Lecture 3
Arithmetic, Logic
&
control flow Instructions
By
Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham
Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham 1
Overview
At the end of this lecture, we will know
about:
Arithmetic and Logic Instructions
Decision making and repeating statement
Jump and loop instructions
Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham 2
Assembly:- InstructionsArithmetic and Logic 86
Instructions
• Add& Sub — Integer Addition
The add instruction adds together its two operands,
storing the result in its first operand.
Note, whereas both operands may be registers, at
most one operand may be a memory location.
The sub instruction stores in the value of its first
operand the result of subtracting the value of its
second operand from the value of its first operand. As
3 with add Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham
Assembly:- InstructionsArithmetic and Logic 86
Instructions
• Syntax of add&sub
Examples for add Examples for sub
• add <reg>,<reg>
• add <reg>,<mem> add eax, 10; EAX ← sub al, ah ; AL ← AL
• add <mem>,<reg> EAX + 10. - AH sub eax, 216 ;
• add <reg>,<con> add BYTE PTR [var], subtract 216 from the
• Add <mem>,<con> 10 ; add 10 to the value stored in EAX
single byte stored at
4
memory address var
Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham
Assembly:- InstructionsArithmetic and Logic 86
Instructions
inc, dec — Increment, Decrement
• The inc instruction increments the contents of its
operand by one.
• The dec instruction decrements the contents of its
operand by one.
5 Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham
Assembly:- InstructionsArithmetic and Logic 86
Instructions
• Syntax of inc, dec
Examples for dec&inc insteructions
• inc <reg>
dec eax; subtract one from the
• inc <mem>
contents of EAX.
• dec <reg>
inc DWORD PTR [var]; add one to the
• dec <mem> 32-bit integer stored at location var
6 Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham
Assembly:- InstructionsArithmetic and Logic 86
Instructions
Examples for and&or Examples for
• Syntax of and&or&xor
and eax, 0Fh; clear xor
all but the last 4 bits xor edx, edx ;
• And,or,xor <reg>,<reg>
• And,or,xor <reg>,<mem> of EAX. set the contents of
• And,or,xor <mem>,<reg> or eax, FFh; don’t EDX to zero.
• And,or,xor <reg>,<con>
change of the
• And,or,xor <mem>,<con>
7
content of eax
Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham
Not&Neg Instructions
not — Bitwise Logical NotLogically negates the operand contents (that is, flips all bit values in the operand).
Syntax
not <reg>
not <mem>
Example
not BYTE PTR [var] — negate all bits in the byte at the memory location var.
neg — NegatePerforms the two's complement negation of the operand contents.
Syntax
neg <reg>
neg <mem>
Example
neg eax — EAX → - EAX
8 Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham
Flag Register For 8086
Microprocessor
Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham 9
Jump and Loop
• Jump and Loop instructions transfers control to another
program
• The transfers can be unconditional or conditional
• Depends on a particular combination of status flags
settings
• Conversion of algorithm is easier in assembly language
Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham 10
Short Conditional Jumps
• Unlike JMP instruction that does an
unconditional jump, there are
instructions that do a conditional
jumps (jump only when some
conditions are in act). These
instructions are divided in three
groups,
• First: group just test single flag,
• Second: compares numbers as
signed,
• Third: compares numbers as
Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham 11
Example of Jump
PRINT_LOOP:
.MODEL SMALL
INT 21H
.STACK 100H INC DL
.CODE DEC CX
JNZ PRINT_LOOP ;
MAIN PROC
; return to DOS
MOV AH,2 MOV AH,4Ch ;DOS exit
INT 21H
MOV CX,256
MAIN ENDP
MOV DL,0 ; ASCII of null Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham
END MAIN
12
JNZ (Jump if Not Zero)
• JNZ is the instruction that controls loop.
• If result of preceding instruction is not Zero Then the JNZ transfers the
control to the instruction at label PRINT_LOOP.
• If the preceding instruction contains zero (i.e. CX=0) then the
program goes to execute DOS return instructions.
