Living organisms

Notes
 Organism
Biology is the study of organisms.
Organism: A living thing.

What classifies as an organism:

An organism must carry out all 7 of the life processes.

Life Processes: (MRS h. GREN)
• Movement: an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place.
• Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break down glucose to release energy for
metabolism.
• Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal or external environment.
• Homeostasis: the regulation of internal conditions to create the optimum conditions for metabolism.
• Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass.
• Reproduction: the processes that make more of the same kind of organism.
• Excretion: the removal of the waste products of metabolism and substances more than requirements.
• Nutrition: taking in materials for energy, growth and development.
How to measure growth:
One method is to find the dry mass. This involves finding the mass of
several organisms of the same type over a period. An organism is
killed and dried (so this method is more often used for plants than for
animals). The mass of its body without any water is then found. After a
particular period — for example, one day — the dry mass of another of
the organisms is found. This is repeated with several organisms for the
growth period being observed.
Classification of organisms
 KEYS
dichotomous key: a way of identifying an organism, by working through pairs of statements that lead you to its name.

To use the key:

• Choose one of the animals that you are going to identify. Let's say you choose organism B.
• Look at the first pair of statements in the key. Decide which description in step 1 matches your organism. It has jointed
limbs, so the key tells us to go to step 2.
• Look at the descriptions in step 2. Decide which describes organism B. It has more than 5 pairs of jointed limbs, so it is
a centipede.
First, make a list Of features that clearly differ between the flowers, They should be features that cannot possibly be
mistaken. Remember that the person using the key will probably have one of the flowers to look at, so they cannot
necessarily compare it with another kind of flower. Therefore, the number of petals or the colour isa good choice, but
the size (large or small) is not, because different people might have different ideas about what is 'large' or 'small’. Choose
one of the features that can split the flowers into two groups. The two groups don’t have to be the same size — you
could have two in one group and two in the other, or perhaps one in one group and the other three flowers in the
second group-

Write down the two statements for this feature. Remember that the two statements need to be 'opposites' Of one
another.
Next, concentrate on a group that contains more than one flower. Choose another feature that will allow you to split the
flowers intc two further groups. Keep doing this until each 'group' contains only one flower,
Classification of organisms
Types of cells: Eukaryotic: have a nucleus enclosed in a membrane
Prokaryotic: don’t have a nucleus enclosed in a membrane kingdom:
Taxonomy
Classification of organisms:
There are 5 kingdoms:
Types of body Unicellular: one cell Animals
organization:
Multicellular: multiple cellular Plants
Modes of Autotrophic: have chloroplast so make their own food Fungi
nutrition: Protoctista
Heterotrophic: don’t have chloroplast so eat other organisms
Bacteria
Modes of Sexual: 2 organisms combine genetic informationn to form a genetically unique organism Kingdom
reproduction: The main criteria of the five-
Asexual: 1 parent copies itself to form a genetically identical offspring, called a clone
Animal Plant Fungi Protoctista Bacteria kingdom classification is:
Cell type eukaryotic eukaryotic eukaryotic eukaryotic prokaryotic
• Cell structure
• Body organization
Cell structure
• Mode of nutrition ↓
Body organization multicellular multicellular Uni/ unicellular unicellular • Mode of reproduction
multicellular
• Phylogenetic relationships
Mode of nutrition heterotrophic autotrophic heterotrophic both both
Mode of sexual both both asexual asexual
reproduction Genus
The Binomial naming system: Genus:
Species:
↓

Species
 Enzymes
Factors effecting enzymes:
Enzymes are biological catalysts.

