Unit-II Hours:12

Sampling: Concepts of Statistical Population, Sample,

Sampling Frame, Sampling Error, Sample Size, Non
Response. Characteristics of a Good Sample. Sampling
Methods for determining Size of the Sample, Practical
considerations in Sampling and Sample Size. Data
Collection Methods.
Concepts of Statistical Population
Sample, Sampling Frame, Sampling Error, Sample Size, Non
Response.
Characteristics of a Good Sample.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design 1. Proportional:
Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. This
means that the sample selected should be exactly or almost
similar to the population it represents I terms of data and
characteristics. 2. Error Free: Sample design should reduce the
probability of errors. The minimum numbers of errors in any
sample ensure correct data obtained and analyzed. 3. Budgeted:
Sample design must be practical and be within the limits of funds
available for the research study. 4. No Bias: Sample design should
be able to control systematic bias. 5. Generalization of Results:
Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can
be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must
pay attention to the following points: i. Type of universe:
The accuracy of the results in any study depends on how
clearly the universe or population of interest is defined.
The universe can be finite or infinite, depending on the
number of items it contains.
Clearly definining the set of objects; in principle called the
Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or
infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain,
but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is
infinite, i.e., we do not have any idea about the total
number of items. The total number of employees in a
hotel, the number of covers in a restaurant is example of
ii. iii. iv. v. Sampling unit: The sampling unit can be
anything that exists within the population of interest.
An assessment has to be taken with reference to a
sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit
may be:  A constructed unit such as Hotel,
Restaurant, etc.,  A social unit such as a college,
community club, school, etc.  An individual.  A
geographical one such as state, district, village, etc.,
Source list: It is also known as ‗sampling frame‘ from
which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of
all items of a finite universe. If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list
should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and
Size: The sample size should be justified, not be
excessively large nor it should be too small. Preferably
the sample size should be optimal which fulfills the
requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility and representative of the
population to obtain dependable outcomes. Population
variance, population size, parameters of interest, and
budgetary constraints are some of the factors that
impact the sample size. This refers to the number of
items to be selected from the universe to constitute a
sample which at times may be an important issue for a
researcher. While deciding the size of sample,
researcher must determine the desired precision as also
A larger variance usually needs a bigger sample size to assure
correct results. The parameters of interest in a research study
must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample.
Consideration of interest: In determining the sample design, one
must consider the question of the specific population stricture
which is of interest. E.g. we may calculate the number of walk in
guest‘s from total arrivals at a hotel on daily basis to understand
the proportion and then to leave an optimum number of
unreserved rooms everyday for such guest. vi. vii. Budgetary
limitation: Funds available guide us to decide the size, variation
and quantum of samples. This fact can even lead to the use of a
non probability sample. Sampling procedure: Finally, the
researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must
decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for
the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the
sample design itself. An ideal design is the one that for a given
Sampling Methods for determining Size of the Sample
What is Sample Size?
‘Sample size’ is a market research term used to define
the number of individuals included in research.
Researchers choose their sample based on
demographics, such as age, gender, or physical location.
The term can be vague or specific.
For example, you may want to know what people within
the 18-25 age range think of your product. Or, you may
only require your sample to live in the United States,
giving you a wide population range. The total number of
individuals in a particular sample is the sample size.
What is Sample Size Determination?
Sample size determination is choosing the correct number of observations or people
from a larger group to use in a sample. The goal of figuring out the sample size is to
ensure that the sample is big enough to give statistically valid results and accurate
estimates of population parameters but small enough to be manageable and cost-
effective.

In many research studies, getting information from every member of the population of
interest is not possible or useful. Instead, researchers choose a sample of people or
events representative of the whole to study. How accurate and precise the results are
can depend a lot on the size of the sample.

Choosing the statistically significant sample size depends on a number of things, such
as the size of the population, how precise you want your estimates to be, how confident
you want to be in the results, how different the population is likely to be, and how much
money and time you have for the study. Statistics are often used to determine a sample
size for a certain type of study and research question.

Figuring out the sample size is important in ensuring that research findings and
conclusions are valid and reliable.
Why Do You Need to Determine the Sample Size?
Let’s say you are a market researcher in the US and want to send out
a survey or questionnaire. The survey aims to understand your
audience’s feelings toward a new cell phone you are about to launch.
You want to know what people in the US think about the new product
to predict the phone’s success or failure before launch.

