Source: INDOOR AIR QUALITY HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 36

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
Donna J. Vorhees, Sc.D.
Menzie-Cura & Associates, Inc. Chelmsford, Massachusetts

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were valued historically for their thermal stability, chemical inertness, low flammability, low vapor pressure at ambient temperature, and resistance to microbial degradation (de Voogt and Brinkman 1989). These properties made them excellent dielectric fluids in transformers and capacitors as well as for other applications. Today, these same properties make PCBs problematic contaminants that persist and bioaccumulate in the environment. PCBs were manufactured in the United States from 1929 to 1977 as commercial mixtures called Aroclors. Similar commercial mixtures produced elsewhere in the world include Clophens (Germany), Kanechlors (Japan), Phenoclors (France), Fenclors (Italy), and Soval (Russia). PCB production peaked in the United States in 1970 prior to use and manufacturing restrictions implemented in the late 1970s. Despite these restrictions, PCBs persist in air, water, soil, sediment, and biota. Because PCB mixtures are generally hydrophobic and not volatile, they partition to soils and sediments more than air or water. PCBs can bioaccumulate in fish and higher-trophic-level organisms that are consumed by people. In fact, the diet is generally regarded as the main source of human exposure. Exposure to PCBs in indoor air might be second only to dietary exposure given the substantial amount of time people spend indoors (Robinson and Thomas 1991), although the specific congener mixtures in air would differ from congener mixtures in food. Individuals working in PCB-using industries (e.g., transformer repair) commonly experience the highest indoor exposures; however, this chapter focuses on nonindustrial indoor environments.

36.1 WHAT ARE PCBs?

Aroclors and other commercial mixtures of PCBs were produced by chlorinating molten biphenyl with anhydrous chlorine in the presence of a catalyst. The biphenyl molecule can accommodate between one and ten chlorine substitutions, resulting in 209 possible congeners (Fig. 36.1). PCB congeners with the same number of chlorines are isomers referred to col36.1 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.2

INDOOR POLLUTANTS

FIGURE 36.1 Structure of polychlorinated biphenyl compounds.

lectively as homolog groups. Commercial mixtures are composed of different but overlapping congener mixtures. Four-digit numbers assigned to Aroclors reflect the chemical composition of these mixtures. The first two numbers indicate the 12 carbon atoms in the biphenyl ring, and the last two numbers denote the weight percentage of chlorine. For example, Aroclor 1242 contains 42 percent chlorine by weight. Aroclor 1016, with 41 percent chlorine by weight, is an exception to this nomenclature. It contains almost the same amount of chlorine as Aroclor 1242, but with a lower proportion of high-molecular-weight congeners. Aroclor 1016 was developed as an alternative to Aroclor 1242 after concern arose about the environmental persistence of the heavier congeners (de Voogt and Brinkman 1989).

36.2 PCBs IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Mixtures and congeners with high chlorine content tend to adhere to soils, sediments, and organic materials. Fish and other organisms bioaccumulate PCBs, particularly congeners with high chlorine content that are resistant to metabolism and elimination (Oliver and Niimi 1988, Schwartz and Stalling 1987, Lake et al. 1995). The major destructive pathway for PCBs is biologically mediated reductive dechlorination under anaerobic conditions to less chlorinated congeners, followed by slow anaerobic and/or aerobic biodegradation (Brown and Wagner 1990, Lake et al. 1992, Lang 1992). These processes are slow, and PCBs persist in the environment for many years as complex mixtures. Aroclor mixtures and individual congeners with low chlorine content tend to be more volatile and soluble than those with high chlorine content. Therefore, they can be dispersed to remote locations such as the Arctic (Tanabe et al. 1983, Gregor and Gummer 1989) and can impact indoor air (MacLeod 1981, Oatman and Roy 1986, Vorhees et al. 1997, Currado and Harrad 1998). PCBs exist in the air in both the gas and particle phases. Recent work demonstrates that PCB gas/particle partitioning in air is governed primarily by PCB vapor pressures and total suspended particulate levels (Baker and Eisenreich 1990, Duinker and Bouchertall 1989, Ligocki and Pankow 1989, Foreman and Bidleman 1987). Figure 36.2 depicts PCB congener patterns in various environmental media collected from the New Bedford Harbor region of Massachusetts. These patterns illustrate how heavier congeners partition to soil and dust while lighter congeners partition to air and water. Brown and Wagner (1990) concluded that the New Bedford Harbor sediment congener pattern depicted in Fig. 36.2 reflects some microbial dechlorination, because the pattern is shifted toward a lower-molecular-weight congener mixture than the Aroclors historically released to the harbor. Only about half of the 209 congeners have been quantified in environmental samples, and even fewer are prevalent in these samples (McFarland and Clarke 1989). Congener

