SQL Advanced Queries
Slides Credit: Fundamentals of Database Systems by Elmasri, Navathei
Modified by: Md. Ishan Arefin Hossain, Full-time Lecturer, NSU ECE
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL DDL DML
DDL – Data Definition Language – Create, Remove and Modify
Database Structures
Create
Alter
Drop
DML – Data Manipulation Language – Create, Remove and
Modify Data Values
Insert
Update
Delete
Truncate
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The CREATE TABLE Command in
SQL
Specifying a new relation
Provide name of table
Specify attributes, their types and initial
constraints
Can optionally specify schema:
CREATE TABLE [Link] ...
or
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE ...
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The CREATE TABLE Command in
SQL (cont’d.)
Base tables (base relations)
Relation and its tuples are actually created and
stored as a file by the DBMS
Virtual relations (views)
Created through the CREATE VIEW statement.
Do not correspond to any physical file.
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COMPANY relational database
schema (Fig. 5.7)
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One possible database state for the
COMPANY relational database schema
(Fig. 5.6)
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One possible database state for the
COMPANY relational database schema –
continued (Fig. 5.6)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL CREATE TABLE data definition statements
for defining the COMPANY schema from Figure
5.7 (Fig. 6.1)
continued on next slide
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL CREATE TABLE data definition
statements for defining the COMPANY
schema from Figure 5.7 (Fig. 6.1)-continued
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Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
Basic data types
Numeric data types
Integer numbers: INTEGER, INT, and SMALLINT
Floating-point (real) numbers: FLOAT or REAL, and
DOUBLE PRECISION
Character-string data types
Fixed length: CHAR(n), CHARACTER(n)
Varying length: VARCHAR(n), CHAR
VARYING(n), CHARACTER VARYING(n)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL (cont’d.)
Bit-string data types
Fixed length: BIT(n)
Varying length: BIT VARYING(n)
Boolean data type
Values of TRUE or FALSE or NULL
DATE data type
Ten positions
Components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form
YYYY-MM-DD
Multiple mapping functions available in RDBMSs to
change date formats
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL (cont’d.)
Additional data types
Timestamp data type
Includes the DATE and TIME fields
Plus a minimum of six positions for decimal fractions of
seconds
Optional WITH TIME ZONE qualifier
INTERVAL data type
Specifies a relative value that can be used to increment or
decrement an absolute value of a date, time, or timestamp
DATE, TIME, Timestamp, INTERVAL data types can be
cast or converted to string formats for comparison.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL (cont’d.)
Domain
Name used with the attribute specification
Makes it easier to change the data type for a domain
that is used by numerous attributes
Improves schema readability
Example:
CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9);
TYPE
User Defined Types (UDTs) are supported for object-
oriented applications. (See Ch.12) Uses the command:
CREATE TYPE
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Constraints in SQL
Basic constraints:
Relational Model has 3 basic constraint types that
are supported in SQL:
Key constraint: A primary key value cannot be
duplicated
Entity Integrity Constraint: A primary key value
cannot be null
Referential integrity constraints : The “foreign
key “ must have a value that is already present as
a primary key, or may be null.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Attribute Constraints
Other Restrictions on attribute domains:
Default value of an attribute
DEFAULT <value>
NULL is not permitted for a particular attribute
(NOT NULL)
CHECK clause
Dnumber INT NOT NULL CHECK (Dnumber >
0 AND Dnumber < 21);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Key and Referential
Integrity Constraints
PRIMARY KEY clause
Specifies one or more attributes that make up the
primary key of a relation
Dnumber INT PRIMARY KEY;
UNIQUE clause
Specifies alternate (secondary) keys (called
CANDIDATE keys in the relational model).
Dname VARCHAR(15) UNIQUE;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Key and Referential
Integrity Constraints (cont’d.)
