Creating arguments consists of bringing
together evidence, reasoning and claims
and developing your own main claim. It
is one of the most challenging – and also
exciting – aspects of critical thinking.
Creating arguments relies
on synthesis, which means “placing
things together.” This is because
arguments need to bring together the
insights from your analysis and
evaluation of other sources, as well as
your own thinking and ideas.
Synthesis is a creative act that
challenges and improves your critical
thinking. It requires you to consider
what others have argued about your
topic, and to include not only the
evidence and claims that support your
argument, but also opposing and
different views.
A good argument or synthesis should have the following six characteristics:
a clearly stated main claim or argument
logical structure that connects your main claim with other claims and
counter-claims made in your argument
evidence that supports the claims made in your main claim or argument
clear reasoning that links evidence and claims (including counter-claims)
made in your argument
reasoning that shows you have analysed and evaluated your sources
clear writing that demonstrates to your readers that your argument is well-
researched, logical, balanced and convincing.
How do I develop an argument?
The following four steps will assist you with building arguments:
1. Formulate your main claim. You can start by drafting a claim, a hypothesis or a position on an issue.
This may be based on instructions in an assessment task, on the findings in an experiment, or on your
analysis of claims made by authors in your sources.
2. Bring together your reasons and evidence. You should consider the reasons and evidence that
support your main claim, as well as those against it. To do this, you will need to develop a synthesis of
how your main claim fits in with other perspectives, claims, reasons and evidence.
3. Structure your argument. Establish the key themes and supporting claims around which your main
claim revolves. Then determine each line of reasoning and its structure. This process can resemble
putting together a jigsaw puzzle, as you will need to piece together evidence, reasons and claims to
create a logical and coherent argument.
4. Test and refine your main claim. After you have structured and drafted your argument, it is important
that you make sure it addresses different perspectives on the question, issue or problem. Then take a
step back and consider how your thinking might apply to a broader context.
The same applies to your studies. In most of your
assignments, you will likely be asked to critique a topic and
put forward your argument. The following tips will help you
develop and present effective arguments.
1. Deconstruct the question
2. Map a tentative stance on the topic
3. Find and review preliminary evidence
4. Revise your stance
5. Formulate an argument statement and identify main
points
6. Note counter arguments for your main points
7. Write up your argument
1. Deconstruct the question
Deconstruct your assignment question to know exactly what it is asking of you. Some
questions may be framed in a way that asks you to consider advantages and disadvantages
of a particular topic, which will make the following steps easier. For those that don’t, just
remember there are always multiple sides to an argument and you need to present and
demonstrate at least one in your writing.
2. Map a tentative stance on the topic
What do you already know about your assignment topic and what argument do you take at
this stage in your research? Brainstorm your tentative argument and note down the pros and
cons.
3. Find and review preliminary evidence
Find out what opinions exist about the topic. Sometimes a simple Google search to see what
others are saying about the topic can give you some cues. However, you must refer to
credible sources such as assigned textbooks and peer-reviewed articles in your assignments.
This downloadable literature table can help you categorise your information and is useful to
refer to when it comes to writing your assignment
Use this table to help you organise main ideas from the literature.
Author Main ideas Source (add links to website)
5. Formulate an argument statement and identify main
points
Refer to your brainstorm and formulate a statement of your
argument, noting your main points. For example, if my
assignment question asked me to:
Discuss the impact of the TPPA agreement and
whether NZ should enter into it
and my review of the evidence (literature) suggested that
NZ shouldn’t enter the agreement, my statement would be:
NZ should not enter the TPPA agreement because
Point 1 and evidence
Point 2 and evidence
Point 3 and evidence
.