Hypothetically, you choose the population of New York, which is 8.49

million. You use a sample size determination formula to select a
sample of 500 individuals who fit into the consumer panel
requirement. The responses can help you determine how your
audience will react to the new product.

However, determining a sample size requires more than just sending

your survey to as many people as possible. If your estimated sample
size is too big, it could waste resources, time, and money. A sample
size that’s too small doesn’t allow you to gain maximum insights,
leading to inconclusive results.
Terms Used Around the Sample Size?
Before we jump into sample size determination, let’s take a look at the
terms you should know:

1. Population size:
Population size is how many people fit your demographic. For example, you
want to get information on doctors residing in North America. Your
population size is the total number of doctors in North America.

Don’t worry! Your population size doesn’t always have to be that big.
Smaller population sizes can still give you accurate results as long as you
know who you’re trying to represent.

2. Confidence level:
The confidence level tells you how sure you can be that your data is
accurate. It is expressed as a percentage and aligned to the confidence
interval. For example, if your confidence level is 90%, your results will most
3. The margin of error (confidence interval):
There’s no way to be 100% accurate when it comes to surveys.
Confidence intervals tell you how far off from the population means you’re
willing to allow your data to fall.

A margin of error describes how close you can reasonably expect a survey
result to fall relative to the real population value. Remember, if you need
help with this information, use our margin of error calculator.

4. Standard deviation:
Standard deviation is the measure of the dispersion of a data set from its
mean. It measures the absolute variability of a distribution. The higher the
dispersion or variability, the greater the standard deviation and the
greater the magnitude of the deviation.

For example, you have already sent out your survey. How much variance
do you expect in your responses? That variation in response is the
standard deviation.
Sample Size Calculation Formula – Sample Size
Determination
With all the necessary terms defined, it’s time to learn how to
determine sample size using a sample calculation formula.
Your confidence level corresponds to a Z-score. This is a constant
value needed for this equation. Here are the z-scores for the
most common confidence levels:
90% – Z Score = 1.645
95% – Z Score = 1.96
99% – Z Score = 2.576
If you choose a different confidence level, various online tools
can help you find your score.
Necessary Sample Size = (Z-score)2 * StdDev*(1-StdDev) / (margin of error)2

Here is an example of how the math works, assuming you chose a 90% confidence level, a .6
standard deviation, and a margin of error (confidence interval) of +/- 4%.

((1.64)2 x .6(.6)) / (.04)2

( 2.68x .0.36) / .0016

.9648 / .0016

=603

603 respondents are needed, and that becomes your sample size.
How is a Sample Size Determined? Practical
considerations in Sampling and Sample Size.

Determining the right sample size for your survey is

one of the most common questions researchers ask
when they begin a market research study. Luckily,
sample size determination isn’t as hard to calculate as
you might remember from an old high school statistics
class.
Before calculating your sample size, ensure you have
these things in place:
1. Goals and objectives:
Calculating sample size is critical to projecting your survey
results on a larger population. You’ll want to ensure it’s
balanced and reflects the community as a whole. However,
the sample size isn’t as critical if you’re trying to understand
preferences.
For example, you’re surveying homeowners across the US on
the cost of cooling their homes in the summer. A homeowner
in the South probably spends much more money cooling their
home in the humid heat than in Denver, where the climate is
dry and cool.
You’ll need responses from people in all US areas and
environments for the most accurate results. If you only collect
responses from one extreme, such as the warm South, your
2. Precision level:
How close do you want the survey results to mimic the
true value if everyone responded? Again, if this survey
determines how you will spend millions of dollars, then
your sample size determination should be exact.
The more accurate you need to be, the larger the sample
you want to have, and the more your sample will have to
represent the overall population. If your population is
small, say, 200 people, you may want to survey the
entire population rather than cut it down with a sample.
3. Confidence level:
Think of confidence from the perspective of risk. How much risk are you
willing to take on? This is where your Confidence Interval numbers become
important. How confident do you want to be — 98% confident, 95%
confident?

Understand that the confidence percentage you choose greatly impacts the
number of completions you’ll need for accuracy. This can increase the
survey’s length and the number of responses you need, which means
increased costs for your survey.