FOREIGN KEY clause
Default operation: reject update on violation
Attach referential triggered action clause
Options include SET NULL, CASCADE, and SET
DEFAULT
Action taken by the DBMS for SET NULL or SET
DEFAULT is the same for both ON DELETE and ON
UPDATE
CASCADE option suitable for “relationship” relations
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Giving Names to Constraints
Using the Keyword CONSTRAINT
Name a constraint
Useful for later altering
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Default attribute values and referential
integrity triggered action specification (Fig.
6.2)
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SQL Constraints
A "CONSTRAINT" is a rule applied to a TABLE or COLUMN that allows
the database software to maintain data integrity within the database.
The database software will not allow the restrictions of the constraint to
be violated.
Constraints can exist at the TABLE level and/or at the COLUMN level.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Constraints
Table level constraints:
Primary Key Foreign
Key
Column level constraints:
Not Null
Check Default Unique
Primary Key
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Column Constraints
CREATE TABLE items (
itemID INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
itemcode VARCHAR(5) UNIQUE,
VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL DEFAULT ' ',
itemname INT NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
REAL NOT NULL DEFAULT 0
quantity
price
The);UNIQUE constraint prevents inserting a row with a duplicate value
The PRIMARY KEY constraint includes a UNIQUE constraint
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Column Constraints
CREATE TABLE items (
itemID INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
itemcode VARCHAR(5) UNIQUE,
VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL DEFAULT ' ',
itemname INT NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
DECIMAL(9,2)
CHECK price < 1000
quantity
price
);
The CHECK constraint includes a condition on the column
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Table Constraints
The PRIMARY KEY and FOREIGN KEY constraints (as table-level constraints)
CREATE TABLE items (
itemID INT INT NOT NULL, NOT NULL,
supplierid VARCHAR(5) UNIQUE,
itemcode VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL DEFAULT ' ',
INT NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
itemname
DECIMAL(9,2) CHECK price < 1000
quantityKEY (itemID)
PRIMARY
price
CONSTRAINT fk_supplier FOREIGN KEY(supplierid) REFERENCES supplier(supplierid)
);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Table Constraints
A concatenated or composite Primary Key can be set at the table level
CREATE TABLE "alanparadise/nw"."items" (
itemID INT NOT NULL, NOT NULL,
supplierid INT UNIQUE,
itemcode VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL DEFAULT ' ',
VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
itemname INT
DECIMAL(9,2) CHECK price < 1000
quantityKEY (itemID, supplierID)
PRIMARY
price
);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Table Constraints
By giving a table-level constraint a name (fk_supplier), the constraint is modifiable by an ALTER
CREATE TABLE items (
itemID INT NOT NULL,
supplierid INT NOT NULL,
itemcode VARCHAR(5) UNIQUE,
VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL DEFAULT ' ',
itemname INT NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
DECIMAL(9,2) CHECK price < 1000
quantityKEY (itemID)
PRIMARY
price
CONSTRAINT fk_supplier FOREIGN KEY(supplierid)
REFERENCES supplier(supplierid)
);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Table Constraints
A table-level foreign key constraint can indicate how to handle the situation
when the foreign key in the PARENT table is deleted or updated.
CONSTRAINT fk_supplier FOREIGN KEY(supplierid)
REFERENCES supplier(supplierid)
ON UPDATE <update action>
ON DELETE <delete action>
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Table Constraints
CONSTRAINT fk_supplier FOREIGN KEY(supplierid)
REFERENCES supplier(supplierid)
ON UPDATE <update action>
ON DELETE <delete action>
ACTION may be:
CASCADE NO The change to the parent is cascaded to all affected child rows
ACTION SET The change to the parent is prohibited
NULL The foreign key column in the child is set to NULL
SET DEFAULT The foreign key column in the child is set to its default value The
RESTRICT change to the parent is prohibited
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Specifying Constraints on Tuples
Using CHECK
Additional Constraints on individual tuples within a
relation are also possible using CHECK
CHECK clauses at the end of a CREATE TABLE
statement
Apply to each tuple individually
CHECK (Dept_create_date <=
Mgr_start_date);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE
Statements in SQL
Three commands used to modify the database:
INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE
INSERT typically inserts a tuple (row) in a relation
(table)
UPDATE may update a number of tuples (rows) in
a relation (table) that satisfy the condition
DELETE may also update a number of tuples
(rows) in a relation (table) that satisfy the
condition
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
INSERT
In its simplest form, it is used to add one or more
tuples to a relation
Attribute values should be listed in the same
order as the attributes were specified in the
CREATE TABLE command
Constraints on data types are observed
automatically
Any integrity constraints as a part of the DDL
specification are enforced
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The INSERT Command
Specify the relation name and a list of values for
the tuple. All values including nulls are supplied.
