3| CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Big IDEA
Cells are the smallest unit of living things that
can carry out all processes required for life.
3.1: How to cells are the studied ?
3.2: Comparing prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
3.3: Cell Theory
3.4 : Eukaryotic Cell
3.5 : Cell Membrane
3.6 : Passive Transport
3. 7 : Active Transport
 Introduction
 Close your eyes and picture a brick wall. What is the basic building block of
that wall? It is a single brick, of course. Like a brick wall, your body is
composed of basic building blocks, and the building blocks of your body are
cells.
 Your body has many kinds of cells, each specialized for a specific purpose.
Just as a home is made from a variety of building materials, the human body
is constructed from many different shapes, size, functions, and cell types.
For example, epithelial cells protect the surface of the body and cover the
organs and body cavities within. Bone cells help to support and protect the
body. Cells of the immune system fight invading bacteria. Additionally, red
blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. Each of these cell types plays a
vital role during the growth, development, and day-to-day maintenance of
the body. In spite of their enormous variety, however, all cells share certain
fundamental characteristics.
 In general, cells tend to be microscopic in size and have similar building
blocks. All cells share three common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates
the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the
cell in which other cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell.
 3.1 | How Cells Are Studied
 A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, like you, is called
an organism. Thus, cells are the basic building blocks of all organisms.
 Cells vary in size. With few exceptions, individual cells are too small to be
seen with the naked eye, so scientists use microscopes to study them. A
microscope is an instrument that magnifies an object. Most images of cells
are taken with a microscope and are called micrographs(a photograph
taken by means of a microscope).
photograpn

by means of a microscope.

 Light Microscopes. Electron Microscopes


 Read Me Cell Size
 At 0.1–5.0 µm(micrometer) in diameter, prokaryotic cells
are significantly smaller than eukaryotic [Link] small size of
prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules that enter them
to quickly spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any
wastes produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly move out.
However, larger eukaryotic cells have evolved different
structural adaptations to enhance cellular transport. Indeed,
the large size of these cells would not be possible without these
adaptations. In general, cell size is limited because volume
increases much more quickly than does cell surface area. As a
cell becomes larger, it becomes more and more difficult for the
cell to acquire sufficient materials to support the processes
inside the cell, because the relative size of the surface area
across which materials must be transported declines
Cell Size
3.3: Cell Theory

The major principles of the cell theory are

All organisms are made of cells.

All existing cells are produced by other living

cells.
The cell is the most basic unit of life.
3.2 | Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
 There are many types of cells, and all are grouped into one of
two large categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
 Animal cells, plant cells, fungal cells, and protist cells are
classified as eukaryotic, whereas bacteria and archaea cells are
classified as prokaryotic cells.
 A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a
nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle. We will shortly come to
see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found
in the central part of the cell. Unlike eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall that
consist of sugars and amino acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule
The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection. The capsule enables the cell
to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella and
pili. Flagella are used for locomotion, while most pili are used to exchange
genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation.
 Eukaryotic Cell
 A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus
and other membrane-bound compartments or sacs, called
organelles, which have specialized functions. The word
eukaryotic means “true nucleus,”. The word “organelle” means
“little organ,” and, as already mentioned, organelles have
specialized cellular functions, just as the organs of your body
have specialized functions.
 At this point, it should be clear that eukaryotic cells have a
more complex structure than do prokaryotic cells.


 Let us first examine three important components of the cell:

the plasma membrane , the cytoplasm, and Nucleus .
Example of Eukaryotic Cell
 3.5 : Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane
 The cell membrane is a barrier that separates a
cell from the external environment.
 Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane (Figure
3.8) made up of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that
separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding
environment and Carbohydrate (in animal cells, cholesterol). A
phospholipid is a lipid molecule composed of two fatty acid chains, a
glycerol backbone, and a phosphate group.
 carbohydrates form specialized sites on the cell surface that
allow cells to recognize each other.
 The amount of cholesterol in animal plasma membranes regulates the fluidity of the
membrane and changes based on the temperature of the cell’s environment. In
other words, cholesterol acts as antifreeze in the cell membrane and is more
abundant in animals that live in cold climates.
Phospholipid 1-Together, the glycerol and the
phosphate group form the “head”
of a Phospholipid:

2- The fatty acids form the “tail.”

