Time of Flight
Diffraction (TOFD)
Principle of TOFD
When ultrasonic beam hits a discontinuity inside a material,
according to Huygen’s principle, each discontinuity tip acts as a
point source of diffracted energy.
This diffracted signal propagates inside the material as omni-
directional.
Defect detection method based on the time difference
between diffracted signals from the extremities of a defect
is called TOFD technique.
Diffraction takes place in space and its reception takes place in
time. Hence the name time of flight diffraction (TOFD).
TOFD does not depend on the orientation
and surface features of the discontinuity.
It does not depend on the amplitude of
the diffracted echo.
TOFD Set up
Material
Different signals at the receiver as shown in the A-
scan image
LW – Lateral wave traveling just under the surface
1 – Diffracted signal from top From the
2 – Diffracted signal from bottom discontinuity
BW – Back wall (reflected) echo
Considerations in TOFD probe
set-up
Two longitudinal probes are used in pitch-catch
arrangement.
Probe spacing is so adjusted that any mode converted
shear waves would come only after the reflected back wall
echo.
From the time difference between different signals, it is
possible to calculate the discontinuity dimensions and
position.
In TOFD, only longitudinal waves are used because –
Velocity is twice that of shear wave
High diffraction coefficient
Less scattering because of the long wave length and hence
less attenuation and more penetration
Advantages & Limitations
TOFD technique is not It is not possible to
affected by the characterize TOFD
orientation of the defect. signals from different
Size, shape and types of discontinuities
orientation can be
accurately determined.
Signals from subsurface
defects merge with lateral
Probability of detection wave and hence is not
(POD) is much higher and possible to identify
false call rate (FCR) is
very less
It is a high-speed Merging of signals prevents
technique. inspection of thinner
specimen
TOFD technique can
reveal the presence of It requires access to both
subsurface and open the sides of a discontinuity.
surface cracks.
Efficient for thick-wall
inspection.
Problems identified in-house
Inspection of welded materials
for the reactor
Ultrasonic examination is mandatory for the inspection of
materials used for the construction of the nuclear reactor, both
before and after fabrication especially weldments
The major challenge during conventional pulse echo inspection is
the limited speed (more time) and less accuracy
Time of flight diffraction gives high probability of detection,
less false call rate, high accuracy and increased speed.
Major difficulty is in the inspection of austenitic stainless steel
weldment because of extremely high scattering which leads to
poor signal to noise ratio
Thin specimens like fuel sub-assemblies and fuel pins are to be
inspected
TOFD for austenitic stainless
steel weld
Inspection of austenitic stainless steel weld is a big
challenge because of the coarse grain and anisotropic
structure and hence high attenuation and beam skewing of
ultrasonic waves.
No quantitative studies are reported so far on TOFD for
austenitic stainless steel weld inspection
A typical image of LP & slag in a stainless steel weldment is
shown
Lack of penetration Slag inclusion
TOFD on thin specimen
Since the signals from a thin specimen are superimposed it is
difficult to size the defect.
If it is in thin specimens of austenitic stainless steel, things will
become more complicated.
It is applicable for defects like thin slag lines and also some
other linear thin defects
Signals from rounded defects like porosity can not easily be
sized. TOFD images from side drilled holes of diameter 4,3,2
and 1mm are shown. It is seen that the echo from the top and
bottom (diffracted creeping wave) are merged together as
diameter decreases
LP and POR indication in a 3mm thick B scan image of side drilled holes
weldment found by immersion TOFD
International status on TOFD
A number of studies using artificial intelligence techniques have been
reported for the enhancement of TOFD signals and images for the
classification and automation. All the works have been done on mild steel
and carbon steel. No such work has been reported on austenitic
stainless steel weldment.
Wavelet based decomposition
Time scales of compression and shear wave signals are
transformed in such a way that they are fused together in time
domain into one compound B-type image.
Continuous wavelet transform was used for the enhancement of
B type ultrasonic images.
Low amplitude diffracted shear waves can be enhanced by
wavelet transform
B scan image by (a) long wave, (b) shear wave and (c) fused one
Ultrasonic signal and
corresponding continuous
Ref: ISSN 1392-2114 ULTRAGARSAS, Nr. 2(35) 2000 wavelet transform
Linear and non-linear classifiers
Welding defect pattern recognition in TOFD signals
using linear and non-linear classifiers.
For linear classifiers success rate was 96% and for
non-linear classifiers success rate was 98%.
The defects used for training were LF, LP and PO.
Ref: INSIGHT 47, 12, Dec 2005, 777-787
Combined fuzzy logic and neural
network
Succeeded in automatic detection, sizing and
classification of weld defects using a hybrid
classifier of fuzzy logic and neural networks.
Defects: upper crack, LP and LF
Feature extraction technique: texture analysis
The developed neural-fuzzy classifier exhibits high
levels of accuracy, consistency and reliability with
acceptably low computational time and is a promising
new development in the field of semi-automatic weld
inspection
Ref: INSIGHT 49, 2, Feb 2007, 79-82
Combined fuzzy logic and neural
network contd.
Different texture pattern for
various defects
Automatic detection, sizing and
classification of defects
Lack of root penetration and
incomplete penetration
Ref: INSIGHT 49, 2, Feb 2007, 79-82
Image processing for TOFD
images
Because of the finite width of the ultrasonic beam,
there will be hyperbolic wings at the ends of the flaw
image and this introduces error in sizing
This elongation is treated by automatic detection and
fitting a curve to the wings of the defect
Hence defect width can accurately be determined
Detection of top and bottom
Ref: ECNDT 2006 – Tu.2.3.3 profiles of the flaw
ANN in the classification of
TOFD signals
Lack of fusion, lack of penetration and porosity were
intentionally introduced in AISI 1020 steel plates of
thickness 20 mm and the pulse echo and TOFD signals
were used for the classification of defects.
Pre-processing improved the classification of defects
obtained by TOFD technique but there was no
improvement in the case of pulse echo signals
Radiography was used for the verification of the
results
Ref: J. of the Braz. Soc. of Mech. Sci. & Eng. October-December 2005,
Vol. XXVII, No. 4 / 397
Embedded signal identification
As the thickness of the specimen decreases, the
diffracted echoes and the lateral and back wall
echoes merge together and it is not possible to place
the cursor for measuring the size
A method called embedded signal identification
technique was developed to separate the
superimposed signals
This technique uses the modulus and natural
logarithm of the A scan signal
Ref: Insight 2004;46: 537–42.
