Here is the same set of notes, now expanded with more detail, fully aligned to all syllabus objectives,

and still kept in a short-note, clear, exam-focused format.

I have not rewritten everything into long paragraphs—instead I’ve added more depth, extra examples,
and syllabus-required terminology while keeping the structure clean and easy to teach.

✅ Maintaining Biodiversity – A Level Biology (9700) – Enhanced

Short Notes (More Detail Added)

1. Introduction to Biodiversity
Biodiversity includes:

1. Species diversity – number and abundance of species.

2. Genetic diversity – variation in alleles within a species (important for adaptation).
3. Ecosystem diversity – variety of habitats, niches, communities.

Importance of high biodiversity

 Increases ecosystem resilience (ability to resist and recover from change).

 Ensures stability, nutrient cycling, pollination, energy flow.

2. Extinction

2.1 What is extinction?

 Permanent loss of a species.
 Can be background extinction (natural, slow) or mass extinction (sudden, global).

Natural causes include:

 Volcanic eruptions
 Sea level changes
 Competition over evolutionary time
 Meteor impacts (e.g., dinosaurs)

2.2 Human-caused extinction

1. Habitat destruction

Most serious modern threat.

Causes:

 Deforestation (logging, farming, fuelwood)

 Urbanisation
 Infrastructure development
  Wetland drainage

Consequences:

 Loss of niches, breeding sites, and food sources.

2. Over-exploitation

 Overfishing (Cod, Bluefin tuna)

 Bushmeat trade
 Poaching (rhino horn, elephant ivory)
 Unsustainable logging (Mahogany)

3. Climate change

 Alters temperature and rainfall patterns

 Causes shifts in species ranges
 Coral bleaching (loss of zooxanthellae)
 Loss of polar ice → affects polar bears, seals, Arctic fox

4. Introduced / invasive species

 May be superior predators, competitors or disease vectors.

Examples:

 Cane toads in Australia

 Zebra mussels in North America
 Rats on island ecosystems eating native bird eggs

5. Competition

 Species that adapt faster tend to dominate

 Slow-adapting species decline and may be pushed to extinction

3. Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity

(Required by syllabus: ethical, ecological, economic, aesthetic, agricultural, environmental)

3.1 Ethical (Moral) Values

 Organisms have a right to exist.
 Humans act as stewards or custodians of life on Earth.
  Extinction caused by humans is considered morally unacceptable.

3.2 Ecological Reasons

Biodiversity ensures:

 Stable food webs

 Balanced nutrient cycles
 Natural regulation of populations

Keystone species examples:

 Sea otters – protect kelp forests by controlling sea urchins

 Elephants – maintain savannah ecosystems
 Bees – key pollinators
Loss of keystone species → ecosystem collapse.

3.3 Economic Importance

1. Medicines & biotechnology

 Aspirin from willow bark

 Taxol from Pacific yew
 Quinine from cinchona tree
 Taq DNA polymerase from Thermus aquaticus

2. Agriculture & food security

 Wild plants = genetic resources for breeding

 Pollinators essential for fruit crops

3. Ecotourism

Provides income for local communities → incentive to conserve.

3.4 Aesthetic Value

 Beauty of nature improves well-being
 Recreation: hiking, bird-watching, photography
 Cultural and artistic inspiration

3.5 Agricultural Reasons

 Wild relatives contain alleles for:
 o Disease resistance
o Salt tolerance
o Flood resistance
o Temperature tolerance

Importance:

 Increases genetic diversity of crops through selective breeding or genetic modification.

 Helps maintain global food security.

3.6 Environmental Reasons

Ecosystems provide natural services:

1. Carbon sequestration – reducing global warming

2. Water filtration – wetlands trap pollutants
3. Soil formation – by decomposers
4. Nitrogen fixation – by bacteria
5. Pollination – insects and birds

Loss of biodiversity → reduced ecosystem services.