The variation below inserts multiple tuples where
a new table is loaded values from the result of a
query.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
BULK LOADING OF TABLES
Another variation of INSERT is used for bulk-loading of
several tuples into tables
A new table TNEW can be created with the same
attributes as T and using LIKE and DATA in the syntax,
it can be loaded with entire data.
EXAMPLE:
CREATE TABLE D5EMPS LIKE EMPLOYEE
(SELECT E.*
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE [Link]=5)
WITH DATA;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
DELETE
Removes tuples from a relation
Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be
deleted
Referential integrity should be enforced
Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless
CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity
constraint)
A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the
relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes an
empty table
The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of
tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The DELETE Command
Removes tuples from a relation
Includes a WHERE clause to select the tuples to be
deleted. The number of tuples deleted will vary.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
UPDATE
Used to modify attribute values of one or more
selected tuples
A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be
modified
An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes
to be modified and their new values
Each command modifies tuples in the same
relation
Referential integrity specified as part of DDL
specification is enforced
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
UPDATE (contd.)
Example: Change the location and controlling
department number of project number 10 to
'Bellaire' and 5, respectively
U5: UPDATE PROJECT
SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire',
DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
UPDATE (contd.)
Example: Give all employees in the 'Research' department a
10% raise in salary.
U6: UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')
In this request, the modified SALARY value depends on the
original SALARY value in each tuple
The reference to the SALARY attribute on the right of =
refers to the old SALARY value before modification
The reference to the SALARY attribute on the left of =
refers to the new SALARY value after modification
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Schema Change Statements in SQL
Schema evolution commands
DBA may want to change the schema while the
database is operational
Does not require recompilation of the database
schema
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The DROP Command
DROP command
Used to drop named schema elements, such as
tables, domains, or constraint
Drop behavior options:
CASCADE and RESTRICT
Example:
DROP SCHEMA COMPANY CASCADE;
This removes the schema and all its elements
including tables,views, constraints, etc.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
The ALTER table command
Alter table actions include:
Adding or dropping a column (attribute)
Changing a column definition
Adding or dropping table constraints
Example:
ALTER TABLE [Link] ADD
COLUMN Job VARCHAR(12);
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Adding and Dropping Constraints
Change constraints specified on a table
Add or drop a named constraint
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Dropping Columns, Default Values
To drop a column
Choose either CASCADE or RESTRICT
CASCADE would drop the column from views etc.
RESTRICT is possible if no views refer to it.
ALTER TABLE [Link] DROP COLUMN
Address CASCADE;
Default values can be dropped and altered :
ALTER TABLE [Link] ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn
DROP DEFAULT;
ALTER TABLE [Link] ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn
SET DEFAULT ‘333445555’;
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Auto Increment
During database design, you must define a primary key for each entity.
Sometimes, among the various candidate keys in a collection of
attributes, there is no attribute that can serve as good primary key.
In such a case, it is necessary for the designer to create a surrogate key.
Surrogate keys are typically integers.
Surrogate keys are ideally created by the database software by using a
column defined as an "Identity".
In the MySQL database, identities are called "auto_increment"
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Auto Increment
For each column defined as "Identity", the database software creates and
maintains a "sequence" object.