Because the head bears a charge, it
is polar. Recall that water molecules
are also polar. Therefore, the polar
head of phospholipid forms hydrogen
bonds with water molecules(water
loves).In contrast, the fatty acid tails
are nonpolar and cannot form H
bonds with water. As a result, the
nonpolar tails are attracted to each
other and repelled by water.
Structure of the plasma membrane (Figure 3.8)
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
 Fluid-Mosaic Model
 Fluid –Most of the lipids and some proteins drift laterally on either
side. Phospholipids do not switch from one layer to the next.
 Cholesterol affects fluidity: at body temperature it lessens fluidity by
restraining the movement of phospholipids, at colder temperatures it
adds fluidity by not allowing phospholipids to pack close together.

 Mosaic – membrane proteins form a collage that differs on either

side of the membrane and from cell to cell (greater than 50 types of
proteins), proteins span the membrane with hydrophilic portions facing
out and hydrophobic portions facing in. Provides the functions of the
membrane
Plasma membrane proteins function as
Controlles the passege of substances
through the membrane.( Selectively
Permeable or semipermeable
Provides pumping of ions into and out of the
cell.
In nerve cells, it provides transmission of
messages or impulses along the cell
membrane.
 Proteins of the Plasma Membrane
Provide 6 Membrane Functions:

1) Transport Proteins
2) Receptor Proteins
3) Enzymatic Proteins
4) Cell Recognition Proteins
5) Attachment Proteins
6) Intercellular Junction
Proteins
 1) Transport Proteins
Channel Proteins –
channel for lipid
insoluble molecules
and ions to pass freely
through
Carrier Proteins – bind
to a substance and
carry it across
membrane, change
shape in process
 2) Receptor Proteins
– Bind to chemical
messengers (Ex.
hormones) which
sends a message into
the cell causing cellular
reaction
 3) Enzymatic Proteins
– Carry out enzymatic
reactions right at the
membrane when a
substrate binds to the
active site
 4) Cell Recognition Proteins
– Glycoproteins (and
glycolipids) on
extracellular surface
serve as ID tags
(which species, type of
cell, individual).
Carbohydrates are
short branched chains
of less than 15 sugars
 5) Attachment Proteins
- Attach to cytoskeleton (to
maintain cell shape and stabilize
proteins) and/or the
extracellular matrix (integrins
connect to both).
- Extracellular Matrix – protein
fibers and carbohydrates
secreted by cells and fills the
spaces between cells and
supports cells in a tissue.
- Extracellular matrix can
influence activity inside the cell
and coordinate the behavior of
all the cells in a tissue.
 6) Intercellular Junction
Proteins
– Bind cells together
 Tight junctions

 Gap junctions
 microvilli
 The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption
are folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli (singular =
microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the
plasma membrane. Such cells are typically found lining the
small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested
food. This is an excellent example of form matching the
function of a structure.
 People with celiac disease have an immune response to gluten, which is a
protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. The immune response damages
microvilli, and thus, afflicted individuals cannot absorb nutrients. This leads
to malnutrition, cramping, and diarrhea. Patients suffering from celiac
disease must follow a gluten-free diet.
 Function of the cell membrane
 What exactly is its job?
 The plasma membrane not only defines the borders of the
cell, but also allows the cell to interact with its environment
in a controlled way. Cells must be able to exclude, take in,
and excrete various substances, all in specific amounts. In
addition, they must able to communicate with other cells,
identifying themselves and sharing information.
 To perform these roles, the plasma membrane needs lipids,
which make a semi-permeable barrier between the cell and
its environment. It also needs proteins, which are involved
in cross-membrane transport and cell communication, and
carbohydrates (sugars and sugar chains), which decorate
both the proteins and lipids and help cells recognize each
other.
 Function of the cell membrane

 It controls the passage of materials into and out of a cell.

 -Selective Permeability of the cell membrane. The cell
membrane has the property of selective permeablility, or
semipermeable which means it allows some, but not all,
 Its function is also to keep the internal conditions of the
cell constant to maintain homeostasis.
 It gives the cell with shape.
 It forms a barrier between the cell and its environment.
 It protects the cell against environmental hazards.
Molecules cross the membrane in several [Link]?
 Plasma Membrane Transport
• Molecules move across the plasma membrane
by:
• Some of them require energy, others do not
• Depends on the molecule’s size, polarity, and
concentration inside and outside the cell.
 What are two types of
passive transport?

1) Diffusion
2) Osmosis

ATP energy is not

needed to move the
molecules through
cell membrane .
 Passive Transport 1: Diffusion
• Molecules can move directly through the
phospholipids of the plasma membrane.
• Or the movement of molecules in a fluid or gas from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration. For example CO2 and H2O easily
diffuse across the membrane

This is called …
 What is Diffusion?