A catalyst is a chemical which speeds up a reaction without being The optimum temperature/pH is the temperature/pH at which
used up itself. the enzyme functions best.
• Enzymes have evolved to work best at the normal body
The activities in a cell are controlled by the enzymes it can produce. temperature of the organism. (37 decrees in humans, other
mammals)
Why are enzymes needed: Because without enzymes metabolic
• The pH inside cells is neutral (pH 7) and most enzymes have
reactions will take too long for life to continue.
evolved to work best at this pH

• Substrate – The molecule that enzymes acts on. Temperature

• Active site – The small area on the surface of the enzymes where Optimum temperature:
the catalyzation takes place. • At optimum temperature…
• The K.E. of the molecules is maximum…
• Lock and key model: A substrate will only fit into the active site of • So, the number of successful collisions per second are
a particular enzyme. So, there are different enzymes for different maximum…
reactions. • The rate at which the reaction takes place is maximum.

Higher temperature:
How enzymes catalyze: • Above the optimum temperature the enzymes denature.
• Denaturing changes the shape of the active site so that the
1. The substrate/substrates attaches to the active site of the enzyme.
substrate will no longer fit into it.
2. The enzymes lowers the energy needed for the reaction to start, • Denaturing is permanent.
allowing the products to be formed more quickly.
3. The reaction then takes place and products are formed. pH
Either side of the optimum, the pH affects the structure of the
*molecules can be split or joined. enzyme molecule and changes the shape of its active site, so
 Respiration
Cell gets its energy through respiration.
Respiration takes place in the mitochondria. Anaerobic Respiration :
Two types of respiration: In anaerobic respiration, glucose is not completely broken
• Aerobic (uses oxygen)
down, so less energy is released.
• Anaerobic (without oxygen)
It can occur in situations where oxygen is in short supply.

Aerobic Respiration: Examples:

Aerobic respiration is the oxidizing of glucose to release Yeast cells (when making wine/beer or rising dough)
energy.

Muscle cells (If muscles are overworked, the blood cannot reach
them fast enough to deliver enough oxygen for aerobic
Respiration releases some heat energy, but most is used to respiration)
make ATP.
Uses:
During the exercise, the level of lactate rises in the muscle cells
• Heat is used to maintain a constant temperature in the body.
and bloodstream. After the exercise, the lactate is respired
• ATP (adenosine triphosphate): a substance used to pass aerobically in the mitochondria.
energy from respiration to other processes that need it.
When ATP is hydrolyzed it is broken down into ADP(adenosine The volume of oxygen needed to completely oxidize the lactate
diphosphate) and phosphate which releases energy that can be that builds up in the body during anaerobic respiration is called
used to carry out the processes in cells. the oxygen debt.
 Cell membrane
Diffusion Osmosis Active Transport
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a Osmosis is the net movement of Active transport is the movement of
region of high concentration to a region of low water molecules from a region of substances against a concentration
concentration, i.e. down a concentration gradient. high-water potential (dilute solution) gradient, using energy from
to a region of low water potential respiration.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion: (concentrated solution) through a
partially permeable membrane. How active transport takes place:
• concentration gradient • Embedded protein molecules in the
How: Diffusion happens more quickly when there is cell membrane carry out this
a steep concentration gradient (i.e. a big difference process.
in concentrations between two areas). • The protein basically ‘captures’ the
molecules from one side of the cell
• surface area to volume ratio: • Then it changes shape in a way to
How: A larger surface area in proportion to the transport the captured molecules to
volume will increase the rate. the other side of the cell.
• Energy (from respiration) is required
•distance: to alter the protein shape.
How: The rate is decreased if the distance over
which diffusion must take place is greater.

•temperature:
How: The rate is greater at higher temperatures.
Why: A high temperature provides the particles
with more kinetic energy.
 Cell signaling
Diffusion Osmosis Active Transport
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a Osmosis is the net movement of Active transport is the movement of
region of high concentration to a region of low water molecules from a region of substances against a concentration
concentration, i.e. down a concentration gradient. high-water potential (dilute solution) gradient, using energy from
to a region of low water potential respiration.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion: (concentrated solution) through a
partially permeable membrane. How active transport takes place:
• concentration gradient • Embedded protein molecules in the
How: Diffusion happens more quickly when there is cell membrane carry out this
a steep concentration gradient (i.e. a big difference process.
in concentrations between two areas). • The protein basically ‘captures’ the
molecules from one side of the cell
• surface area to volume ratio: • Then it changes shape in a way to
How: A larger surface area in proportion to the transport the captured molecules to
volume will increase the rate. the other side of the cell.
• Energy (from respiration) is required
•distance: to alter the protein shape.
How: The rate is decreased if the distance over
which diffusion must take place is greater.