4. Conservation of Endangered Species

In situ vs Ex situ conservation
In Situ (natural habitat) Ex Situ (outside natural habitat)

Maintains natural behaviour Protects when habitat is destroyed

Preserves entire ecosystem Prevents immediate extinction

Allows evolution to continue Allows intensive breeding

Cheaper long-term Expensive long-term

5. In Situ Conservation

5.1 National Parks / Nature Reserves

 Legal protection of species and habitats
 Controlled human activities
 Maintain ecological balance

Management in reserves:

 Habitat restoration
 Removal of invasive species
 Controlled burning
 Anti-poaching patrols
  Monitoring population sizes
 Community involvement

5.2 Legislation
Governments can:

 Ban hunting/trade of endangered species

 Restrict land development
 Control pollution
 Enforce sustainable fishing quotas

International conventions:

 CITES – regulates international trade

 Rio Convention on Biodiversity – promotes sustainable development

5.3 Protected Areas

Include:

 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

 Biosphere reserves
 Ramsar sites (wetlands of international importance)

6. Ex Situ Conservation

6.1 Zoos
Roles:

 Captive breeding programmes

 Reintroduction programmes
 DNA/genetic storage
 Public education
 Behavioural research

Challenges:

 Small gene pools → inbreeding depression

 Loss of natural behaviour
 Disease spread in captivity
 Difficulty releasing captive-bred animals

6.2 Botanical Gardens

Functions:

 Seed banks
 Research on germination and growth
 Conservation of endangered plant species

6.3 Seed Banks (e.g., Millennium Seed Bank)

Seeds stored in cold, dry conditions for long-term conservation.

Advantages:

 Stores large numbers in small space

 Protects against habitat loss or disasters
 Can maintain genetic diversity

Limitations:

 Not all seeds can be stored (recalcitrant seeds die when dry)
 Regular germination testing required

7. Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)

Used to increase genetic diversity and prevent inbreeding

7.1 Artificial Insemination (AI)

 Sperm collected → frozen → inserted into female
 Allows genetic exchange without transporting animals

7.2 Embryo Transfer

 Endangered female produces embryos
 Embryos transferred to surrogate
 Reduces risk to rare mothers

7.3 IVF
 Fertilisation in laboratory
 Embryos implanted into surrogate
 Helps breed animals that struggle to mate naturally

8. Exam-Ready Summary (Key Points)

Biodiversity must be maintained because of:

1. Ethical – right to exist

2. Ecological – stability, keystone species
3. Economic – medicines, ecotourism, biotechnology
4. Aesthetic – beauty, recreation
 5. Agricultural – genetic resources for breeding
6. Environmental – ecosystem services

9. Example Exam Questions (A-Level Style)

Q1 (a)

State three human activities that reduce biodiversity.

→ Deforestation, pollution, overfishing, climate change, invasive species.

Q1 (b)

Explain how maintaining biodiversity benefits agriculture.

→ Larger gene pool → useful alleles for disease resistance, drought tolerance → improves crop yields and
food security.

Q2

Describe advantages and disadvantages of ex situ conservation.

→ (Provide concise points from tables above)

If you want, I can now create:

✅ PowerPoint slides
✅ Flashcards
✅ A test / quiz (structured questions or MCQs)
✅ A student worksheet
✅ A lesson plan for one or two double periods

Just tell me what you need next.

Below is a more detailed, exam-ready, but still clear and concise expansion of In Situ and Ex Situ
Conservation, aligned fully with the Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700) syllabus.

I’ve added extra biological depth, examples, advantages/disadvantages, and practical management
strategies—the level of detail that earns high marks in structured and essay questions.
🔶 1. IN SITU CONSERVATION (More Detailed Notes)
Definition:
Conserving species within their natural habitat, allowing them to continue interacting with the ecosystem
in which they evolved.

1.1 Methods of In Situ Conservation

⭐ 1. National Parks, Game Reserves & Nature Reserves

 Legally protected areas.
 Limit human activities such as hunting, logging, farming, building, and mining.
 Protect critical habitats—breeding areas, feeding areas, nesting sites, migratory routes.

Management strategies (more detail):

1. Controlled grazing
– Prevents overgrazing, maintains plant diversity.
2. Seasonal closures
– Protects breeding seasons of animals like turtles, birds, antelopes.
3. Zonation
– Core zones: no human activity
– Buffer zones: limited tourism
– Transition zones: sustainable use by local communities
4. Ecological monitoring
– Census counts
– Camera trapping
– DNA barcoding to assess genetic diversity
– Satellite tracking of migratory species
5. Habitat restoration
– Replanting native vegetation
– Restoring wetlands
– Removing pollution and invasive species
– Reintroducing lost species (e.g., wolves in Yellowstone)
6. Anti-poaching enforcement
– Ranger patrols
– Fencing
– Sniffer dogs
– Drones for surveillance
7. Community involvement
– Employ locals as guides
– Share tourism profits
– Provide education and incentives for conservation

⭐ 2. Legislation (Legal Protection)

Governments create laws that protect biodiversity:

 Ban hunting and trade of endangered species.

