Functionalism

REFERENCE -Chapter 11: An Introduction to the History of Psychology

Authors: B. R. HERGENHAHN
TRACY B. HENLEY
Functionalism-: The beginnings
•1890s: (i) SCIENCE, (ii)A CONCERN FOR PRACTICALITY , (iii) EMPHASIS ON THE INDIVIDUAL
& (iv)EVOLUTIONARY THEORY combined into the school of Functionalism.

•The formal origins of the school are attributed to different dates:

1890: 1896:
The Principles of Psychology ‘The Reflex Arc in Psychology’
by William James by John Dewey

•If we trace the beginnings to 1890, then the school pre-dates Structuralism & ran parallel to it.
•Titchener started at Cornell in 1892 and remained there till 1927
 Common themes in
functionalism
Functionalism was never a clearly defined school with a clear leader or method. But certain themes run common (Keller,
1973):

Opposition to the search for the elements of consciousness by Structuralists.

Emphasis on functions of the mind- what the mind does, what it helps us achieve

Wanted psychology to be a practical science & apply their findings to the improvement of personal life, education,
industry

Accepted both mind and behaviour as legitimate fields for psychology.

Interest in the topic of motivation and the underlying needs that drive behaviour

More interested in what made organisms different from one another than in what made them similar.
The rivalry
•Structuralism and Functionalism were adversaries with very
little meaningful dialogue.

•They two schools represented different paradigms –

distinct assumptions, goals, methodologies

Theme Structuralism Functionalism

Assumptions about Drawn from Empiricism Drawn from the evolutionary theory
mind
Goals To understand the structures of To understand how mind & behaviour
mind - It focused on what help us adjust to the environment
questions (FUNCTIONS)- It explored how
questions.

Method Introspection Anything that was useful-

introspection, animal studies, studies
with the mentally ill
William James (1842-1910)
His ideas contained the seed that were to grow into functionalism.

All functionalists were directly or indirectly influenced by James.

James’ 1890 book ‘Principles of Psychology’ became highly popular.

After it he began to compete with Wundt for the unofficial title of leader
of psychology.

James’ was much older than Titchener and died in 1910, when Titchener was
at the peak of his popularity.
Yet James’ psychology went on to become more influential in nature.
Who was William james?
Born in NY on January 11, 1842 to a wealthy father
Attended the best schools in the US, Switzerland, France, Germany,
England.
At 18 years, decided to be an artist. His father was so distressed that he
even threatened suicide.

1864: Aged 22, Enrolled in Harvard Medical School.

Went on an expedition to Brazil---Experienced Seasickness & smallpox.
Returned to continue his medical studies, but his health deteriorated.

 1867: Went to Germany and work on his health.

There he began to read German psychology and philosophy. Here, he
discovered Wundt & even agreed that it was time for psychology to
become a science
 Who was William James?
1869: Obtained a medical degree from Harvard, aged 27 years.
Yet his health deteriorated again & he became deeply depressed.

A major turning point: Reading an essay on free will by Charles- Bernard Renouvier (1815–
1903).
 James wrote in his diary: My first act of free will shall be to believe in free will”

This helped his depression and led to him being more productive

Spent several years teaching at Harvard.

1875–1876: Taught his first psychology course; the first psychology lecture he himself
attended was his own.

1875: Created a small demonstration laboratory, used in teaching his course.

This raised a controversy concerning who established psychology’s first lab- Credit is given to Wundt as his lab was
more elaborate & designed for research instead of merely for teaching demonstrations.
 Who was William James?
1878: Publisher Henry Holt offered James a contract to write a textbook on psychology.
1890: The book was finally published 12 years later.
 The book was highly popular but James (1920) did not think much of it

The book criticised Wundt’s search Wundt on the book: “It is literature,
for the elements of consciousness. it is beautiful, but it is not
psychology”

 If James had probed into Wundt’s Voluntarism &

Völkerpsychologie, he would have seen the similarity
b/w himself & Wundt.
 We do not find an
organized theory
He wrote several others books: The Varieties of Religious
Experience (1902) & Talks to Teachers (1899). in James’s writings
BUT,
 What we find is a wide variety of topics:
 1892: At age 50, James decided that he had said everything he Religion, Faith Healing, Psychic phenomena
could about psychology. +
Rigorous scientific facts & methods

 Once when he was to give a talk at Princeton, he asked not to be

introduced as a psychologist  Many, like Titchener, criticized James for his
espousal of such phenomena that they were
trying to banish.
 He passed the directorship of Harvard Lab to Hugo Münsterberg
(who popularized psychology as a more
 By studying all aspects of human existence
applied discipline). —including behavior, cognition, emotions,
volition, religious experience—James
expanded the subject matter of psychology.
 1907: Retired from Harvard
 1910: Died of a heart condition at his country home in New
Hampshire
1. Consciousness is personal- 2. Consciousness is continuous

James on Consciousness
Reflects the experiences of an
individual
with no sharp disruptions.

