DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING,
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING;
CEDAT, MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

By
KADDU DAVID
“““Things are Harder Tomorrow; They are Better
Done Today”””
 Mix design is the determination of the relative
proportions of a mixture.

 It has the following primary purposes:

 Preliminary study or evaluation of materials
 Determination of Job Mix Formula (JMF)
 Quality Control in placement of large quantities of
mixtures
 In some cases, may involve pavement evaluation in
service
 Resistance to permanent deformation
 The mix should not distort or displace when subjected to
traffic.
 The resistance to permanent deformation or rutting
becomes critical at elevated temperatures during hot
summer months when the viscosity of the asphalt cement
binder is low and the traffic load is primarily carried by the
mineral aggregate structure.
 Resistance to permanent deformation is controlled by
selecting quality aggregates with proper gradation and
selecting the asphalt content so that adequate voids exist in
the mix.
 However, the aggregate primarily provides the support for
applied traffic loads. The angularity, surface texture,
gradation and hardness are important factors in resisting
permanent deformation
 Fatigue resistance
 The mix should not crack when subjected to repeated loads over a
period of time.
 Resistance to low temperature cracking
 This mix property is important in cold regions which experience
low ambient temperatures.
 Low temperature cracking of HMA pavements is primarily
influenced by the low temperature properties of the asphalt
cement binder.
 Therefore, a proper selection of binder minimizes this problem.
 Durability
 The mix must contain sufficient asphalt cement to ensure an
adequate film thickness around the aggregate particles, thus
minimizing asphalt cement hardening or aging during production
and in service.
 The compacted mix should not have very high air voids (increased
permeability) which accelerates the aging process.
 Resistance to moisture induced damage
 some HMA mixes, when subjected to moisture or water lose
adhesion between the aggregate surface and asphalt cement
binder.
 Aggregate properties are primarily responsible for this
phenomenon, although some asphalt cements are more prone to
moisture induced damage (stripping) than others.
 If a HMA mix is prone to stripping, then antistripping agents should
be used. Making the mix impermeable to water also minimizes the
problem
 Skid resistance
 This requirement is only applicable to surface mixes with must be
designed to provide sufficient resistance to skidding to permit
normal turning and braking movements to occur.
 Aggregate characteristics such as texture, shape, size and
resistance to polish are primarily responsible for skid resistance.
 However, the mix should not contain too much asphalt cement
binder to cause HMA to flush out and create a slippery surface
(bleeding).
 Workability
The mix must be capable of being placed
and compacted with reasonable effort.
No test method is currently available to
quantify workability during the laboratory
mix design stage.
Workability problems are most frequently
discovered during the paving operations.
Suitable ON-SITE adjustments to the mix
design can be made quickly to overcome
the workability problems.
 The methods commonly used in the design
of dense graded hot mix asphalt concrete
include:
Marshall method
Hveem method
Superpave method
 The basic principles behind the methods
involves
The provision of suitable air voids content
Provision of adequate stability
Accounting for aggregate absorption
 Step A: Aggregate Evaluation
 Determine the acceptability of aggregates for
use in the HMA mix by carrying out the
following tests:
 Los Angles Abrasion
 Gradation