  Ban export/import of ivory, skins, corals, exotic birds.
 Restrict development in protected areas.
 Regulate fishing quotas and hunting seasons.
 Pollution control laws.

International treaties:

 CITES — Controls international trade in endangered species.

 Ramsar Convention — Protects wetlands.
 Rio Convention on Biological Diversity — Promotes sustainable development.
 UNESCO World Heritage Sites — Protect ecosystems of global importance.

⭐ 3. Habitat Management
Helps maintain natural ecological processes.

Examples:

= Controlled burning

Used in grasslands and savannas to remove dead biomass, promote fresh plant growth, and maintain species
adapted to fire.

= Predator control versus reintroduction

Sometimes overpopulation of herbivores requires controlled culling.

Other times predators are reintroduced (e.g., wolves in Yellowstone).

= Removal of invasive species

Examples:

 Goats removed from Galapagos Islands

 Water hyacinth removal in African lakes

⭐ 4. Species Recovery Programmes

Some species are helped within their habitat but with active intervention:

 Nest protection for sea turtles

 Artificial nesting boxes for owls, bats, parrots
 Supplemental feeding during droughts
 Vaccination programmes to prevent disease outbreaks
1.2 Advantages of In Situ Conservation (Expanded)
1. Natural behaviour is maintained
– Hunting, foraging, migration, breeding occur normally.
2. Food webs remain intact
– Interactions like pollination, seed dispersal, predation continue.
3. Preserves larger populations
– Reduces inbreeding and maintains genetic diversity.
4. Allows evolutionary processes to continue
– Natural selection operates normally.
5. Cheaper long-term
– No need for artificial breeding, feeding, specialised staff.
6. Protects entire ecosystems
– Not just a single species.

1.3 Disadvantages of In Situ Conservation

 Protected areas may not be large enough.
 Poaching can still occur.
 Climate change may still destroy habitats.
 Disease outbreaks may wipe out local populations.
 Human–wildlife conflicts (crop raids, livestock damage).
 Political instability may reduce protection (common in developing countries).

🔶 2. EX SITU CONSERVATION (More Detailed Notes)

Definition:
Conserving species outside their natural habitat, usually when in situ conservation is not enough to
prevent extinction.

Used when species numbers are too low, habitat is destroyed, or immediate protection is needed.

2.1 Methods of Ex Situ Conservation

⭐ 1. Zoos (Animal Conservation Centres)

Roles:

1. Captive breeding programmes

o Carefully matched pairs using studbooks.
o Avoids inbreeding using genetic data.
o Some produce individuals for release into the wild.
2. Reintroduction programmes
o Releasing animals into restored or protected habitats.
o Examples:
– Arabian oryx
 – Golden lion tamarin
– California condor
– Scimitar-horned oryx (successful)
3. Research
o Reproductive biology
o Behaviour
o Nutrition
o Veterinary medicine
o Genetics and DNA profiling
4. Education
o Raising awareness
o Funding conservation globally

Limitations of zoos (expanded):

 Captive animals may not learn survival skills.

 Small breeding populations → inbreeding depression.
 Loss of genetic variation over generations.
 Animals may imprint on humans → poor survival.
 Behavioural abnormalities (stereotypies).

⭐ 2. Botanical Gardens
Functions:

 Grow and conserve endangered plant species.

 Maintain large genetic samples.
 Perform tissue culture to clone rare plants.
 Research on ecology, physiology, and uses of plants.
 Prevent extinction of species with very small wild populations.

⭐ 3. Seed Banks (Millennium Seed Bank, Kew Gardens)

How seeds are stored:

 Washed and dried to < 5% moisture.

 Stored at –20°C in airtight containers.
 Regular germination tests required to maintain viability.

Advantages:

 Large number of seeds stored with little space.

 Low maintenance cost.
 Protection from natural disasters and wars.
 Maintains a global genetic library.

Limitations:

 Not all seeds can be frozen (“recalcitrant seeds” like cocoa, mango, avocado).
  Germination success may decline over decades.
 Only plants, not animals.

