ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 13e

CHAPTER 4:
Biodiversity and
Evolution

Core Case Study: Why Are

Amphibians Vanishing? (1)

Habitat loss and fragmentation

Prolonged drought
Increased ultraviolet radiation
Parasites
Viral and fungal diseases

Core Case Study: Why Are

Amphibians Vanishing? (2)

Pollution
Climate change
Overhunting
Nonnative predators and competitors
33% of all amphibian species face
extinction

Fig. 4-1, p. 61

4-1 What Is Biodiversity and

Why Is It Important?
Concept 4-1 The biodiversity found in
genes, species, ecosystems, and
ecosystem processes is vital to
sustaining life on earth.

Biodiversity (1)
Species diversity
A set of individuals that can mate and
produce fertile offspring
8-100 million species total; likely 10-14
million
2 million species identified
~50% in endangered tropical rainforests

Biodiversity (2)
Genetic diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Biomes
Distinct climate
Certain species, especially vegetation

Functional diversity

Fig. 4-2, p. 61

Functional Diversity
The biological and chemical processes such as energy
flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species,
communities, and ecosystems.

Genetic Diversity
The variety of genetic material
within a species or a population.

Ecological Diversity
The variety of terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems found in
an area or on the earth.

Species Diversity
The number and abundance of species
present in different communities
Fig. 4-2, p. 61

Fig. 4-3, p. 61

Fig. 4-4, p. 63

Average annual precipitation

100-125 cm (40-50 in.)
75-100 cm (30-40 in.)
50-75 cm (20-30 in.)
25-50 cm (10-20 in.)
below-25 cm (0-10 in.)
Denver

Baltimore

San Francisco
St. Louis

Las Vegas

Coastal
mountain
ranges

Sierra
Nevada

Great
American
Desert

Coastal chaparral Coniferous

and scrub
forest

Rocky
Mountains

Desert

Great
Plains

Coniferous
forest

Mississippi Appalachian
River Valley Mountains

Prairie
grassland

Deciduous
forest
Fig. 4-4, p. 63

Science Focus: Insects

Around for ~400 million years

Bad reputation
Useful to humans and ecosystems
Vital roles in sustaining life
Pollinators
Natural pest control
Renewing soils

Fig. 4-A, p. 62

Fig. 4-A, p. 62

4-2 How Does the Earths Life

Change over Time?
Concept 4-2A The scientific theory of evolution
explains how life on earth changes over time
through changes in the genes of populations.
Concept 4-2B Populations evolve when genes
mutate and give some individuals genetic traits
that enhance their abilities to survive and to
produce offspring with these traits (natural
selection).

Theory of Evolution
Fossils
Mineralized and petrified remains
Skeletons, bones, and shells
Leaves and seeds
Impressions in rocks
Fossil record incomplete: ~1% of all species

Charles Darwin, On the Origin of

Species, 1859

Population Changes over Time

Populations evolve by becoming
genetically different over time
Genetic variability mutations
Random changes in DNA molecules in
genes
Can occur spontaneously
External agents: radiation
Can create a heritable trait

Natural Selection
Adaptive traits - genetically favorable traits
that increase the probability to survive and
reproduce
Trait heritable and lead to differential
reproduction
Faced with environmental change
Adapt through evolution
Migrate
Become extinct

Evolution through Natural

Selection Summarized
Genes mutate, individuals are
selected, and populations evolve
such that they are better
adapted to survive and
reproduce under existing
environmental conditions.

Fig. 4-5, p. 65

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

A group of bacteria,
including genetically
resistant ones, are
exposed to an
antibiotic

Most of the normal

bacteria die

The genetically resistant

bacteria start multiplying

Eventually the
resistant strain
replaces all or most of
the strain affected by
the antibiotic

Normal bacterium Resistant bacterium

Fig. 4-5, p. 65

A group of bacteria,
including genetically
resistant ones, are
exposed to an
antibiotic