•temperature:
How: The rate is greater at higher temperatures.
Why: A high temperature provides the particles
with more kinetic energy.
 Multicellular animals
Mitosis:
Multicellular organism begin as a zygote. •
The chromosomes in the nucleus are copied,
•
The nucleus splits into two, so that the genetic
A zygote is a fertilized egg cell. information is shared equally between the two
'daughter' cells.
The zygote divides through mitosis. • The cytoplasm then divides (or in plant cells a
new cell wall develops) forming two smaller
An embryo develops. cells.
• These then take in food substances to supply
An Embryo is ball of cells energy and building materials so that they can
grow
Stem to full size.
cells:
The cells in the embryo differentiate.
• A stem cell is a cell that can divide many times by
Differentaition: a process in which cells of mitosis while remaining undifferentiated.
* Later, it can differentiate into specialized cells
an embryo specialize to carry out particular
roles. Stem cells in humans:
Different kinds of cells develop depending on Embryonic stem cells:
• Found in the early stage of development of the
where they are in the embryo. embryo
• They can differentiate into any type of cell
Cells with a similar function are grouped
together as tissues. Adult stem cells:
• Found in certain adult tissues (e.g., bone marrow,
A collection of several tissues carrying out a skin, and the lining of the intestine)
particular function is called an organ. • They can differentiate into a few specialized tissues.
(For example, bone marrow cells can divide many
Organ systems: several organs working on times but are only able to produce different types of
 Animals
Cell structure: Mode of nutrition: Heterotrophic
Cell membrane: Nucleus: Mode of reproduction: Sexual
Function: Thin layer that separates Function: Controls the activity Body Organization: Multicellular
the inside of the cell from the in the cell.
Subdivisions:
outside.  It contains
Types of cell membranes: chromosomes… Animals
• Partially permeable  Which carry the genes… Vertebrat Invertebr
membrane: Allows certain  The genes code for the es ates
sizes of molecules according to enzymes (have a (don’t have
the size of its pores.  The enzymes control all backbone) a backbone)
• Selectively permeable the reactions in a cell
membrane: Controls which Fish AmphibiaRepti Mam Bird
molecule goes in, and which
Mitochondria: ns les mals s
comes out.
Function: Site of crustac wor starfis spon mollu insec
respiration.
eans ms h ges scs ts
Cytoplasm: How they carryout their life processes:
 Jelly-like substance made of
complex structures called
Ribosomes: Movement Growth
organelles. Function: Site of protein Respiration Reproductio
 Organelles can only be seen synthesis. Sensitivity n
under an electronic  Too small to be seen by a Homeostasis Excretion
microscope. light microscope.
Cell type: Eukaryotic Nutrition
 Plants
Cell structure: Mode of nutrition: Autotrophic
Mode of reproduction: Sexual/Asexual
Cell Wall: Body Organization: Multicellular
 A tough, freely permeable Subdivisions:
membrane made of cellulose.
Plants
Function: Helps give plants a ridged
fixed shape.
How: (Plant cells absorb water,
Flowering Mos Fer
producing an internal pressure that
pushes against adjacent cells, giving plants ses ns
the plant support. If the cell wall does
not resist the pressure, this method of
Mai Pea Bea
support would Vacuole:
Permeant be impossible) Chloroplast:
ze s ns
 Large central space surrounded  Function: Contain a
by a membrane. green pigment called
 Function: It contains a watery chlorophyll which How they carryout their life processes:
liquid called cell sap which allows it to absorb light
stores dissolved sugars, mineral energy to make food via Movement Growth
ions and other solutes. photosynthesis.
Respiration Reproductio
 Animal cells have temporary  Not green areas of a Sensitivity n
vacuoles. plant do not contain
chloroplasts.
Homeostasis Excretion
Cell type: Eukaryotic Nutrition
 fungi
Cell structure: Mode of nutrition: Heterotrophic
Mode of reproduction: Sexual/Asexual
Body Organization: Unicellular/Multicellular
Multicellular Fungi:
Structure:
Fruiting body: Reproductive structure of fungi.
Hyphae: Long, thread-like filaments of fungi.
Two types of hyphae:
Septate hyphae: Have walls that separate individual
cells.
Coenocytic hyphae: Hyphae are not divided up into
separate cells.
Mycelium: A network of hyphae.
They don’t have chloroplast. Spores: Cells that allow fungi to be reproduced.
They have a permeant vacuole. Nutrition in fungi: Examples:
They have a cell wall made of chitin. SAPROTROPHIC NUTRITION: When an organism feeds on
dead organic material. Multicellular 
mushrooms,
Via excreting extracellular enzymes. toadstool, and
moulds (pin
Extracellular enzymes: Enzymes produced outside the cell.
Cell type: Eukaryotic moulds/Mucor).
Protoctista
Cell type: Eu
Organism type: Uni (some algae are multi)
Nutrition type: Hetero/Auto