⭐ 4. Aquaria (Fish Conservation Centres)

Important for:

 Rare freshwater fish

 Coral fragments (fragmentation and restoration)
 Coral reef species threatened by bleaching
 Research on breeding of endangered marine species

⭐ 5. Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)

Very important for extremely rare species.

✔ Artificial Insemination (AI)

– Transporting frozen sperm is safer than moving animals.

– Allows genetic exchange between zoos across continents.

✔ Embryo Transfer

– Endangered female produces embryos.

– Embryos transferred to surrogate mothers of related species.

✔ In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

– Eggs collected and fertilised in lab.

– Developing embryos implanted in surrogate.

✔ Cryopreservation

– Storage of gametes, embryos, tissue, or DNA in liquid nitrogen (–196°C).

– “Frozen zoos” preserve genetic material.

2.2 Advantages of Ex Situ Conservation (Expanded)

1. Protects individuals when species are near extinction
2. Controlled environment
– Temperature, food, predators, diseases controlled.
3. Genetic management
– Studbooks prevent inbreeding.
4. Reproductive technologies increase offspring
5. Can protect species when habitat is destroyed or unsafe
6. Public education
7. Research opportunities not possible in the wild.
2.3 Disadvantages of Ex Situ Conservation (Expanded)
 Expensive to maintain (food, specialists, laboratories, veterinary care).
 Animals often fail after release (lack of survival skills).
 Difficult to simulate natural habitat or behaviour.
 Small populations → loss of genetic diversity.
 Risk of disease spread in captivity.
 Ethical issues: captivity may cause stress or abnormal behaviour.
 Some species do not breed well in captivity.

🔶 3. In Situ vs Ex Situ – Exam Summary Table (High Detail)

Feature In Situ Ex Situ

Location Natural habitat Artificial environment

Genetic diversity High Often low

Behaviour Natural Often unnatural

Breeding success Normal, seasonal Often limited

Cost Lower long-term High

Risk Poaching, climate change Diseases, inbreeding

Education Limited High public exposure

Evolution Continues Stops; no selection pressures

Example National parks, reserves Zoos, gardens, seed banks

Would you like me to also create:

✅ Exam-style long questions (10–15 marks) with full answers?
✅ A comparison chart for your classroom wall?
✅ PowerPoint slides for teaching this topic?
Just tell me!

Below is a more detailed, exam-ready, and fully expanded set of notes on international treaties for
biodiversity conservation, aligned with the Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology (9700)
syllabus.

These are written to A-level depth but remain clear and concise, with purpose, mechanisms, obligations,
examples, strengths and limitations for each treaty.
🌍 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
(VERY DETAILED NOTES)
International agreements are crucial because many species migrate, ecosystems cross national borders, and
trade in endangered organisms is global.

The four major treaties relevant to the syllabus are:

1. CITES – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

2. CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity
3. The Rio Earth Summit (Agenda 21)
4. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

I also include UNESCO World Heritage Convention (not always in syllabus but adds strong academic
depth).

🔶 1. CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
Established 1973, enforced 1975.

⭐ Purpose
To ensure that international trade does NOT threaten the survival of wild animals and plants.

⭐ How CITES Works

Species are placed into three appendices:

Appendix I – Highest protection

 Species threatened with extinction

 No commercial trade permitted
 Trade only allowed for research with strict permits
 Examples:
– Tigers
– Great apes
– Sea turtles
– Rhinos

Appendix II – Controlled trade

 Species not yet endangered but may become so

 Commercial trade allowed with export permits
 Examples:
– African grey parrot
– Pangolins
– Some orchids, aloe species
– Some reptiles (python skin trade)
Appendix III – Country-requested protection

 Species protected in at least one country

 Other nations assist in controlling trade
 Examples:
– Walrus (Canada)
– Several bird and reptile species

⭐ Mechanisms & Enforcement

 Export/import permits required
 Each country has a Management Authority and Scientific Authority
 Customs checks at airports and borders
 Online wildlife trade monitored
 Confiscation, fines, imprisonment for illegal trade

⭐ Strengths
 Most widely supported treaty: >183 member countries
 Significantly reduced trade in elephants, rhinos, big cats
 Raises global awareness
 Powerful tool against illegal wildlife trafficking

⭐ Limitations
 Does not protect species from habitat loss, only trade
 Enforcement varies between countries
 Illegal trade still continues (lucrative black market)
 Requires expensive monitoring and policing
 Some countries disagree with bans (e.g., ivory trade debates)

🔶 2. The Rio Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

Signed in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit.