Normal
bacterium

Most of the normal

bacteria die

The genetically
resistant bacteria
start multiplying

Eventually the
resistant strain
replaces the strain
affected by
the antibiotic

Resistant
bacterium

Stepped Art
Fig. 4-5, p. 83

Adaptation through Natural

Selection Has Limits

Humans unlikely to evolve and have skin

thats not harmed by UV radiation

1. Desired trait must already be in the gene

pool.
2. Must have high reproductive capacity so
adaptive traits can be spread rapidly

Three Myths about Evolution

through Natural Selection Refuted
1. Survival of the fittest does not mean
survival of the strongest
2. Organisms dont develop traits just
because they would be useful: giraffes
and long necks
3. There is no grand plan of nature to
create more perfectly adapted species
no trend toward genetic perfection

Science Focus: How Did We

Become Such a Powerful Species?
Key adaptations also enabled us to
modify environment
Opposable thumbs
Walk upright
Complex brains
Transmit ideas to others
Develop technologies to alter environment

Technology dominates earths life support

systems and NPP

4-3 How Do Geological Processes and

Climate Changes Affect Evolution?
Concept 4-3 Tectonic plate
movements, volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, and climate change
have shifted wildlife habitats, wiped
out large numbers of species, and
created opportunities for the evolution
of new species.

Plate Tectonics
Locations of continents and oceans
determine earths climate
Movement of continents allow species to
move and adapt
Earthquakes and volcanoes affect
biological evolution by separating
populations of a species and allowing new
species to develop

Fig. 4-6, p. 66

225 million years ago

135 million years ago

65 million years ago

Present

Fig. 4-6, p. 66

225
million
years
ago
65
135
million
years
ago
Present
Stepped Art
Fig. 4-6, p. 66

Earths Long-Term Climate

Changes
Cooling and warming periods affect
evolution and extinction of species
Change ocean levels and area
Glaciers expanding and contracting
Climate changes

Opportunities for the evolution of new

species
Many species go extinct

Fig. 4-7, p. 67

18,000
years before
present

Northern Hemisphere
Ice coverage

Modern day
(August)

Legend
Continental ice
Sea ice
Land above sea level

Fig. 4-7, p. 67

Science Focus: Earth is Just

Right for Life to Thrive
Life needs a temperature range that
results in liquid water
Earths orbit: right distance from sun
Earths optimal gravity: keeps atmosphere
Favorable temperature range over earth
history has promoted evolution and
biodiversity
Favorable oxygen level in atmosphere

4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and

Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?
Concept 4-4 Human activities
decrease the earths biodiversity by
causing the premature extinction of
species and by destroying or
degrading habitats needed for the
development of new species.

Speciation
Speciation
One species splits into two or more
species that can no longer breed and
produce fertile offspring

Geographic isolation
Reproductive isolation

Fig. 4-8, p. 68

Arctic Fox

Northern
population
Early fox
population

Spreads
northward
and southward
and separates

Adapted to cold
through heavier
fur, short ears,
short legs, and
short nose.
White fur
matches snow
for camouflage.

Different environmental
conditions lead to different
selective pressures and evolution
into two different species.

Gray Fox
Southern
population

Adapted to
heat through
lightweight
fur and long
ears, legs, and
nose, which
give off more
heat.

Fig. 4-8, p. 68

Science Focus: Changing

Genetic Traits
Artificial selection
Selective breeding: crossbreeding varieties
within same species to enhance desired traits
Grains, fruits, vegetables, dogs, other animals

Genetic engineering
Add, delete, or alter DNA segments
Add desirable genes from other species
New drugs, pest-resistant plants
Controversial

Extinction (1)
Biological extinction
Entire species gone

Local extinction
All members of a species in a specific area
gone

Endemic species vulnerable to extinction

Background extinction
Speciation generally more rapid than
extinction

Extinction (2)
Mass extinction
Earth took millions of years to recover
from previous mass extinctions

Balance between speciation and

extinction determines biodiversity of
earth
Humans cause premature extinction of
species

Human Activities and Extinction

Cause premature extinction of species

4-5 What Is Species Diversity

and Why Is It Important?
Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a
major component of biodiversity and
tends to increase the sustainability of
some ecosystems.

Species Diversity

Species richness
Species evenness
Varies with geographic location
Species richness declines towards
poles

Richness and Sustainability

Hypothesis
Does a community with high species
richness have greater sustainability and
productivity?