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36.3

12 10 8 Weight % 6 4 2
105 138 183 107 177 156 180 184 188/203 195 194 206 8 10 15/17 18 31 33 45 49 37 74 86 90 101 97 138 151 149 146

Indoor Air

PCB Congener Number

12 10 8 Weight % 6 4 2
188/203 195 194 8 10 15/17 18 31 33 45 49 90 101 97 138 151 149 146 105 138 183 107 177 156 180 184 204 37 74 86

House Dust

PCB Congener Number

12 10

Sediment
8 Weight % 6 4 2 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

PCB Congener Number

FIGURE 36.2 Example PCB congener patterns from environmental media collected near New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts.

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.4 12 10 8 Weight % 6 4 2

8 10 15/17 18 31 33 183 107 177 156 180 184 188/203 195 194 206 37 74 86 90 101 97 138 151 149 146 105 138 45 49

INDOOR POLLUTANTS

Outdoor Air

PCB Congener Number

12 10 8 Weight % 6 4 2
8 10 15/17 18 31 33 45 49 37 74 86 90 101 97 138 151 149 146 105 138 183 107 177 156 180 184 188/203 195 194 204

Yard Soil

PCB Congener Number

25

20

Drinking Water

Weight %

15

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

PCB Congener Number

FIGURE 36.2 Example PCB congener patterns from environmental media collected near New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts. (Continued)

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36.5

patterns in environmental samples differ from Aroclors because individual congeners differ in properties that affect partitioning, persistence, and bioaccumulation (Schwartz and Stalling 1987, Lang 1992). In addition, PCB congeners in environmental samples might originate from multiple Aroclor sources. Historically, analytic methods and toxicological studies focused on commercial mixtures, such as Aroclors. PCBs were quantified by matching congener patterns found in samples to the most similar Aroclor pattern and reporting total PCBs. This approach is not appropriate given how mixtures change following release to the environment. Advances in analytic chemistry during the 1980s allow identification and quantification of individual congeners (Erickson 1997). Animal toxicological studies in the United States continue to employ Aroclors (Brunner et al. 1996). However, in evaluating the carcinogenic potency of PCBs, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) interprets and uses study results after considering their applicability to congener mixtures as they exist in the environment (USEPA 1996, Cogliano 1998).

36.3 HISTORIC USES OF PCBs THAT COULD IMPACT INDOOR AIR QUALITY
PCBs were used extensively around the world in many products. In the United States, Aroclor 1242 was used predominantly, followed by Aroclors 1016, 1254, and 1260. Table 36.1 summarizes PCB-containing products and each Aroclors percent of total U.S. production from 1957 to 1977. PCBs were used primarily as dielectric fluids in transformers and capacitors. They were also used in hydraulic systems, heat-transfer systems, lubricating oils, cutting oils, wax extenders, paints (as plasticizers), wood product coatings (to reduce flammability), carbonless copy paper, adhesives, sealants, and plastics as ink solvent/carriers (Hutzinger et al. 1974; Pomerantz et al. 1978; USEPA 1994, 1999a).
TABLE 36.1 Historic Uses of PCBs Percent of U.S. production (19571977) 13 1 1