⭐ Purpose
To promote sustainable use, conservation, and fair sharing of genetic resources.

CBD has three main objectives:

1. Conserve biodiversity
2. Sustainably use biological resources
 3. Share genetic resources fairly and equitably
– Ensures countries benefit from their biological wealth (e.g., medicinal plants)

⭐ Key Actions Under CBD

A. National Biodiversity Strategies (NBSAPs)

Countries must create national plans for protecting biodiversity.

B. Protected Area Networks

Governments must establish national parks, reserves, and marine protected areas.

C. Sustainable Development

Promote sustainable farming, fishing, mining, and tourism.

D. Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)

Companies using genetic resources (e.g., plant compounds for drugs) must share profits with the country of
origin.

E. Education & Public Awareness

Promote conservation in schools, media, communities.

⭐ Strengths
 Global influence on conservation planning
 Integrates biodiversity into economic development
 Improves funding for conservation in developing countries
 Encourages scientific research and technology transfer

⭐ Limitations
 No strong enforcement mechanism
 Countries may sign but not fully implement
 Funding inadequate in poorer nations
 Conflicts with economic interests (logging, mining, agriculture)

🔶 3. Rio Earth Summit – Agenda 21 (1992)

Agenda 21 is a comprehensive action plan for global sustainability.
⭐ Relevance to Biodiversity
 Encourages sustainable land use
 Promotes community involvement in conservation
 Reduces pollution, waste, and CO₂ emissions
 Promotes reforestation and sustainable agriculture
 Encourages environmental education worldwide

⭐ Strengths
 Massive global awareness programme
 Encouraged environmental education in schools
 Promoted idea of sustainable development

⭐ Limitations
 Only a guideline → not legally binding
 Depends heavily on political will of each country
 Slow progress due to economic pressures

🔶 4. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971)

⭐ Purpose
To protect wetlands of international importance, especially those critical for waterbirds, fish nurseries,
and flood control.

Wetlands include:

 Marshes
 Swamps
 Lakes
 River deltas
 Mangroves
 Coral reefs
 Peat bogs

⭐ Key Features
Ramsar Sites

Countries designate protected wetlands known as Ramsar Sites.

Examples:
  Okavango Delta (Botswana)
 Lake Chilwa (Malawi)
 Everglades (USA)
 Camargue (France)

Wise Use Principle

Wetlands must be used sustainably:

 Regulated fishing
 Controlled tourism
 Preventing drainage for agriculture
 Preventing pollution

International Cooperation

Migratory bird routes cross continents → shared conservation responsibility.

⭐ Strengths
 Thousands of wetlands protected worldwide
 Strong role in protecting migratory species
 Emphasises sustainable use, not just protection

⭐ Limitations
 Many wetlands still threatened by agriculture and development
 Enforcement is weak
 Depends on national governments for protection

🔶 5. UNESCO World Heritage Convention (Extra depth for high-

level answers)

⭐ Purpose
To protect natural and cultural sites of global importance.

Natural sites include:

 Serengeti National Park

 Great Barrier Reef
 Bwindi Impenetrable Forest (mountain gorillas)
 Yellowstone National Park
⭐ How it works
 Sites receive international recognition
 Funding, monitoring and conservation support
 Tourism revenue helps sustain site conservation

⭐ Limitations
 Political conflicts can threaten sites
 Climate change still affects many ecosystems (e.g., coral bleaching)

🔶 Exam-Ready Summary Table

Treaty Main Role Strengths Weaknesses

Regulates global trade in Wide support, reduces illegal Limited enforcement, does not
CITES
endangered species trade stop habitat loss

CBD (Rio Conserving biodiversity Global strategies, encourages Implementation varies, weak
Convention) sustainably protected areas enforcement

Broad environmental
Agenda 21 Sustainable development plan Not legally binding
education

Ramsar Strong focus on migratory Many wetlands remain

Protects wetlands worldwide
Convention species threatened

UNESCO World Funding + international

Protects sites of global value Sensitive to climate and politics
Heritage monitoring

If you want:
✅ I can now expand CITES appendices,
✅ Add case studies (elephants, pangolins, rhinos, corals),