 Sulfate soundness

 Sand equivalent

 Presence of deleterious substances

 Polishing

 Crushed face count

 Flat and elongated particle count

 Step A: Aggregate Evaluation
 Specifications for road and Bridge Works
 Perform other aggregate tests such as gradation, specific gravity and
absorption.
 If aggregates do not meet specifications, carryout blending to meet the
required specifications.
 The aggregate properties must also include fillers:
 fillers can play a number of roles in surfacing mixtures, of which the
following are the most important;
 They are a part of the mineral aggregate: they fill the interstices and
provide the contact points between larger aggregate particles and thereby
strengthen the mixture.
 When filler is mixed with a binder, it forms a high - constituency binder or
matrix which binds larger aggregate particles together; in effect, it
transforms the original binder into one which closely resembles a higher
penetration – grade bitumen or a more viscous tar.
 The water sensitivity of a bituminous mixture can be considerably
influenced by the type and concentration of filler used, e.g. when a
hydrated lime – bitumen mastic is used to coat hydrophilic aggregates, it
assists in the creation of durable adhesion in the presence of water.
 Step B: Asphalt cement evaluation
 Specifications for road and Bridge Works
 Choose a suitable asphalt binder.
 Determine appropriate asphalt cement grade for type and
geographical location of mixture being designed
 Check with specification properties, they should be
acceptable
 Step C: Preparation of Marshall Specimens
 Prepare three specimens for each of the seven test points each
test point having different binder content. Most aggregates call for
1200g to be mixed with bitumen.
  98% -1200g
 1% - 1200/98
 2% - 2*1200/98 = 24.5g bitumen
 The binder and aggregates are heated to above mixing
temperature and mixed when hot for about two minutes.
 The mixture is poured into a hot mould and compacted with
75 blows using a Marshall hammer on both the top and bottom
of the specimen.
 Specimen is kept for 24 hours to cool, extrude from the mould
and determine the bulk density (ϐb) for all the specimens
using Archimedes principle of submersion.
 (weigh sample in air, submerge the sample in water and allow to
saturate prior to getting submerged weight in SSD condition. Remove
the sample and weigh in air in saturated surface dry condition. This
test is conducted in accordance with AASHTO T166).
 For each of the specimens, determine the
percent air voids using the formula;
Gmb
%airvoids  (1  ) x100
Gmm
Where Gmb = bulk specific gravity of compacted
mix Wa
Gmb  ( ) x100
Wa  Ww

 Gmm is the maximum specific gravity (Rice specific gravity)

 Wa = mass of test specimen in air (g)
 Ww = mass of test specimen suspended in water (g)
 Rice specific gravity, Gmm is determined in accordance with AASHTO T209. It
is carried out on loose HMA mixtures.
 Determine Marshall Stability and Flow using the Marshall testing
machine at failure. Marshall Stability is given in kN while Flow or
vertical displacement is expressed in 0.01in.
 Stability:
 It is the maximum load carried by a compacted specimen tested at
140oF (60oC) at a loading rate of 2 inches / minute (50.8
mm/minute). It is a measure of the mass viscosity of the aggregate
– asphalt cement mixture and is affected significantly by the angle
of internal friction of the aggregate and the viscosity of the asphalt
cement at 140oF (60oC).
 Flow:
 It is the vertical deformation of the sample, measured from the
start of loading to the point at which stability begins to decrease, in
hundredths of an inch.
 Higher flow values indicate a plastic mix that will experience
permanent deformation under traffic, whereas low flow values may
indicate a mix with higher than normal voids and insufficient
asphalt for durability and one that may experience premature
cracking due to mixture brittleness during the life of the pavement.
 Make the relevant plots
 Using the Asphalt Institute Method: Determine
 asphalt content at maximum stability
 asphalt content at maximum density
 asphalt content at midpoint of specified air void range (typically 4%).

 Average the three asphalt contents selected

above.
BC1  BC2  BC3
Average binder content =
3
 For the average asphalt content, go to the
plotted curves and determine the following
properties:
 Stability
 Flow
 Air
voids
 VMA
 Compare values from step 3 with the criteria for
acceptability given in specifications. If within
specifications, then the above is the optimum
asphalt content (OAC, OBC, design bitumen
content).
Mix Mix % range of bitumen content giving
Property Criteria compliance with Asphalt Institute criteria