Research suggests yes

4-6 What Roles Do Species

Play in an Ecosystem?
Concept 4-6 Each species plays a
specific ecological role called its
niche.

Ecological Niche (1)

Species occupy unique niches and play
specific roles in an ecosystem
Includes everything required for survival and
reproduction
Water
Sunlight
Space
Temperatures
Food requirements

Ecological Niche (2)

Generalist species
Specialist species
Native species
Nonnative species
Spread in new, suitable niches

Fig. 4-10, p. 72

Herring gull
is a tireless
scavenger

Black skimmer
seizes small fish
at water surface

Flamingo feeds on
minute organisms
in mud

Brown pelican
dives for fish,
which it locates
from the air

Avocet sweeps bill

through mud and
surface water in
search of small
crustaceans, insects,
and seeds

Louisiana heron
wades into water
to seize small fish

Scaup and other diving

ducks feed on mollusks,
crustaceans, and aquatic
vegetation

Ruddy
turnstone
searches
under shells
and pebbles
for small
invertebrates

Dowitcher probes
deeply into mud in
search of snails,
marine worms, and
small crustaceans

Oystercatcher feeds on
clams, mussels, and other
shellfish into which it
pries its narrow beak

Piping plover
feeds on insects
and tiny
crustaceans on
sandy beaches

Knot (sandpiper)
picks up worms
and small crustaceans
left by receding tide

Fig. 4-10, p. 72

Science Focus: Cockroaches

Existed for 350 million years 3,500 known
species
Highly adapted, rapidly producing generalists
Consume almost anything
Endure food shortage
Survive everywhere except polar regions
Avoid predation

Carry human diseases

Fig. 4-11, p. 72

Indicator Species

Early warning system

Fish
Birds
Butterflies
Amphibians

Fig. 4-12, p. 74

Adult frog
(3 years)

Young frog

Tadpole
develops
into frog

Sperm
Sexual
reproduction

Eggs

Fertilized egg
development

Tadpole

Egg hatches
Organ formation
Fig. 4-12, p. 74

Keystone Species
Significant role in their food web:
large affect on types and abundances
of other species in an ecosystem
Elimination may alter structure and/or
function of ecosystem
Pollinators
Top predators

Foundation Species

Create habitats and ecosystems

Beavers
Elephants
Seed dispersers

Science Focus: American

Alligator

Highly adaptable
Only natural predator is humans
1967 endangered species list
Successful environmental comeback
Keystone species

Case Study: Why Should We

Protect Sharks?
Remove injured, sick animals
Many are gentle giants
Provide potential insight into cures for
human diseases such as cancer
Keystone species
Hunted and killed by humans

Three Big Ideas from This

Chapter - #1
Populations evolve when genes
mutate and give some individuals
genetic traits that enhance their
abilities to survive and to produce
offspring with these traits (natural
selection).

Three Big Ideas from This

Chapter - #2
Human activities are decreasing the
earths vital biodiversity by causing
the premature extinction of species
and by disrupting habitats needed for
the development of new species.

Three Big Ideas from This

Chapter - #3
Each species plays a specific
ecological role in the ecosystem
where it is found (ecological niche).

Animation: Carbon Bonds

Animation: Stanley Millers

Experiment

Animation: Evolutionary Tree of

Life

Animation: Stabilizing Selection

Animation: Disruptive Selection

Animation: Moth Populations

Animation: Adaptive Trait

Animation: Speciation on an
Archipelago

Animation: Evolutionary Tree

Diagrams

Animation: Gauses Competition

Experiment

Animation: Species Diversity By

Latitude

Animation: Humans Affect

Biodiversity

Animation: Habitat Loss and

Fragmentation

Animation: Transferring Genes

into Plants

Video: Ancient Human Skull

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VIDEO

Video: Asteroid Menace

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Video: Bachelor Pad at the Zoo

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Video: Cloned Pooch

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Video: Creation vs. Evolution

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Video: Dinosaur Discovery

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Video: Glow-in-the-Dark Pigs

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Video: Hsing Hsing Dies

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Video: Mule Clones

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Video: New Species Found

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Video: Penguin Rescue

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