onospheric Layers
&
Photochemistry
D Layer
1. The electron density in the D-layer normally does not have a distinct
peak.
2. The ion production and the recombination processes are highly
complicated between 50-95 km.
3. The Hydrogen Lyman alpha line at 121.5 nm is a very strong
spectral line which penetrates down into the D-Layer.
4. This has enough energy to ionize NO, which is found in very small
amounts.
5. This production generally dominates from about 70-95 km.
6. The solar Flares can be a significant source for the D-layer.
7. The recombination processes are both height and temperature
dependent.
E-Layer
1. The E-layer stretches from 95-150 km.
2. This layer is the one in closest agreement with the chapmans
description
3. The ion production in the E-layer is caused by X rays (1-10 nm)
and UV radiation (100 150 nm)
4. The ionization is mainly because of dissociation of O2 and N2 to
O2+ and N2+.
5. Among these N2+ disappears quickly by charge exchange.
N2+ + O2 O2+ + N2
N2+ + O NO+ + N
So that O2+ and NO+ are the domination ions, Recombination is
dissociative
O2+ + e O* + O*
NO+ + e N* + O*
6. The continuity equation gets into the standard form
7. Due to incoming metal ions like Na+, Mg+ and Fe+ very thin and
dense layer of electron density can occur in the E-region these are
called sporadic E-layer.
Layer
F
1. This layer is seen above 150 km all the way till 500 km.
2. The ionization takes place because of the atmospheres major
components O and N2 absorb EUV radiation (10-100 nm).
3. The primary ions are O+ and N2+
4. These ions react very quickly with neutral atoms and molecules
O + hv O+ + e
N2+ hv N2+ + e
Reaction with neutrals
O+ + O2 O2+ + O
O+ + N2 NO+ + N
N2+ + O NO+ + N
Recombination
O+ + XY XO+ + Y
XO+ + e X* + O*
Where, X and Y can be O or N. The continuity equation for O+ can be
given by
Charge neutrality demands [O+]+[XO+]=ne
By combining these two equations, we can write that
very high altitudes (>200 km) where O- is the dominant ion, and the
At
loss rate becomes proportional to the electron density
[O+] >> [XO+] [O+] = ne
In the lowest part of F-layer, XO+ ions dominates and as a result we
get a loss proportional to the square of the electron density.
[O+] << [XO+] [XO+]=ne
Negative Ions
In the lower part of the ionosphere, the
electrons are removed from the atmosphere
by a rapid reaction which will produce the
negative ions.
The reaction is as follows
e+O2+M O2- + M
The electrons present in the atmosphere will
attach themselves to the O2 molecule to
produce the negative ions. This happens in the
presence of a third body here indicated as M.
This
reaction occurs at a range k1[e][O2][M]
The O2- ion thus produced can react with
other constituents to produce other kinds of
negative ions.
The negative ion at some point should
recombine or participate in a reaction in which
the negative charge or the extra electron will
get detached from the negative ion.
It can be recombination or detachment
Recombination
O2- + X+ O2 + X
This process is called ion-ion neutralization which
proceeds at the rate
Detachment Reaction
The
O2- ion will interact with the constituents of
the atmosphere to produce detachment they can
be
Collision with another particle
(Collisional detachment)
This reaction proceeds at a rate k2[O2][M]
Interaction with atomic oxygen
(Associative detachment)
This reaction proceeds at a rate k3[O][O2+]
By the action of photon with inensity I
(Photodetachment)
This reaction proceeds at a rate k4[O2-][I]
Most of the times, the attachment
and detachment reactions happen so
fast that they balance each other.
As a result we can write the rates of
reactions as
From this the ratio of negative ions to
the electrons can be obtained as
The
equation of continuity releates the rates of
production of electrons to the concentration of
electrons and the rate at which the electrons
are lost.
When there is presence of negative ions, then
the equation of continuity should be modified.
Due to the attachment and detachment there
will be a net modification in the electron
density.
Let L be the rate at which the electrons are lost
due to these reactions.
Let the electrons are also lost by recombination
with the positive ions with a recombination
coefficient .
The equation of continuity for
negative ions is
The electrical neutrality of the
atmosphere requires
Substituting this into the two
continuity equations and adding, we
have
Under equilibrium situation
With
The equation of continuity now becomes
In D-region,
