Thinking, Problem-Solving &
Creativity
The ISC Guide | ISC 11 | Unit 7
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Thinking
Thinking: Thinking is a mental process in which the individual organizes, manipulates and
transforms information to form concepts, solve problems, reason, and make decisions. Ex:
Mentally calculating time to finish homework.
Nature of Thinking
● Thinking is an internal and goal-directed mental process.
● It is symbolic, meaning we use images, words and concepts rather than actual
objects.
● It involves mental manipulation of knowledge.
● It is problem-solving and decision-making oriented.
● It is influenced by learning, memory, attention, and past experience.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Basic Elements of Thought
Mental Images: Representations that resemble actual sensory experience. Example:
Imagining the taste of chocolate or the sound of rain.
Visual Images: Images specifically related to sight. Example: Mentally picturing the Taj
Mahal without seeing it.
Concepts: Help categorize and simplify information. Example: “Vehicles” includes bike,
car, bus, scooter.
Language: Expresses ideas clearly and structures thought. Example: Giving instructions
using words like “first,” “then,” “finally.”
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Interdependence of Language and Thought
Language and thought support and shape each other. Thought becomes more precise
through language, and language becomes meaningful because of thought.
Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity)
● It was developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf in 1929.
● The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis states that the language a person speaks influences or
shapes the way they think, perceive, and interpret the world.
● It is also called the Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity.
● Ex: Inuit people think about snow in detail compared to english speakers due to
having more words for it in their language.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Types of Thinking
Convergent Thinking: Moves toward a single correct solution. Logical and analytical.
Example: Choosing the correct answer in a multiple-choice question.
Divergent Thinking: Produces many possible ideas. Flexible, imaginative.
Example: Listing 20 unusual uses for a paperclip.
Creative Thinking: Combines originality + usefulness.
Example: Designing a new app that helps students manage stress.
Goal-Oriented Thinking: Directed towards achieving a specific objective.
Example: Planning how to study each chapter before the ISC exam.
Aimless Thinking: Wandering, unfocused thoughts.
Example: Random daydreaming during a bus ride.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Concepts
● A concept is a mental category that helps us group objects, events, or ideas that
share common characteristics.
● It simplifies thinking by allowing us to treat different things as belonging to the same
class.
● Example: “Bird” → pigeon, sparrow, parrot all share wings, feathers, beaks.
Formation of Concepts:
1. Through Experience
● We learn by interacting with objects.
● Example: A child forms the concept of “hot” after touching warm objects repeatedly.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Concepts
2. Through Observation
● We note common features.
● Example: Noticing that all chairs have legs and a seat creates the concept “chair.”
3. Through Language
● Words help organise and label concepts.
● Example: Learning the word “fruit” helps group apples, mangoes, bananas.
4. Through Categorization
● We classify objects into groups.
● Example: Vehicles → car, scooter, bus.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Importance of Concepts
1. Reduce Cognitive Load
● They allow us to handle large amounts of information efficiently.
● Example: Instead of remembering every dog youʼve seen, you just think “dog.”
2. Aid Problem-Solving and Reasoning
● Concepts help apply rules and make predictions.
● Example: Knowing the concept “poisonous” alerts you to danger regardless of the
specific substance.
3. Support Communication
● Concepts give meaning to words and language.
● Example: Saying “furniture” quickly conveys a whole group of items.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Importance of Concepts
4. Help Organize Knowledge
Concepts form the foundation of mental categories and schemas.
Example: Classifying people as “friends,” “family,” “teachers.”
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Types of Concepts
1. Artificial Concepts
● These are clearly defined by specific rules, features, or formulas and follow strict
conditions.
● Example: A “square” → four equal sides + four right angles.
2. Natural Concepts
● Formed through everyday experience; are not rigid and have fuzzy boundaries.
● Examples: “Bird” → penguin and ostrich are birds even though they cannot fly.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Types of Concepts
3. Simple Concepts
● These are defined by a single feature.
● Example: Things that are red. Things that are round.