6. Note counter arguments for your main points
Note down counter-arguments for the main points of your
argument. You don’t necessarily have to agree with these
counter-points, this will just help you demonstrate that your
argument is well-considered and you have thought about
the other side of the argument. Following on from the
example given in step 5 above, your notes might look like
this:
NZ should not enter the TPPA agreement because
Point 1 / Counter Point 1
Point 2 / Counter Point 2
Point 3 / Counter Point 3
Techniques for Appealing to Your Readers
The success of your argument depends on your skill in convincing your readers—through
sound reasoning, persuasion, and evidence—of the strength of your point of view. But how
can you do that in the most effective way? There are three fundamental types of appeal in
presenting an argument: reason, ethics, and emotion. As a writer, use all three of these
techniques in your writing.
Reason
Ethics
Emotion
Ethics
Clear thinking requires that you state your claim and support it with concrete, specific
facts. This approach appeals to our common sense and rational thinking. Formal reasoning
involves following certain established logical methods to arrive at certain pieces of
information or conclusions. Generally, these logical methods are known as inductive
reasoning and deductive reasoning.
What is inductive reasoning? Inductive thinking is when
our logical thinking states specific facts (called premises)
and then draws a conclusion, or generalization. Inductive
reasoning lets us examine the specific details, considering
how well they add up to the generalization. When we think
inductively, we are asking whether the evidence clearly
supports the conclusions.
Example of Inductive Reasoning
Premise: Swans nest near this pond every summer.
Hypothesis: This summer, swans will probably nest near this
pond.
What is deductive reasoning? In deductive reasoning, you take two premises to
create a conclusion based on reasoning and evidence. When we think logically, we
start with the generalization. As we apply our generalization to a specific situation,
we examine the individual premises that make that generalization reasonable or
unreasonable. When our logical thinking starts with the generalization, or
conclusion, we may then apply the generalization to a particular situation to see if
that generalization follows from the premises. Our deductive thinking can be
expressed as a syllogism or an enthymeme—a shortened form of the syllogism.
Syllogisms can be written like this:
All A are B.
All C are A.
Therefore, all C are B.
Example of Deductive Reasoning Using a Syllogism:
Major premise: All birds have feathers.
Minor premise: A parrot is a bird.
Conclusion: A parrot has feathers.
Enthymemes can be written like this:
If A=B and B=C, then A=C.
The standard five paragraph format is common, but not
required, for argumentative essays. These essays
typically follow one of two formats: the Toulmin
model or the Rogerian model.
The Toulmin model is the most common. It begins with
an introduction, follows with a thesis/claim, and gives data
and evidence to support that claim. This style of essay
also includes rebuttals of counterarguments.
The Rogerian model analyzes two sides of an argument
and reaches a conclusion after weighing the strengths and
weaknesses of each.
As online learning becomes more common and more and more resources are converted to digital form, some
people have suggested that public libraries should be shut down and, in their place, everyone should be given an
iPad with an e-reader subscription.
Proponents of this idea state that it will save local cities and towns money because libraries are expensive to
maintain. They also believe it will encourage more people to read because they won’t have to travel to a library to
get a book; they can simply click on what they want to read and read it from wherever they are. They could also
access more materials because libraries won’t have to buy physical copies of books; they can simply rent out as
many digital copies as they need.
However, it would be a serious mistake to replace libraries with tablets. First, digital books and resources are
associated with less learning and more problems than print resources. A study done on tablet vs book reading
found that people read 20-30% slower on tablets, retain 20% less information, and understand 10% less of what
they read compared to people who read the same information in print. Additionally, staring too long at a screen
has been shown to cause numerous health problems, including blurred vision, dizziness, dry eyes, headaches, and
eye strain, at much higher instances than reading print does. People who use tablets and mobile devices
excessively also have a higher incidence of more serious health issues such as fibromyalgia, shoulder and back
pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and muscle strain. I know that whenever I read from my e-reader for too long, my
eyes begin to feel tired and my neck hurts. We should not add to these problems by giving people, especially
young people, more reasons to look at screens.