We may notice gaps (e.g., when

Thus it is foolhardy to search for sleeping), but on waking we have
1. Consciousness
elements common to isallpersonal-Reflects
minds. the experiences
no difficulty making connections.
of an individual- 2. Consciousness is continuous with no
sharp disruptions.
• Thus it is foolhardy to search for elements common
We may notice gaps (e.g., when sleeping), but
3.toConsciousness
all minds. is
on waking we have no difficulty making
constantly changing .
connections.
Psychologist’s fallacy

 Even if some trained observers can analyze their conscious

experiences in a lab does not mean…

 that the elements they report are present in the

consciousness of anyone else.

 James considered such an assumption to be the

“psychologists’ fallacy.”
 Consciousness
4. The mind is selective.
5. Consciousness is functional.

• Consciousness must have some

3. Consciousness is constantly biological utility to have
changing . survived over time.
•It filters out some
James quoted Heraclitus’s aphorism : experiences, combines or
• Here we see the powerful
“No man ever steps in the same separates others.
influence of Darwin.
river twice, for it's not the same
river and he's not the same man.”
•The most important
For James...One can never have exactly criterion for selection is • Utility - Enabling us to adapt to
the same idea twice. It will differ relevance. our environment when we
because of the effect of intervening encounter a new problem and
experiences need to choose a new way of
coping.

James first mentioned “stream of consciousness”

in his 1884 article.
Holland (1986)- George Henry Lewes
used the term 4 years earlier.
 We see a Then we feel
We run frightened
bear
that are
Perception, bodily then
causes. reactions experienced
Emotions as emotions
Reversed traditional belief on emotions, which was:
• E.g, : We see a bear (perception)……we are frightened (emotion)…..and we run
(action)

• James:

• Emotions depend on what we do.

• Carl Lange published the same theory at about the same time.

• Thus the theory is known as James–Lange theory of emotion

 James’s ideo-motor theory of behaviour.
James was interactionist: Bodily events cause....... thoughts/ideas ………thoughts/ideas cause behavior.
What we Determines
What we do
Determines
think what we do how we feel
An idea of a certain action (E.g., watch TV) causes that action to occur.
Mostly ideas flow automatically into behaviour.
This automatic process continues unless mental effort is expended to purposively select and hold an idea of
interest in consciousness.
That is the one that causes behavior and continues to do so as long as the idea is attended to.

So if we combine
James’s theories
of volition and
emotion
The views of William James
SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY
Both a scientific & philosophical approach must be used in the study of humans.
James proposed a radical empiricism by which all consistently reported aspects of human experience
are worthy of study.

DETERMINISM & FREE WILL

RATIONAL & NON-RATIONAL
• Determinism is critical for science.
People are creatures of emotion/ passion as well as of
thought/reason.
• Insofar as psychology was to be a science, it too
must assume determinism.  Intellect can be affected by the body’s physical condition
 Beliefs are determined by emotions.
 Reason & concept formation are influenced by human
• But at times, the assumption of free will might wants and needs.
be very fruitful.
 Use of Method:
James encouraged the use of any method that would shed light on the
complexities of human existence.
 Aware of the difficulties of introspection
 He acknowledged experimental method as important
 So, Accepted it as a less-than-perfect form of for psychophysics research, space perception, memory.
observation.

 In addition James recommended the comparative method.

 By inquiring into different populations—such as animals, infants,

preliterate peoples, emotionally disturbed individuals— psychology could
uncover meaningful variations in mental life.
 Pragmatism
 Any belief, thought, or behavior must be judged by its
consequences.
James’s willingness to accept methods ranging
from anecdotes to rigorous experimentation
indicated his belief in pragmatism. • Any belief that helps create a more effective/satisfying life is
worth holding, whether scientific or religious.
This eclectic approach broadened the scope of
American psychology.
• Truth is not something fixed.
• Instead, truth is something that must be gauged by
effectiveness under changing circumstances.

 Following his belief that any idea has potential pragmatic value, James embraced
parapsychology.
1884-Founded American Society for Psychical Research.

