinus.
 Excretory organs are modified coelomoducts which may be either maxillary glands or
antennary (green) glands.
 Sexes usually separate; sexual dimorphism is common.
 Development includes metamorphosis with free larval stages.
e.g. crabs, lobsters, shrimps.

iv. Hexapoda/ class insecta

Major characteristics of class Insecta
 Body divided into three parts; the head, thorax, and abdomen.
 Head bears a compound eye, a pair of antennae, and mouthparts
 Thorax bears 3 pairs of jointed legs and 1 or 2 pairs of wings which may be absent.
 The abdomen is devoid of appendages.
 Respiration by branched trachea for terrestrial insects.
 Excretion by Malpighian tubules.
 Fertilization internal

B. DEUTEROSTOMES, THE COELOMS

The deuterostomes characteristics

Radial cleavage, enterocoelous coelom formation, and the blastopore forms the anus unlike the
protostomes where the blastophore forms the mouth.
Include vertebrates e.g. echinoderms and sea stars.

Phylum Echinodermata
General characteristics of phylum Echinodermata
1. Most echinoderms are sessile or sedentary marine forms with radial symmetry as adults.
2. Internal and external parts radiate from the center, often as five spokes.
3. A thin skin covers a hard calcareous platelike exoskeleton.
4. Most have bumps and spines which serve various functions.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 39

 5. Have a water vascular system, a network of hydraulic canals.
6. Have tube feet that function for locomotion, feeding, and gas exchange.
7. Echinoderms are dioecious with sexual reproduction and external fertilization.
8. Bilaterally symmetrical larvae metamorphose into radial adults.
9. Early embryonic development exhibits the characteristics of deuterostomes.

There are about 7000 species of echinoderms, all of which are marine.

Classification of echinoderms
The six recognized classes are:

1. Class Asteroidea
 Have five or more arms extending from a central disc.
 Tube feet on the undersurface of the arms are extended by fluid forced into them by
contraction of their ampulla.
 Prey are obtained by attaching tube feet to the shells of clams and oysters; the arms of the
sea star wrap around the prey and hold tightly using the tube feet.
 Have a strong ability to regenerate. One species can even regrow an entire body from a
single arm.
Examples: sea stars, asterias

Figure: Asterias

2. Class Ophiuroidea
 Smaller central discs than sea stars
 Longer, more flexible arms than sea stars
 No suckers on their tube feet
 Locomotion is by serpentine lashing of flexible arms
 Varying feeding mechanisms

Examples: the brittle stars, Ophiothrix, Ophioderma, Ophiocoma, Ophiura

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 40

 Figure: Ophiothrix

3. Class Echinoidea
 Sea urchins are spherical in shape, while sand dollars are flattened in the oral-aboral axis.
 Echinoideans lack arms but have; Five rows of tube feet present that provide slow
movement.
 Echinoideans have a complex jaw-like structure present around the mouth which is used
for feeding on seaweeds and other food.
Examples: the sea urchins and sand dollars.

Figure: Echinus Sand dollars

4. Class Crinoidea
 Most are sessile and the body has a central disc which is attached to the substratum.
 Motile sea lilies use their arms for a crawling form of locomotion as well as for feeding.
 Arms circle the mouth (which points upward) and are used in suspension-feeding.

Example: Antedon, Feather star, Sea lilies

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 41

 Figure: sea lilies and feather star

5. Class Holothuroidea
The class Holothuroidea contains sea cucumbers which have little resemblance to other
echinoderms.
 They lack spines.
 The hard endoskeleton is reduced.
 The body is elongated in the oral-aboral axis.
 Species in the Holothuroidea do possess five rows of tube feet.
 Some tube feet around the mouth have developed into feeding tentacles.

Example: Sea cucumbers (Cucumaria)

6. Class Concentricycloidea
 Are small (less than 1 cm), disc-shaped marine animals living in deep water.
 They do not possess arms.
 Tube feet are located around the disc margin.
 Possess a rudimentary digestive system or an absorptive volume on the oral surface.
 The water vascular system consists of two concentric ring canals.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 42

 Examples: the sea daisies

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 43

The table below is a Summary of some groups of invertebrates discussed above

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 44

 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT INVERTEBRATE PHYLLA

(I) INSECTA
Beneficial insects
Pollination: About 80% of the flowering plants on Earth are pollinated by insects. Examples:
bumble bees, solitary bees, squash bees, beetles, butterflies, flies and ants.

Burrowers: Insects like ants, and beetles, dig tunnels in the soil which aids in the channelling of
water, hence they are often referred to as burrowing bugs.

Decomposers: Insects that act as decomposers help in the creation of soil top-layer with rich
nutrients aiding in the growth of plants and other organisms e.g. dung beetles, flies, carrion
beetles, millipedes, cockroaches, ant’s termites.

Scavangers: Some insects act as scavengers, feeding on dead organic matter and recycling the
nutrients into the environment via soil. Example – beetles.

Food for wildlife: Many different kinds of animals eat insects making them essential parts of the
food chain. Examples: amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish, arthropods and other invertebrates,
mammals (primates including humans, insectivores focus almost exclusively on insect prey
(hedgehogs, shrews, tenrecs, moles).