4. Complex Concepts
● These are defined by multiple features or combinations of features.
● Example: “Smartphone” → touch screen + apps + connectivity. “Mammal” →
warm-blooded + gives live birth + has hair.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Reasoning
Reasoning: Reasoning is a mental process through which an individual reaches
conclusions by logically using available information, facts, or evidence.
1. Deductive Reasoning
● Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which conclusions are drawn from general
principles or premises to specific instances.
● If the premises are true and the reasoning is valid, the conclusion is certain.
● General rule → Specific case → Definite conclusion
● It is a top-down approach.
● Conclusion is guaranteed to be correct if premises are correct.
● Ex: All human beings are mortal. Ram is a human being. Therefore, Ram is mortal.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Reasoning
2. Inductive Reasoning
● Inductive reasoning is a process in which general conclusions are drawn from
specific observations or experiences.
● The conclusion is probable, not certain.
● Specific observations → Pattern → General rule
● It follows a bottom-up approach
● Conclusions can change based on new observation.
● Example: A student observes that several metals expand when heated. Therefore, all
metals expand when heated. [Actually certain forms of Bismuth have NTE]
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Common Errors in Reasoning
Faulty Premises:
● A faulty premise refers to a false, incorrect, or unverified assumption on which
reasoning is based.
● Even if the logical steps are correct, the conclusion will be wrong if the premise itself
is incorrect.
● Ex:
○ All dogs are dangerous. (Incorrect assumption)
○ Bruno is a dog.
○ Therefore, Bruno is dangerous.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Common Errors in Reasoning
Fallacy of Single Cause:
● The fallacy of single cause occurs when a person assumes that one factor alone is
responsible for an outcome, ignoring the presence of multiple contributing factors.
● Ex:
○ A student fails an exam and blames it only on bad luck.
○ In reality, factors such as lack of preparation, anxiety, poor time management, or
health may also contribute.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Improving Reasoning
Avoiding Errors in Reasoning
● One way to improve reasoning is by becoming aware of common errors such as faulty premises,
overgeneralization, and the fallacy of single cause. Recognizing these errors helps prevent
incorrect conclusions.
● A student assumes he failed an exam only because the paper was difficult. On reflection, he
considers lack of preparation and poor time management, thereby avoiding a reasoning error.
Examining Premises & Ambiguities
● Carefully examining premises ensures that the assumptions on which reasoning is based are
accurate, complete, and clearly defined.
● Ambiguities in language or meaning must be clarified to avoid confusion.
● Ex: The statement “He is a good student” is ambiguous. By clarifying whether “good” refers to
academic performance, behaviour, or attendance, the reasoning becomes more precise.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Improving Reasoning
Guarding Against Emotion:
● Emotions such as anger, fear, prejudice, or personal bias can distort logical thinking.
● Guarding against emotional influence helps maintain objectivity and rational
judgment.
● A teacher may feel annoyed with a student but avoids letting this emotion influence
academic evaluation, ensuring fair reasoning.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Decision-Making & Problem-Solving
Decision making is the process of choosing the best alternative from among several
options.
Problem solving is a goal-directed mental activity in which an individual overcomes
obstacles to reach a desired solution.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Steps of Decision-Making & Problem-Solving
Define the Problem
● This step involves clearly identifying and stating the problem so that it is properly
understood.
● A vague or incorrect definition can lead to wrong solutions.
● Ex: Instead of saying “I am doing badly in exams,” the problem is defined as “I am
losing marks due to poor time management during exams.”
Diagnose the Root Cause
● In this step, the underlying causes of the problem are analysed rather than focusing
only on surface symptoms.
● This helps in addressing the real issue.
● Ex: Poor performance may be due to lack of revision, exam anxiety, weak conceptual
understanding, or poor study habits.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Steps of Decision-Making & Problem-Solving
Identify and Implement a Solution
● Possible solutions are identified, evaluated, and the most suitable one is selected and
put into action.