Bit. type   60/70 80/100

4.35 -
VIM (%) 3 - 5% 5.05% 4.6-6.0%

VMA (%) 13% (Minimum) 4.0 - 5.0% 4.0 - 5.0%

VFB (%) 65 - 75% 4.4 - 4.95% 4.8-6.0%

Stability (N) 8000N (Minimum) 4.9 - 5.15% 5.0-5.1%

 Boiling water test (ASTM D3625-96, “Effect of
Water on Bituminous-Coated Aggregate Using
Boiling Water
 An un-compacted bituminous – coated aggregate mixture,
approximately 500 grams, is prepared. The sample is placed
in a beaker with boiling water for about 10 minutes.
 The degree of coating is visually determined from the
percentage of the total visible area of the aggregate that
retains its original coating.
 This test method is useful as an indicator of the reactive
water susceptibility of bituminous – coated aggregate and to
identify possible problematic materials.
 However, the test method cannot be expected to accurately
predict field performance as no such correlations have been
established before.
  Modified Lottman Procedure (AASHTO T 283)
 The Indirect Tensile Test (IDT) is used to obtain the
tensile stress characteristics of a compacted
bituminous mixture before and after moisture
conditioning.
 The indirect tensile strength is the maximum stress
from a diametric vertical force that a sample can
endure.
 The tensile strength of a mixture is an important
property since the bottom of the compacted mixture
layer is repeatedly subjected to tensile stresses as a
wheel load passes over.
 It gives the tensile strength of a control and
moisture-conditioned specimens from which we
calculate the Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR).
  
• Where
TSR = tensile strength ratio,
St,dry = average tensile strength of conditioned samples
(kPa or psi), and
St,wet = average tensile strength of unconditioned samples
(kPa or psi).

The minimum TSR value allowed is 0.70, however it is

recommended to use a minimum value of 0.80.
The samples are visually observed for damage and rated from
“0” to “5” (“5” is the most stripped).
Superpave specifications require a minimum TSR of 0.8 as the
value for satisfactory performance.
Please note that performance properties such rutting, low temperature
cracking, etc can be determined from their corresponding tests –
make thorough research on each of them such as the Hamburg Wheel
Tracking Test.
 Where
 St = tensile strength (kPa),
P = maximum load required to fail sample (N),
 t = specimen thickness (mm),
 d = specimen diameter (mm),
 The moisture susceptibility or stripping potential is
determined by calculating the tensile strength ratio
(TSR) using the tensile strength of an un-conditioned
sample and a conditioned or wet sample, following
the equation below 
 The system was Designed to provide mixes that
meet the environmental / climatic considerations –
pavement in service conditions
 The binder can have three distinct lives namely:
 In the original state
 After mixing and construction
 In service
 Superpave binder tests are used to quantify the
performance of the binder in each of the above three
phases.
 These include: RTFOT to simulate the binder state during
mixing and placement
 The PAV: To simulate aging that occurs during the service
life of the pavement.
 Superpave Binder Aging Condition Tests
 The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
 The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
 The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
 The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
 Asphalt binder behavior depends on two most
important parameters i.e.
 loading
time
 Temperature
 The DSR tests the behavior of binder taking into
consideration the above conditions.
 It measures binder rheological properties namely
complex shear modulus (G*) and Phase angle (ɗ).
 The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
 A sample of binder is placed between two plates;
One of the plates is fixed while the other
oscillates at a given frequency.
 The plate oscillations cause the centre line of the
plate at point A to move to point B. The Plate then
moves back, passes point A to reach point C.
 This completes one cycle; and repeated during the
entire operation.
 G* and ɗ are measured directly but inside the DSR;
 Superpave computes pavement design Temperature at a depth of 20mm from
the pavement surface;

 For low pavement temperature;

 Consideration of minimum air temperature ????????
 Or CANADIAN Method:

 The computation of the max and min temperatures results into the binder grade (without
taking into consideration the reliability and grade bumping.
 Selection of binder grade based on climate only assumes that a binder used in
the mixture shall be subjected to fast moving loads.
 The loading rate in the DSR is 10 radians per second = 90km/hr.
 There are many scenarios where the speed is relatively low e,g, at toll booths,
intersections, etc.
 In other sections, traffic is almost stationary.
 The binder stiffness must be higher to overcome the slower loading rate.
SUPERPAVE PROPOSALS
 The high temperature grade shall be increased by at least one or as many as
two grades (TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE “““6”””” RULE). (Super
pave specifies binder grades that change with 6oC intervals).
 E.g. if the desired temperature grade binder is PG 64-22, for slow transient
loads it shall be adjusted to PG 70-22.
 If rather standing loads are anticipated, the designer shall select PG 76-22.
 NB: Loading rate has no effect on the selected low temperature grade.
 The Binder grade shall be adjusted for
traffic leels to be experienced on the site.
 For Traffic Levels >10MESALs,: Increase
the high temperature grade by one grade.
 For traffic levels >30MSALs; Increase the
high temperature grade by another one
grade.
 As with loading rate, there is no effect of
loading rate in the low temperature grade.
 Survey of among pavement experts revealed
two most important aggregate properties
Consensus properties
Source Properties
 A new way of specifying aggregate
gradation was developed namely the
“design aggregate structure”.
 Consensus properties
 Survey revealed that certain aggregate –
xtics were critical for performance of HMA
– Consensus properties because there was
wide agreement in their use and specified
values.
 These are:
Coarse aggregate angularity
Fine aggregate angularity
Flat elongated particles
Clay content.
 Coarse aggregate angularity
 It is defined as the percent by weight of aggregates larger than 4.75mm with
one or more fractured faces.
 This ensures a high degree of aggregate internal friction and rutting resistance.
 A fractured face: Is any fractured surface that occupies more than 25% of the
area of the outline of the aggregate particle visible in that orientation.
 Pennsylvania DOT test Method No. 621: “Determining the Percentage of
Crushed Fragments in Gravel materials”
 Fine aggregate angularity
 It is defined as the percent air voids present in loosely compacted aggregates smaller than
2.36mm.
 Higher void content mean more fractured faces.
 This ensures a high degree of fine aggregate internal friction and rutting resistance.
 A sample of fine aggregate is poured into a small calibrated cylinder by flowing through
a standard funnel.
 The weight of the fine aggregate (W) in the filled cylinder of known volume (V) is
determined.
 The void content is calculated as the difference between the cylinder volume and fine
aggregate volume collected in the cylinder.
 The Gsb of the fine aggregate is used to compute the fine aggregate volume.
Fine aggregate angularity
 Flat, Elongated Particles
 Is the % by weight of coarse aggregates that have a maximum to minimum
dimension of greater than five.
 Elongated aggregates are not desired because they have a tendency to break
during construction and under traffic loading.
 ASTM D 4791: The aggregate is placed between the swinging arm with its
largest dimension and the fixed post at point A. The swinging arm remains
fixed, the aggregate is then placed between the swinging arm and fixed post at
B. If the aggregate passes through this gap, then it is counted as a flat or
elongated particle.
Flat, Elongated Particles
 Clay content
 Is the %ge of clay materials contained in the aggregate fraction that is finer
than a 4.75mm sieve. It is measured by AASHTO T 176. “Plastic Fines in
Graded Aggregates and soils by use if the sand Equivalent Test”.
 A sample of fine aggregate us placed in a graduated cylinder with a
flocculating solution and agitated to loosen clayey fines present in and coating
the aggregate.
 The flocculating solution forces the clay materials into suspension above the
granular aggregate.
 After sedimentation, the cylinder height of suspended clay and sedimented
sand is measured.
 The sand equivalent is computed as a ratio of the sand to clay height readings
expressed as a %.
Clay content
 SOURCE PROPERTIES
 Toughness: LAAV
 Soundness:
 Loss of materials from an aggregate blend during the
magnesium sulfate soundness test.
 Estimates the resistance of aggregates to weathering
while in service.
 Deleterious materials
 Weight of percentage of contaminants such as shale,
wood, mica and cola in the blended aggregate.
VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES OF SUPERPAVE MIXTURES
 VMA
 This is the inter-granular void space between the aggregate particles in a
compacted paving mixture.
 It includes Air voids and the effective asphalt content.
 VMA ensures that enough space is furnished for asphalt binder so as to provide
adequate adhesion required to bind the aggregate but without bleeding as the
asphalt expands on the rise of temperature.
 VMA is expressed as a percentage of the bulk volume of the compacted paving
mixture.
 VMA
 For the mix composition determined on the basis of percent by mass of
aggregate:
 VFA
 The %age of the voids in mineral aggregates that contain asphalt but not the
adsorbed asphalt is called Voids Filled with Asphalt (VFA).
 VIM (Va)
 The small air spaces between the coated aggregate particles in the total
compacted paving mixture are called air voids.
“””for God and my Country””””