Knowing the actual numbers and amounts behind percentages can help you
make more sense of your correct sample size needs compared to survey
costs.

For example, you want to be 99% confident. After using the sample size
determination formula, you need to collect an additional 1000
respondents. This, in turn, means you’ll be paying for samples or keeping
your survey running for an extra week or two. You have to determine if the
4. Population variability:
What variability exists in your population? In other words, how
similar or different is the population?
If you are surveying consumers on a broad topic, there may be
many variations. To get the most accurate picture of the
population, you’ll need a larger sample size.
However, if you’re surveying a population with similar
characteristics, your variability will be less, and you can sample
fewer people. More variability equals more samples, and less
variability equals fewer samples. If you’re not sure, you can start
with 50% variability.
5. Response rate:
You want everyone to respond to your survey. Unfortunately,
every survey has targeted respondents who either never open
the study or drop out halfway through. Your response rate will
depend on your population’s engagement with your product,
service organization, or brand.
The higher the response rate, the higher your population’s
engagement level. Your base sample size is the number of
responses you must get for a survey to be successful.
6. Consider your audience:
Besides the variability within your population, you need to ensure
your sample doesn’t include people who won’t benefit from the
results. One of the biggest mistakes you can make in sample size
determination is forgetting to consider your actual audience.
For example, you would not want to send a survey to a group of
homeowners asking about the quality of local apartment
amenities.
7. Focus on your survey’s objectives:
You may start with general demographics and characteristics, but can you
narrow those characteristics down even more? Narrowing down your
audience makes it easier to get a more accurate result from a small sample
size.

For example, you want to know how people will react to new automobile
technology. Your current population includes anyone who owns a car in a
particular market.

However, you know your target audience is people who drive cars that are
less than five years old. You can remove anyone with an older vehicle from
your sample because they will unlikely purchase your product.

Once you know what you hope to gain from your survey and what variables
exist within your population, you can decide how to calculate the sample
size. Using the formula to determine sample size is a great starting point for
getting accurate results.
Data Collection Methods.
Importance of Data Collection Methods
Data collection methods play a crucial role in the research process as they
determine the quality and accuracy of the data collected. Here are some
major importance of data collection methods.
•Quality and Accuracy: The choice of data collection technique directly
impacts the quality and accuracy of the data obtained. Properly designed
methods help ensure that the data collected is error-free and relevant to the
research questions.
•Relevance, Validity, and Reliability: Effective data collection methods
help ensure that the data collected is relevant to the research objectives,
valid (measuring what it intends to measure), and reliable (consistent and
reproducible).
•Bias Reduction and Representativeness: Carefully chosen data
collection methods can help minimize biases inherent in the research
process, such as sampling or response bias. They also aid in achieving a
representative sample, enhancing the findings’ generalizability.
•Informed Decision Making: Accurate and reliable data collected through
appropriate methods provide a solid foundation for making informed
decisions based on research findings. This is crucial for both academic
research and practical applications in various fields.
•Achievement of Research Objectives: Data collection methods should
align with the research objectives to ensure that the collected data
effectively addresses the research questions or hypotheses. Properly
collected data facilitates the attainment of these objectives.
•Support for Validity and Reliability: Validity and reliability are essential
to research validity. The choice of data collection methods can either
enhance or detract from the validity and reliability of research findings.
Therefore, selecting appropriate methods is critical for ensuring the
credibility of the research.
Types of Data Collection Methods
The choice of data collection method depends on the research question being addressed, the
type of data needed, and the resources and time available. Data collection methods can be
categorized into primary and secondary methods.
1. Primary Data Collection Methods
Primary data is collected from first-hand experience and is not
used in the past. The data gathered by primary data collection
methods are highly accurate and specific to the research’s
motive.
Primary data collection methods can be divided into two
categories: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Methods:
Quantitative techniques for market research and demand forecasting
usually use statistical tools. In these techniques, demand is forecasted
based on historical data. These methods of primary data collection are
generally used to make long-term forecasts. Statistical analysis methods are
highly reliable as subjectivity is minimal.
•Time Series Analysis: A time series refers to a sequential order of values
of a variable, known as a trend, at equal time intervals. Using patterns, an
organization can predict the demand for its products and services over a
projected time period.
•Smoothing Techniques: Smoothing techniques can be used in cases
where the time series lacks significant trends. They eliminate random
variation from the historical demand, helping identify patterns and demand
levels to estimate future demand.
The most common methods used in smoothing demand forecasting are the
simple moving average and weighted moving average methods.
•Barometric Method: Also known as the leading indicators approach,
Qualitative Methods:
Qualitative data collection methods are especially useful when
historical data is unavailable or when numbers or mathematical
calculations are unnecessary.
Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds,
feelings, emotions, colors, and non-quantifiable elements. These
techniques are based on experience, judgment, intuition,
conjecture, emotion, etc.
Quantitative methods do not provide the motive behind
participants’ responses, often don’t reach underrepresented
populations, and require long periods of time to collect the data.
Hence, it is best to combine quantitative methods with
qualitative methods.
1.Surveys: Surveys collect data from the target audience and
gather insights into their preferences, opinions, choices, and
feedback related to their products and services. Most survey
software offers a wide range of question types.
2.Polls: Polls comprise one single or multiple-choice question. They
are useful when you need to get a quick pulse of the audience’s
sentiments. Because they are short, it is easier to get responses
from people.
3.Interviews: In face-to-face interviews, the interviewer asks a
series of questions to the interviewee in person and notes down
responses. If it is not feasible to meet the person, the interviewer
can go for a telephone interview.
4.Delphi Technique: In the Delphi method, market experts are
provided with the estimates and assumptions of other industry
experts’ forecasts. Based on this information, experts may
reconsider and revise their estimates and assumptions. The
5. Focus Groups: Focus groups are one example
of qualitative data in education. In a focus group, a small group of people,
around 8-10 members, discuss the common areas of the research problem.
Each individual provides his or her insights on the issue concerned.