● Ex: If the root cause is poor time management, the solution may be to practise timed
mock tests and follow a structured study timetable.
Sustain the Results
● This step involves monitoring the outcome and ensuring that the improvement is
maintained over time.
● Necessary adjustments are made if required.
● Ex: Continuing regular practice tests even after improvement to ensure consistent
exam performance.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Decision-Making & Problem-Solving Strategies
Optimum Expected Utility
● Optimum Expected Utility refers to selecting the alternative that provides the
maximum expected benefit after considering both probability of success and value of
the outcome.
● Example
○ A student chooses between two colleges:
■ College A: High fees, high placement probability
■ College B: Lower fees, moderate placement probability
● The student calculates which option offers the greatest overall benefit, not just the
highest reward.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Decision-Making & Problem-Solving Strategies
Means-End Analysis
● Means–end analysis is a problem-solving strategy where the individual compares the
current state with the goal state, identifies the differences, and selects actions to
reduce those differences step by step.
● Example:
○ Goal: Score 95% in Psychology
○ Current state: Scoring 80%
○ Differences: Weak in case studies and MCQs
○ Action: Practice case studies and revise MCQs
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Decision-Making & Problem-Solving Strategies
Analogy
● Analogy is a problem-solving method in which a solution from a similar past problem
is applied to a new problem.
● Example; A student recalls how regular revision helped improve Biology marks and
applies the same strategy to improve Psychology performance.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Creative Thinking
Creative Thinking:
● Creative thinking is the mental process of producing new, original, and useful ideas or
solutions by combining existing knowledge in novel ways.
● Example: Designing an innovative method to explain a difficult psychological concept.
Convergent Thinking:
● Convergent thinking is a type of thinking in which an individual narrows down various
possibilities to arrive at one correct, logical solution to a problem.
● Example: Solving a numerical problem in mathematics that has only one correct answer.
Divergent Thinking:
● Divergent thinking is a type of thinking in which an individual generates many different
ideas or solutions to a single problem.
● Example: Suggesting several possible uses for a plastic bottle.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Stages of Creative Thinking
Preparation
● In this stage, the individual defines the problem, gathers relevant information, and
consciously thinks about possible solutions.
● It involves deliberate effort and focused attention.
● Ex: A student studies various theories and case studies before attempting to write a
creative psychology project.
Incubation
● During incubation, the problem is set aside temporarily, and no conscious effort is made to
solve it.
● The mind continues to work at an unconscious level.
● Ex: After studying, the student takes a break or sleeps, allowing ideas to develop
subconsciously.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
Stages of Creative Thinking
Illumination
● This stage involves a sudden insight or “aha” experience, where the solution appears
unexpectedly and clearly.
● Ex: While taking a walk, the student suddenly gets an idea for structuring the project in a
unique way.
Verification / Validation
● In this final stage, the idea is tested, evaluated, and refined to determine its accuracy,
usefulness, and practicality.
● Ex: The student checks whether the idea fits the project guidelines and makes necessary
improvements.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
How to Encourage Creativity?
Enriching Knowledge and Experience
● A wide base of knowledge and varied experiences provide more material for creative
combinations and new ideas.
● A student who reads extensively, participates in debates, theatre, and music is more likely
to produce original ideas than one with limited exposure.
Encouraging Independence
● Allowing individuals to think freely, make choices, and take initiative promotes originality
and self-expression, which are essential for creativity.
● Ex: A teacher who allows students to choose their own project topics encourages
independent and creative thinking.
Thinking, problem-Solving & Creativity The ISC Guide
How to Encourage Creativity?
Encouraging Curiosity
● Curiosity drives individuals to ask questions, explore alternatives, and challenge existing
ideas, leading to creative outcomes.
● Ex: A student who asks “why” and “how” questions during class often comes up with
novel explanations or solutions.
Promoting a Positive Mood
● A relaxed, positive emotional state enhances flexible thinking and openness to new ideas,
which facilitates creativity.
● Ex: Students tend to produce more creative work in a supportive, stress-free classroom
environment.