• PRINT_LOOP is the first statement label
• Labels are needed to refer another instruction
• Labels end with colon (:)
• Labels are placed on a line byDr. Mohammed
themselves
Y.M Alnaham
to make it stand out. 13
Conditional Jumps
• JNZ is an example of Conditional Jump
Instruction:
• JXXX destination_label
• if the condition for the jump is true, the next
instruction to be executed is at
destination_label
• If condition is false, the instruction following the
jump is done next.
• i.e. for JNZ if the preceding instruction is non-
zero
Implementation of
Conditional JUMP by CPU
The CPU looks at the FLAGS register (it reflects the
result of last thing that processor did)
If the conditions for the jump (combination of status
flag settings) are true, the CPU adjusts the IP to point
to the destination label.
The instruction at this label will be done next.
If the jump condition is false, then IP is not altered
and naturally the next instruction is performed.
Example(cont’d…)
In the previous example:
The JNZ PRINT_LOOP is executed by
inspecting ZF
If ZF=0 then control is transferred to
PRINT_LOOP and continues
If the ZF=1 then the program goes on to
execute next (i.e. MOV AH,4CH)
CMP Instruction
CMP destination , source
Compares the destination with source by computing
contents
It computes by…
destination contents - source contents
The result is not stored but the FLAGS are affected
The OPERANDS of CMP may not both be Memory
Locations
Destination may not be CONSTANT
CMP is just like SUB. However result is not stored in
destination.
Signed Conditional Jumps
• Jump if Greater than ZF = 0 and
JG or • Jump if Not Less than or SF = OF(Overflow
JNLE
Equal to Flag)
• Jump if Greater than or
JGE or Equal to
SF = OF
JNL • Jump if Not less than or
Equal to
• Jump if less than
JL or • Jump if not greater than SF<>OF
JNGE
or equal
JLE or • Jump if less than or Equal
ZF = 1 or SF<> OF
JNG • Jump if not greater than
Unsigned Conditional Jumps
• Jump if Above
JA or ZF = 0 and
• Jump if Not Below or Equal
JNBE CF = 0
to
JAE or • Jump if Above or Equal to
CF = 0
JNB • Jump if Not Below
JB or • Jump if Below
CF = 1
JNAE • Jump if not Above or Equal
JBE or • Jump if Below or Equal
CF=1 or ZF = 1
JNA • Jump if Not Above
Single-Flag Jumps
JE or • Jump if Equal
JZ Jump if equal to Zero ZF = 1
•
JNE or • Jump if Not Equal
JNZ Jump if Not Zero ZF = 0
•
CF = 1
JC • Jump if Carry CF = 0
JNC • Jump if no Carry CF=0
JO • Jump if Overflow CF=1 or ZF = 1
JNO • Jump if No Overflow OF=1
JS Jump if Sign Negative SF = 1
JNS Jump if Non-Negative Sign SF =0
JP/JPE Jump if Parity Even PF=1
JNP/JPO Jump if parity Odd PF=1
Conditional Jumps
Interpretation
Signed JUMPs correspond to an analogous unsigned JUMPs (i.e.
JG is equivalent to JA)
Signed jump’s operates on ZF, SF and OF
Unsigned JUMP’s operates on ZF and CF
Using wrong kind of JUMP can lead to wrong results. For
example: for AX= 7FFFh and BX= 8000h
CMP AX,BX
JA BELOW
Even though 7FFFh>8000h in a signed sense, the program does
not jump to label BELOW. Because
In unsigned sense (JA) 7FFFh < 8000h
Working with Characters
To deal with ASCII character set, either Signed or
Unsigned jumps may be used.
i.e. sign bit of a byte in a character is
always zero.
However, while comparing extended ASCII
characters (80h to FFh ), UNSIGNED jumps should
be used.
JMP Instruction
JMP instruction causes an unconditional
transfer of control.
JMP destination
Destination is usually a label in the same
segment as the JMP itself.