A moderator regulates the discussion among the group members. At the end
of the discussion, the group reaches a consensus.

6. Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a printed set of open-ended or closed-

ended questions that respondents must answer based on their knowledge
and experience with the issue. The questionnaire is part of the survey,
whereas the questionnaire’s end goal may or may not be a survey.

7. Digsite: Digsite is a purpose-built platform for conducting fast and flexible

qualitative research, enabling users to understand the ‘whys’ behind
consumer behavior. With Digsite, businesses can efficiently recruit targeted
participants and gather rich qualitative insights through various methods,
such as

1. Live video interviews, 2. Polls and 3. Focus groups.

2. Secondary Data Collection Methods
Secondary data is data that has been used in the past. The researcher can obtain
data from the data sources, both internal and external, to the organizational data.

Internal sources of secondary data:

•Organization’s health and safety records

•Mission and vision statements
•Financial Statements
•Magazines
•Sales Report
•CRM Software
•Executive summaries
External sources of secondary data:

•Government reports
•Press releases
•Business journals
•Libraries
•Internet
Steps in the Data Collection Process
The data collection process typically involves several key steps to ensure the
accuracy and reliability of the data gathered. These steps provide a
structured approach to gathering and analyzing data effectively. Here are
the key steps in the data collection process:
•Define the Objectives: Clearly outline the goals of the data collection.
What questions are you trying to answer?
•Identify Data Sources: Determine where the data will come from. This
could include surveys, interviews, existing databases, or observational data.
•Choose Data Collection Methods: Select appropriate methods based on
your objectives and data sources. Common methods include:
• Surveys and questionnaires
• Interviews (structured or unstructured)
• Focus groups
• Observational Research
• Document analysis
•Develop Data Collection Instruments: Create or adapt tools for
collecting data, such as questionnaires or interview guides. Ensure they are
valid and reliable.
•Select a Sample: If you are not collecting data from the entire
population, determine how to select your sample. Consider
sampling methods like random, stratified, or convenience sampling.
•Collect Data: Execute your data collection plan, following ethical
guidelines and maintaining data integrity.
•Store Data: Organize and store collected data securely, ensuring it’s
easily accessible for analysis while maintaining confidentiality.
•Analyze Data: After collecting the data, process and analyze it according
to your objectives, using appropriate statistical or qualitative methods.
•Interpret Results: Conclude your analysis, relating them back to your
original objectives and research questions.
•Report Findings: Present your findings clearly and organized, using
visuals and summaries to communicate insights effectively.
•Evaluate the Process: Reflect on the data collection process. Assess
what worked well and what could be improved for future studies.