Second, it is incredibly narrow-minded to assume that the only service libraries
offer is book lending. Libraries have a multitude of benefits, and many are only
available if the library has a physical location. Some of these benefits include
acting as a quiet study space, giving people a way to converse with their
neighbors, holding classes on a variety of topics, providing jobs, answering patron
questions, and keeping the community connected. One neighborhood found that,
after a local library instituted community events such as play times for toddlers
and parents, job fairs for teenagers, and meeting spaces for senior citizens, over a
third of residents reported feeling more connected to their community. Similarly, a
Pew survey conducted in 2015 found that nearly two-thirds of American adults feel
that closing their local library would have a major impact on their community.
People see libraries as a way to connect with others and get their questions
answered, benefits tablets can’t offer nearly as well or as easily.
While replacing libraries with tablets may seem like a simple solution, it would
encourage people to spend even more time looking at digital screens, despite the
myriad issues surrounding them. It would also end access to many of the benefits
of libraries that people have come to rely on. In many areas, libraries are such an
important part of the community network that they could never be replaced by a
simple object.
Second, it is incredibly narrow-minded to assume that the only service libraries
offer is book lending. Libraries have a multitude of benefits, and many are only
available if the library has a physical location. Some of these benefits include
acting as a quiet study space, giving people a way to converse with their
neighbors, holding classes on a variety of topics, providing jobs, answering patron
questions, and keeping the community connected. One neighborhood found that,
after a local library instituted community events such as play times for toddlers
and parents, job fairs for teenagers, and meeting spaces for senior citizens, over a
third of residents reported feeling more connected to their community. Similarly, a
Pew survey conducted in 2015 found that nearly two-thirds of American adults feel
that closing their local library would have a major impact on their community.
People see libraries as a way to connect with others and get their questions
answered, benefits tablets can’t offer nearly as well or as easily.
While replacing libraries with tablets may seem like a simple solution, it would
encourage people to spend even more time looking at digital screens, despite the
myriad issues surrounding them. It would also end access to many of the benefits
of libraries that people have come to rely on. In many areas, libraries are such an
important part of the community network that they could never be replaced by a
simple object.
Analysis
The author begins by giving an overview of the counter-argument, then the thesis appears as
the first sentence in the third paragraph. The essay then spends the rest of the paper
dismantling the counter argument and showing why readers should believe the other side.
What this essay does well:
o Although it’s a bit unusual to have the thesis appear fairly far into the essay, it works
because, once the thesis is stated, the rest of the essay focuses on supporting
it since the counter-argument has already been discussed earlier in the paper.
o This essay includes numerous facts and cites studies to support its case. By having
specific data to rely on, the author’s argument is stronger and readers will be more
inclined to agree with it.
o For every argument the other side makes, the author makes sure to refute it and follow
up with why her opinion is the stronger one. In order to make a strong argument, it’s
important to dismantle the other side, which this essay does this by making the
author's view appear stronger.
How this essay could be improved:
o This is a shorter paper, and if it needed to be expanded to meet length requirements,
it could include more examples and go more into depth with them, such as by
explaining specific cases where people benefited from local libraries.
o Additionally, while the paper uses lots of data, the author also mentions their own
experience with using tablets. This should be removed since argumentative essays
focus on facts and data to support an argument, not the author’s own opinion or
experiences. Replacing that with more data on health issues associated with screen
time would strengthen the essay.
o Some of the points made aren't completely accurate, particularly the one about
digital books being cheaper. It actually often costs a library more money to rent out
numerous digital copies of a book compared to buying a single physical copy. Make
sure in your own essay you thoroughly research each of the points and rebuttals you
make, otherwise you'll look like you don't know the issue that well.
Reference:
https://www.monash.edu/student-academic-success/enhance-your-thinking/critical-thinking/create-argume
nt#:~:text=Creating%20arguments%20relies%20on%20synthesis%2C%20which%20means,that%20challe
nges%20and%20improves%20your%20critical%20thinking
.
https://www.learninghub.ac.nz/developing-arguments/
https://blog.prepscholar.com/argumentative-essay-examples
https://www.umgc.edu/current-students/learning-resources/writing-center/online-guide-to-writing/tutorial/ch
apter8/ch8-08