JMP Vs JNZ
TOP:
DEC CX
TOP:
JNZ BOTTOM ; keep
looping till CX>0
DEC CX
JMP EXIT
JNZ TOP
BOTTOM:
MOV AX,BX JMP TOP
EXIT:
MOV AX,BX
High-Level Language
Structures
Jump can be used to implement branches and
loops
As the Jump is so primitive, it is difficult to
code an algorithm with jumps without some
guidelines.
The High-level languages (conditional IF-ELSE
and While loops) can be simulated in
assembly.
Branching Structures
Branching structures enable a program to
take different paths, depending on
conditions.
Here, We will look at three structures.
1. IF-THEN
2. IF-THEN-ELSE
3. CASE
IF-THEN
IF condition is true.
THEN
execute true-
branch statements
END_IF
A Pseudo Code , Algorithm and Code
for IF-THEN
• The condition is an expression that is either true or
false.
• lf It is true, the true-branch statements are
executed.
• lf It is false, nothing is done, and the program goes
on to whatever follows.
• Example: to Replace a number in AX by its absolute
value…
IF AX < 0 CMP AX, 0
THEN JNL END_IF
replace AX by NEG AX
-AX END_IF:
END_IF
IF-THEN-ELSE
IF condition is true
THEN
execute true-
branch statements
ELSE
execute false-
branch statements
END_IF
A Pseudo Code and algorithm and Code for
IF-THEN-ELSE
• The condition is an expression that is either true or false.
• If It is true, the true-branch statements are executed.
• If It is false then False-branch statements are executed.
• Example: Suppose AL and BL contain extended ASCII
characters. Display the one that comes first in the
character sequence…
MOV AH,2
IF AL <= BL
CMP
THEN AL,BL ;AL<=BL ?
Display the JNBE ELSE_
character in AL MOV DL,AL
ELSE JMP DISPLAY
Display the ELSE_:
MOV DL,BL
character in BL
DISPLAY:
END IF INT 2lh
CASE
A CASE is a multi-way branch structure that tests a
register, variable, or expression for particular values or a
range of values.
CASE Expression
Values_1:
Statement_1
Values_2:
Statement_2
Values_n:
Statement_n
END_CASE
CASE
• Example: If AX contains a negative number, put
-1 in BX; if AX contains 0, put 0 in BX; and if AX
contains a positive number, put 1 in BX.
CMP AX,O
JL NEGATIVE
JE ZERO
JG POSITIVE
CASE AX
NEGATIVE:
<0 : put -1 in BX MOV BX,-1
=0 : put 0 in BX JMP END_CASE
ZERO:
>0 : put +l in BX MOV BX,0
END_CASE JMP END_CASE
POSITIVE:
MOV BX, l
END_CASE:
Branches with Compound
Conditions
Sometimes the branching condition in an IF or CASE takes the
form
condition_1' AND condition_2’
or
condition_1 OR condition_2
Where condition 1 and condition:2 are either true or false. We
will refer to the
First of these as an AND condition and to the second as an OR
condition.
Example : AND
An AND condition is true if and only if Condition_1 and
Condition_2 are both true. Likewise, if either condition is false,
then the whole thing is false.
Read a character, and if it's an uppercase letter, display
it.
Read a character (into AL)
IF ('A'<= character) and (character <= 'Z')
THEN
display character
END IF
Converting to Assembly
CMP AL, 'Z'
;read a character
MOV AH,1 JNGE END_lF ;no
exit
INT 21H
MOV DL, AL.
if ('A' <= char> and
(chai: <= 'Z')
MOV AH, 2
CMP AL, ‘A ;char >’A’
INT 21H
JNGE END_lF ;no exit
END_IF:
OR Conditions
Condition_1 OR condition_2 is true if at least one of the conditions is true;
it is only false when both conditions are false.
Read a character. If it's "y" or "Y", display it; otherwise, terminate
the program.