Animals that don’t fit into plants, animals, or fungi.

 Include Protozoa (animal-like), Algae (plant-like) and
Parasites (cause diseases).

 Aka the ‘dustbin kingdom’

 Examples:
 Protozoa  Amoeba (live in pondwater).
 Algae  Chlorella (unicellular), Seaweed (multicellular).
 Parasites  Plasmodium (cause malaria).
 Cell type: Pro Cell wall:
Bacteria Organism type: Uni 

made of peptidoglycan
for protection and shape
Nutrition type: Hetero
Nucleoid:
 Genetic material present as a single chromosome forming a
circular loop.
 Bacteria are prokaryotic (don’t have a nucleus with a
membrane)
Some have…
Capsule/slime layer:
•There are three basic shapes of bacteria:  for extra protection
spheres, rods, and spirals, but they all have a
similar internal structure.
Flagella:
Uses:  So the bacteria can move
• Most bacteria are decomposers.
• Some are used in food like
 Singular: flagellum
Lactobacillusbulgaricus (rod-shaped)
used to make yogurt. Plasmids:
• Some are pathogens
 Small circular rings of DNA
 ¾ of all known species have it
Some have chlorophyll in their cytoplasm.
  Viruses are not living because they only reproduce and don’t carry out rest of the life

Viruses 
processes.
All viruses are parasites.
 Need a host to reproduce.
 Host is the cell the virus lives inside.
 Can infect animals, plants, or bacteria.
 Examples of human diseases: influenza ('flu'), colds, measles, mumps, polio and rubella
('German measles').
 Examples of plant diseases: the tobacco mosaic virus, which interferes with the ability of
the tobacco plant to make chloroplasts, causing mottled patches to develop on the
leaves.
 No nucleus How a virus reproduces:
 No cytoplasm  A virus reproduces by entering the host cell and taking over the host's genetic machinery
 A core of genetic material to make more virus particles. After many virus particles have been made, the host cell
(DNA or RNA) surrounded by dies, and the particles are released to infect more cells.
protein coat.  Our immune system destroys the viruses.
 Sometimes it has an  Sometimes, however, a virus cannot be destroyed by the immune system quickly enough,
envelope (a membrane and it may cause permanent damage or death.
solen from the host cell).  With other infections, the virus may attack cells of the immune system itself.
Example: HIV (the Human Immunodeficiency Virus), which causes the illness called AIDS
(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).