The sequence can be assigned an initial value, and with each subsequent insert,
the database software increments the sequence.
The starting point and increment size for the identity can be modified by the
ALTER command.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Auto Increment
Let's create a table that uses an identity (sequence) as a
unique identifier for each row that we insert.
CREATE statement
CREATE TABLE shoppers" (
ShopperID int NOT NULL auto increment,
ShopperName varchar(40) NOT NULL , varchar(20) NOT NULL DEFAULT
Phone '0'
);
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Auto Increment
Let's insert a new row into the shoppers
table.
INSERT statement
INSERT INTO shoppers (shoppername, phone) VALUES
('AlanParadise', '800-432-6543')
Note that no value was provided for the shopperid identity
column
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Auto Increment
After the insert:
SELECT * FROM shoppers;
The database inserted the first row starting with the
sequence of 1.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Auto Increment
Let's insert some more rows into the shoppers
table.
INSERT INTO shoppers (shoppername, phone) VALUES
('FredFlintstone', '800-123-4567');
INSERT INTO shoppers (shoppername, phone) VALUES
('PeterParker', '800-987-6543');
INSERT INTO shoppers (shoppername, phone) VALUES
('BartSimpson', '800-888-6969');
INSERT INTO shoppers (shoppername, phone) VALUES
('ClarkKent', '800-999-2468');
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Auto Increment
After the SELECT * FROM shoppers;
insert:
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL Auto Increment
The database incremented the sequence with
each insert.
This identity column using the sequence
guarantees a unique key value for each new row
that is inserted.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL VIEWS
The VIEW
A “VIEW” is an empty shell of a table definition
The view contains no data until it is queried
Can be considered as a “Virtual Table”
Each time the view is queried, the underlying
query that populates the view is re-executed
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Why use VIEWs?
1. Security, maintaining confidentiality
The view can prevent unauthorized users from seeing
data that must be kept secure or confidential
2. Complexity
The view can hide complex SQL from unauthorized or
inexperienced users
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
First case:
Base Table:
Employees(EmpID, Lastname, Firstname, Salary, HireDate)
View:
Employees(EmpID, Lastname, Firstname, HireDate)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
CREATING a VIEW
CREATE VIEW <view name> AS
SELECT <col1>, <col2>, <col3>
FROM <table1>
WHERE <condition>
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Creating:
CREATE VIEW TopEmployeesOrders AS
SELECT LastName, Firstname, sum(unitprice * quantity) as "Total Sales“
from employees E
JOIN orders O ON [Link] = [Link]
JOIN `order details` D ON [Link] = [Link]
GROUP BY LastName, FirstName
Order By 3 desc LIMIT 5;
Querying:
select * from TopEmployeesOrders
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL CASE
The SQL CASE expression allows SQL to process conditional statements,
similar to the IF/THEN/ELSE construct in other programming languages.
CASE is an expression that can be used anywhere in SQL where an
expression is allowd.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL CASE
CASE
WHEN <condition_1> THEN
<result_1> WHEN <condition_2>
THEN <result_2> WHEN
ELSE <else_result>
<condition_3> END
THEN <result_3>
(this results if the prior conditions are all
false)
If a CASE condition is true, the CASE ends with that result.
If the CASE condition is false, control passes to the next CASE.
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL CASE
Let's Look at an example from the Northwinds database:
You are asked to categorize each Northwinds product
based on its price range.
Product Categories:
Price < 20: category = "Economy" Price >= 20 and <80:
category = "Standard" Price >= 80: category =
"Premium"
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
SQL CASE
SELECT productid, productname, unitprice,
CASE
WHEN unitprice < 20 THEN 'Economy'
WHEN 'Premium'
ELSE unitprice < 80 THEN 'Standard
This text is populated into
'the column
END category "category" in the answer set
FROM products;
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SQL CASE
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Summary of SQL Syntax
continued on next slide
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Summary of SQL Syntax
(continued)
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