• Diffusion is the net

movement of molecules
from a high
concentration to a low
concentration until
equally distributed.

• Diffusion rate is related

to temperature,
pressure, state of
matter, size of
concentration gradient,
and surface area of
membrane.
[Link]
 What molecules pass through the
plasma membrane by diffusion?
• Gases (oxygen, carbon
dioxide)
• Water molecules (rate
slow due to polarity)
• Lipids (steroid
hormones)
• Lipid soluble molecules
(hydrocarbons, alcohols,
some vitamins)
• Small noncharged
molecules (NH3)
 Passive Transport 3: Osmosis
• Water Molecules can move directly
through the phospholipids of the
plasma membrane

This is called …
 What is Osmosis?

• Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a

semipermeable membrane. Water molecules bound to
solutes cannot pass due to size, only unbound
molecules. Free water molecules collide, bump into the
membrane, and pass through.
 Osmosis in action
• What will happen in the
U-tube if water freely
moves through the
membrane but glucose
can not pass?

• Water moves from side with

high concentration of water
to side with lower
concentration of water.
Movement stops when
osmotic pressure equals .
 Why is osmosis important to cells
and humans?
• Cells remove water
produced by cell
respiration.
• Large intestine cells
transport water to
bloodstream
• Kidney cells form
urine
 Osmosis and Tonicity
 Tonicity refers to the total solute (the minor
component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent.)
 concentration of the solution outside the cell.
 What are the three types of tonicity?
1) Isotonic
2) Hypotonic
3) Hypertonic
 Isotonic
 Solutions that have the same concentration of
solutes as the suspended cell.

 What will happen to a cell placed in an Isotonic

solution?
 The cell will have no net movement of water and
will stay the same size.
 Ex. Blood plasma has high concentration of
albumin molecules to make it isotonic to tissues.
 Hypotonic
 Solutions that have a lower solute concentration
than the suspended cell.

 What will happen to a cell placed in a Hypotonic

solution?
 The cell will gain water and swell.
 If the cell bursts, then we call this lysis. (Red
blood cells = hemolysis)
 In plant cells with rigid cell walls, this creates
turgor pressure.
 Hypertonic
 Solutions that have a higher solute concentration
than a suspended cell.

 What will happen to a cell placed in a Hypertonic

solution?
 The cell will lose water and shrink. (Red blood
cells = crenation)
 In plant cells, the central vacuole will shrink and
the plasma membrane will pull away from the cell
wall causing the cytoplasm to shrink called
plasmolysis.
 Review Tonicity
 What will happen to a red blood cell in a
hypertonic solution?
 What will happen to a red blood cell in an
isotonic solution?
 What will happen to a red blood cell in a
hypotonic solution?
1) Active Transport

2) Bulk Transport  Cells use energy to

1) Exocytosis transport materials that
2) Endocytosis cannot diffuse across a
1) Phagocytosis membrane.
2) Pinocytosis
 The Importance of Active Transport
 Bring in essential molecules: ions,
amino acids, glucose, nucleotides
 Rid cell of unwanted molecules (Ex.
sodium from urine in kidneys)
 Maintain internal conditions different
from the environment
 Regulate the volume of cells by
controlling osmotic potential
 Control cellular pH
 Re-establish concentration
gradients to run facilitated diffusion.
(Ex. Sodium-Potassium pump and
Proton pumps)
 Bulk Transport: Exocytosis
 Movement of large
molecules bound in
vesicles out of the cell
by helping of ATP.
Vesicle fuses with the
plasma membrane to
eject macromolecules.
 Ex. Proteins,
polysaccharides,
polynucleotides, whole
cells, hormones, mucus,
neurotransmitters, waste
 Bulk Transport: Endocytosis
 Movement of large molecules into the cell
by engulfing them in vesicles by helping of
ATP.
 Three types of Endocytosis:
 Phagocytosis
 Pinocytosis
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 “Cellular Eating” – engulfing large
molecules, whole cells, bacteria
 Ex. Macrophages ingesting bacteria or worn
out red blood cells.
 Ex. Unicellular organisms engulfing food
particles.
 Pinocytosis
 “Cellular Drinking” – engulfing liquids and
small molecules dissolved in liquids;
unspecific what enters.
 Ex. Intestinal cells, Kidney cells, Plant root
cells
 Review Types of Endocytosis

 What is phagocytosis?

 What is pinocytosis?

 What is receptor-
mediated endocytosis?
THANK YOU