Read a character (into AL)
IF (character = ‘y' OR (character = 'Y'J
THEN
display it
ELSE
terminate the program
END IF
Assembly Conversion
MOV AH,1 THEN:
INT 21H MOV AH,2
;prepare to display
CMP AL,’y’
MOV CL,AL
;AL==‘y’ ;get char
JE THEN INT 21H
;display it
CMP AL, 'Y'
;char ~ 'Y'? JMP END IF
;and exit -
JE THEN
ELSE_:
;yes, go to display
it MOV AH, 4CH
JMP ELSE_ INT 21H
;no - Terminate ;DOS exit
END_IF:
Looping Structure
A loop Is a sequence of instructions that is
repeated.
The number of times to repeat may be known in
advance, or
It may depend on conditions
FOR LOOP
WHILE LOOP
REPEAT LOOP
FOR LOOP
• FOR LOOP is a loop structure in which the loop statements are repeated
a known number of times (a count-controlled loop). In pseudo
code,
FOR loop_count times DO
Statements
END_FOR
• The LOOP instruction can be used to implement a FOR loop. i.e.
LOOP destination_label
• The counter for the loop is the register CX which is initialized to
loop_count.
• Execution of the LOOP Instruction causes CX to be decremented
automatically,
FOR LOOP
• The control is transferred to
destination label until CX
becomes 0.
• A FOR LOOP can be
implemented using the LOOP
instruction:
TOP:
;initialize CX to loop_count
;body of the loop
LOOP TOP
Example:
MOV CX,0
• Write a count-
controlled loop to MOV AH,2
display a row of 80
stars:
MOV DL, '*'
FOR 80 times DO
TOP:
display ‘*’
INT 21H
END_FOR
LOOP TOP
JCXZ and The LOOP
FOR LOOP executes at least once.
if CX contains 0 when the loop is entered, the
LOOP instruction causes CX to be decremented to
FFFFh
The loop is then executed FFFFh=65535 times
more!
To Prevent this, the instruction JCXZ (jump if CX is
zero) may be used before the loop. Its syntax
JCXZ destination_label
Use of JCXZ
• If CX contains 0, control transferred to the
destination label. So a loop implemented as follows
is bypassed if CX is 0:
JCXZ SKIP
TOP:
;body of the loop
LOOP TOP
SKIP:
WHILE LOOP
• This WHILE LOOP
depends on a
condition.
• WHILE condition DO
statements
END_WHILE
WHILE LOOP
The condition is checked at the top of the loop.
If true, the statements are executed;
If false, the program goes on to whatever
follows.
It is possible the condition will be false initially, in
which case the loop body ls not executed at all.
The loop executes as long as the condition is true
• Example: WHILE LOOP
Write some code to count the number of characters in an input
line.
MOV DX,0 ; char
count
MOV AH,1
• Initialize count to 0
INT 21H
• Read a character WHILE_:
CMP AL,0DH ; CR ?
• WHILE character <>
carriage_return DO JE END_WHILE ;yes,
exit
• count =count + 1
INC DX ; not CR so
inc
• read a character
INT 21H ; read
next char
• END_WHILE
JMP WHILE_ ; loop
WHILE LOOP Insights
A WHILE loop checks the terminating condition
at the top of the loop,
So, you must make sure that any variables
involved in the condition are initialized
before the loop is entered.
So you read a character before entering the
loop, and read another one at the bottom.
The label WHILE_: .is used because WHILE is a
reserved word
REPEAT LOOP
REPEAT
statements
UNTIL condition
In a REPEAT…UNTIL loop, the statements are
executed, and then the condition is checked.
• If true, the loop terminates;
• If false, control branches to the top of the loop.
Write code to read characters until a
blank is read.
MOV AH,1
REPEAT
REPEAT:
read a
character INT 21H
UNTIL character is a CMP AL,' '
BLANK
JNE REPEAT
Difference between WHILE and
REPEAT
Use of a WHILE loop or a REPEAT loop Is a matter of personal
preference.
The advantage of a WHILE is that the loop can be bypassed
if the terminating, condition is initially false.
Whereas the statements in a REPEAT must be done at least
once.
However, the code for a REPEAT loop Is likely to be a little
shorter because there is only a conditional jump at the end,
But a WHILE loop has two jumps: a conditional jump at the
top and a JMP at the bottom.