 The pragmatic spirit in James’s psychology led to the development of

 applied psychology.
Individualism Multiple levels of analysis
• A strong individualistic quality runs throughout James affirmed multiple levels of analysis:
James’s writings.
Molecular

Biological
• He believed that circumstances shape individuals
but, in turn, individuals act on the world & shape
it in unique ways . Psychological

Sociological
• Thus, individuals + circumstances make history.
Philosophical

All are legitimate and have their special

value and application.
 Habits and Instincts
James believed that much But he did not believe that instinctive
BEHAVIOUR IS DRIVEN BY INSTINCTS . behavior is “blind & invariable.”

Rather, it is MODIFIABLE BY
EXPERIENCE.

He also believed that NEW INSTINCT LIKE PATTERNS develop within one’s LIFE TIME. James called these HABITS.

James- Habits are formed as an activity is

repeated. This neurophysiological explanation was very
close to PAVLOV’S.
Repetition causes the same neural
pathways to, from, and within the brain to (James was trained in physiology & medicine).
become more entrenched, making it easier for
energy to pass through those pathways.
 Habits are FUNCTIONAL -
simplify the movements increase the accuracy of reduce fatigue diminish the need to
required to achieve a result behavior consciously attend to
performed actions

James offered 5 maxims to develop good habits-

1. Place yourself in circumstances that encourage good habits and discourage bad ones.
All of James’s maxims
2. Do not allow yourself to act contrary to a new habit that you are attempting to converge on a fundamental
develop. principle:
3. Do not attempt to slowly develop a good habit or eliminate a bad one. Engage in Act in ways that are
positive habits completely to begin with and abstain completely from bad ones. compatible with the type of
person you would like to
4. It is not (just) the intention to engage in good habits and avoid bad ones that is become.
important; it is the actual doing so.

5. Force yourself to act in ways that are beneficial to you, even if doing so at first is
distasteful and requires considerable effort.
Self esteem The self As known (ME) &
Examined the Knower (I)
circumstances in which
people felt good & The self is partly known and partly knower.
bad about themselves. But there is also the aspect of
self that is the knower (I)
KNOWN: -‘Empirical self’ (me)
Self esteem =
Success/pretentions Everything that a person would call his/her James-Dealing with ‘me/known’
own (both the tangible and the intangible) was much easier than dealing
PRETENSIONS HERE with ‘I/knower’ or pure ego.
3 aspects of the em pirical self:
MEANS EXPECTATIONS
He struggled with the concept
OF SUCCESS
Material self Social self Spiritual of self as knower
self
To increase self- e.g. I have a E.g. Admitted that it was similar to
car I am polite E.g, I feel
esteem we should connected
older theological notions like soul
succeed more or to nature / spirit.
adjust our
expectations
 James’s Contributions to
Psychology
 James helped incorporate EVOLUTIONARY THEORY into psychology.

 By studying ALL ASPECTS OF HUMAN EXISTENCE—behavior, cognition, emotions, volition, religious

experience—James expanded the subject matter of psychology.

 James expanded RESEARCH TECHNIQUES, by accepting INTROSPECTION + encouraging ANY TECHNIQUE

that promised to yield useful information .

 By stressing what is USEFUL he represented a departure from the PURE PSYCHOLOGY of both voluntarism
and structuralism.

 The PRAGMATIC SPIRIT in James’s psychology led to the development of APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY.
 Other Functionalists
G. Stanley hall @ Clark University (Massachusetts)

Dewey, Angell, Carr @ The Chicago School

Cattell, Woodsworth, Thorndike @ The Columbia

G. Stanley Hall (1846 –1924)
1883: Estb. the first psychology lab in US at John Hopkins Univ.
1887: Founded the American Journal of Psychology
1889: President of Clark University.
1892: Appointed as the first president of the APA
1909: Invites Freud &Jung to visit Clark Univ. to deliver lectures.

• Interested in child development & evolutionary theory.

• 1904: Wrote the 1,300-page Adolescence (1904)…. which opened doors for scientific study of adolescent psychology…
STORM & STRESS

• Contains emphasis on the recapitulation theory of psychological development..... children in their personal
development repeat the life history of the human race………evolving from a near-savage state in infancy / childhood to
a rational, civilized human being in adulthood.

• The book was controversial due to what some psychologists considered an excessive focus on sex.

