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LESSON 3: PREDICATE LOGIC

AND QUANTIFIERS
PROF. KENNETH E. ABAJA

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At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:

1. Identify and apply basic concepts of predicate logic.

2. Produce arguments using different proof techniques in predicate logic and
quantifiers.
3. Analyze basic mathematical proofs and discriminate between valid and
unreliable arguments.

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PREDICATE LOGIC
Examples of predicates:
WHAT IS A PREDICATE?
1. The computer x contains a Trojan
A predicate is an expression of one or virus.
more variables determined on some 2. 5x > 20
specific domain. A predicate with 3. x + y = z
variables can be made a proposition by 4. x is married to y.
either authorizing a value to the variable 5. A Filipino x who is 18 years or
or by quantifying the variable. older, is eligible to vote.

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LET’S TRY SOME EXAMPLES.

1. Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3.”

2. Let A(c, n) denote the statement “Cellphone c is connected to network n,” where c is a
variable representing a computer and n is a variable representing a network.

3. Let R(x, y, z) denote the statement “x + y = z.”

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QUANTIFIERS
In predicate logic, predicates are used
alongside quantifiers to express the extent Two types of Quantification:
to which a predicate is true over a range of
elements. Using quantifiers to create such 1. Universal Quantification
propositions is called quantification. 2. Existential Quantification

Quantification expresses the extent to

which a predicate is true over a range of
elements. In English, the words all, some,
many, none, and few are used in
quantifications.
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UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIERS
The universal quantification of P(x) is the statement
“P(x) for all values of x in the domain.”
The notation ∀xP(x) denotes the universal quantification of P(x). Here ∀ is called the universal
quantifier. We read ∀xP(x) as “for all xP(x)” or “for every xP(x).” An element for which P(x) is false is
called a counterexample to ∀xP(x).

EXAMPLE 1: Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 > x.” What is the truth value of the quantification ∀xP(x),
where the domain consists of all real numbers?
EXAMPLE 2: Let Q(x) be the statement “x < 2.” What is the truth value of the quantification ∀xQ(x),
where the domain consists of all real numbers?

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EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIERS
The existential quantification of P(x) is the proposition.

“There exists an element x in the domain such that P(x).”

We use the notation ∃xP(x) for the existential quantification of P(x). Here ∃ is called the
existential quantifier.

EXAMPLE 1: Let Q(x) denote the statement “x = x + 1.” What is the truth value of the quantification
∃xQ(x), where the domain consists of all real numbers?

EXAMPLE 2: Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3.” What is the truth value of the quantification
∃xP(x), where the domain consists of all real numbers?

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Translating English Sentence to Logic symbols

1. Provided by two natural numbers p and q, xy will also be natural.

2. For every real number n, there will be a real number r such that

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LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES INVOLVING

QUANTIFIERS
Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equivalent
if and only if they have the same truth value no matter which predicates
are substituted into these statements and which domain of discourse is
used for the variables in these propositional functions.

We use the notation S ≡ T to indicate that two statements S and T

involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equivalent.

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LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES INVOLVING

QUANTIFIERS

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NEGATING QUANTIFIED EXPRESSIONS

We will often want to consider the negation of a quantified expression. For instance, consider the
negation of the statement

“Every student in your class has taken a course in MMW.”

This statement is a universal quantification, namely, ∀xP(x), where P(x) is the statement “x has taken a
course in MMW” and the domain consists of the students in your class. The negation of this statement
is “It is not the case that every student in your class has taken a course in MMW.” This is equivalent to
“There is a student in your class who has not taken a course in MMW.” And this is simply the
existential quantification of the negation of the original propositional function, namely, ∃x ¬P(x).

This example illustrates the following logical equivalence: ¬∀xP(x) ≡ ∃x ¬P(x).

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Define for universe with elements {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … , n}

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USING QUANTIFIERS IN SYSTEM

SPECIFICATIONS
Example: Use predicates and quantifiers to express the system specifications “Every mail message
larger than one megabyte will be compressed” and “If a user is active, at least one network link will
be available.”

Solution: Let S(m,y) be “Mail message m is larger than y megabytes,” where the variable x has
Extra Examples the domain of all mail messages and the variable y is a positive real number, and let
C(m) denote “Mail message m will be compressed.” Then the specification “Every mail message
larger than one megabyte will be compressed” can be represented as ∀m(S(m, 1) → C(m)).
Let A(u) represent “User u is active,” where the variable u has the domain of all users, let
S(n,x) denote “Network link n is in state x,” where n has the domain of all network links and x has
the domain of all possible states for a network link. Then the specification “If a user is active, at least
one network link will be available” can be represented by ∃uA(u) → ∃n S(n, available)

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Consider these statements. The first two are called premises and the third
is called the conclusion. The entire set is called an argument.

“All lions are fierce.”

“Some lions do not drink coffee.”
“Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.”

Let P(x), Q(x), and R(x) be the statements “x is a lion,” “x is fierce,” and
“x drinks coffee,” respectively. Assuming that the domain consists of all
creatures, express the statements in the argument using quantifiers and
P(x), Q(x), and R(x).

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NESTED QUANTIFIERS
Nested quantifiers are quantifiers that
occur within the scope of other
quantifiers.

Example: ∀x∃yP(x, y)

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THE ORDER OF QUANTIFIERS

Many mathematical statements involve multiple quantifications of propositional functions
involving more than one variable. It is important to note that the order of the quantifiers is
important, unless all the quantifiers are universal quantifiers, or all are existential quantifiers.

Suppose: P(x, y) : x + y = 7, where the universe of discourse for each variable is the real
numbers. The following propositions are possible:

1. ∀x ∃y P(x, y) 2. ∃y ∀x P(x, y)
3. ∀y ∃x P(x, y) 4. ∃x ∀y P(x, y)
5. ∀y ∀x P(x, y) 6. ∀x ∀y P(x, y)
7. ∃y ∃x P(x, y) 8. ∃x ∃y P(x, y)

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