Food for man: edible insects are safe for human consumption. They are rich in nutrients like
protein, minerals, dietary fibers, riboflavin, and vitamins, serving as delicacies in some countries
—E.g crickets, locusts, grasshoppers, mealworms, termites, ants etc.

Insects used in the pharmaceutical industry: for example; Antimicrobial peptides (AMP) like
alloferons, defensin, etc. are obtained from insects like ants and wasps which help in fighting
against bacterial, fungal, and viral infections. Fly larvae (maggots) were used to treat wounds to
prevent or stop gangrene (dead flesh) maggots eat dead flesh hence cleaning the wound and
preventing infection.

Insects in cosmetics: Essential oils extracted from locusts, crickets, and spider flies have been
shown to be safe for facial usage. Beeswax and honey have been used for centuries as cosmetics
that soften, moisturize, and heal skin tissue. They are used in products like face wash, face scrub,
lip balms, hair conditioners, and many more.

Predators, parasites & parasitoids: Some insects provide natural population control of other
insects, arthropods, and vertebrates. Examples: ladybird beetles, lacewings, parasite wasps

Harmful insects

Paste of plants, fruits, and stores grains: Insects feed on several parts of green plants and
crops, such as leaves, stems, buds, flowers, fruits, and seeds. Several stored products such as
wool, feather, cigars, tools are also damaged by insects. Locusts swarms attack and damage
crops.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 45

Injurious to domestic animals: Many insects affect domestic animals as parasites, some are
ectoparasites such as fleas, lice, bugs, mosquitoes, and a few can live as endoparasites such as
bolt-fly larvae in sheep.

Disease carriers or an intermediate host of several pathogens: Several insects act as disease
or intermediate host of several pathogens and transfer disease from one pathogen to human to
another, hence spread disease in population called as the vector of this particular disease.
Examples of insect vectors mosquitoes, tsetse flies, sand flies etc.

(II) NEMATODES

Nematodes as biological Pest control: Some predator nematodes attack and kill a range of pests
such as borers, grubs, thrips and beetles with negligible effects on other organisms.

Improve soil fertility; Nitrogen cycle: Nematodes directly helps in nutrient mineralization
through their feeding interactions. For example, bacterial-feeding nematodes consume Nitrogen
in the form of proteins and other N-containing compounds in bacterial tissues and release excess
Nitrogen in the form of ammonium (NH4+), which is readily available for plant use.
Decomposition of organic matters: free-living nematodes in soil are very important and
beneficial in the decomposition of organic material and the recycling of nutrients in soil. For
example Bacteria and fungi feeding Nematode do not feed directly on soil organic matter, but
feed on the bacteria and fungi which decompose organic matter.

Plant parasitic nematodes: Some plant parasitic nematodes infects roots of plants and damage
crops. Eg. Globodera

Nematodes as bioindicators of soil health or condition: their diversity in the soil indicates soil
biological fertility or soil health condition.

Human and animal pathogenic nematodes:Nematodes are pathogenic to animals and human.
Eg. Ascaris.

(III) ARACHNIDA
 Scorpions are studied as a type of arachnid in most of universities.
 Scorpions are beneficial also to some extent, as they feed largely on unwanted insects, as
cockroaches and beetles, etc.
 The scorpion venom is used for pharmacological, Biochemical, and Immunological
research.
 Certain mites cause damage to the crop fruits like apple, pear, and grapes e.g. blister mite
(Eriophyee).
 Ticks suck the blood of men and domestic animals. They also act as vectors of protozoa
causing Texas fever in cattle and tick fever in man.

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 46

(IV) CRUSTACEA
Crustacea are of considerable economic significance to man i.e.
 As food: A large number of crustaceans are consumed by man, especially lobsters,
shrimps, prawns, squillae, crabs and crayfishes, etc.
 As fish bait: the crayfish are quite popular among fishermen as a fish bait (in America).
 As scavengers: Some Crustacea, such 'as crayfish, are beneficial, as they serve as an
agent in the destruction of decaying vegetables and animal bodies in water.
 As an intermediate host: some crustaceans serve as intermediate hosts to certain
dangerous worm parasites of man and other vertebrates. E.g. human lung-fluke,
Paragonimus westennani, uses a crayfish for this purpose. Species of Cyclops which live
in freshwater, serve as intermediate hosts for the human guinea worm (Dracunculus
medinensis) and ' for the broad ' tapeworm (Diphyllobothrium latum).
 As pests: Crayfishes damage cultivated crops by eating young corn and cotton plants.
Sow bugs and pill bugs, may turn pest in greenhouses and fields when sufficiently
numerous. Some crustaceans bore into marine timber structures (jetties, piles, poles,
props, etc.) and destroy them causing loss.

(V) DIPLOPODA
 Millipedes may be useful as they are scavengers and can dispose of dead organic matter.
 They cause damage to plants as they feed also on plant roots and destroy the green houses
and gardens.

(VI) CHILOPODA
 They are beneficial to man as they feed on insects some of which may be injurious also.
 They are also reported to feed on snakes too.
 Some species are harmless to man, but some longer tropical ones inflect a painful bite
and cause fever, dizziness and headache.

(VII) MEROSTOMATA
The American species (Limulus polyphemus) is sometimes fed to chickens and pigs. Asian
species of horseshoe crabs are consumed by human beings.

END

ZOOL 211 UoE pg. 47