• At age of 78 he published Senescence (1922), 1st large-scale survey of the psychological issues of old age.
(PRONOUNCED AS= CINE + SENSE, deterioration with age)
 John Dewey(1859–1952)
The Chicago School 1886: Published the 1st American textbook in
psychology.
John Dewey & James Rowland
Angell contributed directly to the The book remained popular until it was eclipsed
founding of functionalism. in 1890 by James’s Principles of Psychology.
Dewey spent 10 years at the Univ. of Chicago
where he established a laboratory school
1894: They arrived at the newly cornerstone for the progressive education
established University of Chicago movement.
1904: Went to Columbia Univ., NY to continue
Later, each appeared on the cover of his work applying psychology to education
Time magazine.
What was the school's purpose?
•To test Dewey's theories about teaching and
schooling
William James announced that
•To create a curriculum that focused on children &
Dewey & Angell should be activities, rather than books and recitations
considered the founders of the new •To replace traditional instructional methods with
system, which we call Functionalism. collaborative hands-on activities
 John Dewey & the Reflex Arc
“The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology,” was published in 1896.

First Known Use of reflex arc was in 1882

Meaning given: the complete nervous path involved in a reflex,

which was:

Example: Child touches a hot stove/flame

1. Stimulus: Touching a hot stove
2. The sensory neurons from the hand carry a message to the
spinal cord.
3. The motor neurons send a message to the hand to immediately
withdraw
4. Response: withdrawal of hand

. The proponents of the reflex arc argued that any unit of behavior ends with the R (e.g.,
withdrawal of hand).
Dewey suggested that the reflex forms more of a circle than an arc

This is because after the response, the child’s perception of the flame changes (S).

Initially the flame attracted the child, but now the child is repelled by the flame.

The R has altered the child’s perception of the S.

• Dewey also argued that neither behavior nor consciousness could be

reduced to elements.

• The proper subject matter for psychology had to be the study of the
total organism as it functions in its environment.

• Dewey never called his psychology functionalism.

• He apparently did not believe structure & function could be

meaningfully separated.
James Angell (1869–1949)
When Dewey left Chicago, the leadership passed to Angell.

In the 1904 book, Psychology he stated that the goal of psychology to study how the
mind assists the organism in adjusting to its environment.

In Angell’s 1906 presidential address to the APA he described 3 themes of

functionalism:
1. It is the psychology of mental operations, in contrast to structuralism.

2. It is the psychology of the fundamental utilities of consciousness (which is to

mediate b/w the needs of the organism and demands of the environment).

3. It recognizes no real distinction b/w mind & body. It considers them as belonging
to the same order and assumes an easy transfer from one to the other.
Harvey A. Carr (1873–1954)
Carr succeeded Angell
Under him functionalism at Chicago reached its peak as a formal system.

His textbook, Psychology (1925), presents 2 major points:

1. The subject matter of psychology is mental activity—processes such

as memory, perception, feeling, imagination, judgment, and will.

2. The function of mental activity is to acquire, fixate, retain, organize,

and evaluate experiences and to use these experiences to determine
one’s actions.
Functionalism at Columbia University-Robert Woodworth (1869–1962)
Dynamic Psychology

1. S is not the complete cause of a particular R.

2. The ‘O’ with its varying energy levels and its current and past experiences, also
determines the R.
3. Psychology must consider the O as interpolated between the S& R. (S-O-R)
4. Thus the subject matter for psychology must be both consciousness & behavior.
• The S & R may be observed objectively, but what occurs inside the ‘O’ can be known only
through introspection.

• Thus, Woodworth accepted introspection along with observation & experimental

methods.

• He introduced into functionalism a dynamic psychology concerned with motivation;

Woodworth’s intention was to develop what he called a “motivology.”

• He believed that psychology’s goal should be to determine why people behave as they do.
Functionalists Contributions What happened to
functionalism?
• Functionalism’s opposition to structuralism had an
immense impact. According to Chaplin and Krawiec (1979),
Functionalism was an overwhelming
• The shift from structure to function had Long-range success, but largely because of this success
consequences for Psychology. it is no longer a distinct school of
• Incorporated studies of children, animal behaviour & psychology. It was absorbed into the
people with mental disabilities. mainstream psychology. No happier fate
could await any psychological point of view.
• Plurality of methods: introspection + mental tests + (p. 53)
questionnaires + observation + experimentation
• These methods became respectable sources of
information. Similarly, Hilgard (1987) said,
• By 1930, the functionalist victory was virtually complete. “[Functionalism] declined as a recognized
school, destroyed by its success, and, in
part, by the success of its intellectual
progeny, behaviorism”