Aroclor 1016 1221 1232 1242

Product Capacitors Capacitors, gas transmission turbines, rubbers, adhesives Hydraulic fluids, rubbers, adhesives Capacitors, transformers, heat transfer, hydraulic fluids, gas-transmission turbines, rubbers, carbonless copy paper, adhesives, wax extenders Hydraulic fluids, vacuum pumps, rubbers, synthetic resins, adhesives Capacitors, transformers, hydraulic fluids, vacuum pumps, rubbers, synthetic resins, adhesives, wax extenders, dedusting agents, inks, cutting oils, pesticide extenders, sealants and caulking compounds Transformers, hydraulic fluids, synthetic resins, dedusting agents Synthetic resins Rubbers, synthetic resins, wax extenders

52 7

1248 1254

1260 1262 1268

16 11 1 1

Source: IARC (1978); Brown (1994).

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INDOOR POLLUTANTS

Although PCBs are no longer used in these products, they persist in soil, sediment, biota, and old PCB-containing products such as transformers, capacitors, and paints (Welsh 1995). Cycling of previously released PCBs among environmental media (e.g., soil and sediment) represents the major source of PCBs in the atmosphere (ATSDR 1999, Murphy et al. 1985). Old PCB-containing products can also be sources if PCBs are released due to a leak, fire, or improper handling and disposal. PCBs persist inside some public buildings, offices, and residences in old electrical appliances, fluorescent lights, paint, and building materials (USEPA 1994). Fluorescent lights and capacitors have long been recognized as potential sources of PCBs in indoor air (Staiff et al. 1970, USEPA 1979). In a public building complex, PCBs in indoor air were attributed to ceiling tiles (Todd 1987). A 1981 study demonstrated PCB exposure inside homes possibly due to electrical appliances (MacLeod 1981). Oatman and Roy (1986) measured PCBs in the indoor air of public buildings with and without transformers. PCB-containing sealants and caulking materials also can impact indoor air quality (Benthe et al. 1992; Balfanz et al. 1993a, 1993b; Williams et al. 1980). PCBs in the indoor air of a Massachusetts school were attributed to joint caulking, wood fiber ceiling material, and paint (Leung 1996).

36.4 HEALTH EFFECTS OF PCBs

Human exposure to PCBs elicits concern because of their wide range of possible cancer and noncancer effects. The health effects associated with PCBs have been reviewed extensively (Kimbrough and Jensen 1989, Silberhorn et al. 1990, Safe 1994, Swanson et al. 1995, Longnecker et al. 1997, Rice 1997, Jacobson and Jacobson 1997, Cogliano 1998, Geisy and Kannan 1998, ATSDR 1999, Brouwer et al. 1999, NRC 1999). This section provides a brief summary of this large and growing literature, emphasizing evidence of effects in human populations. In occupational studies where people are generally exposed to higher PCB concentrations than the general population, PCB mixtures have been associated with chloracne, diverse hepatic effects, pulmonary function decrease, decrease in birthweight in children of occupationally exposed mothers, eye irritation, and cancer (Safe 1994). Exposure to low-level background PCB concentrations may have subtle effects on neurologic development and immune function (Lawton et al. 1985, Smith 1984, Svensson et al. 1994, Weisglas-Kuperus et al. 1995, Jacobson and Jacobson 1997), and, in susceptible groups, thyroid function (Koopman-Esseboom et al. 1994). Laboratory assays suggest that some PCB congeners exhibit endocrine disrupting potential (Soto et al. 1995, Birnbaum 1994, Brouwer et al. 1999). Members of a National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) workshop recently concluded that some PCB effects demonstrated in experimental animals can be induced at tissue concentrations near body burdens present in human populations exposed to background concentrations in industrialized nations (Brouwer et al. 1999). Animal studies suggest that some PCB Aroclor mixtures may cause skin irritations, reproductive and developmental effects, immunologic effects, liver damage, and cancer (ATSDR 1999, WHO 1993).

Challenges in Assessing Exposure to PCBs in Health Studies With few exceptions, epidemiologic and animal studies focus on total PCBs or Aroclors rather than specific congeners, despite the fact that PCBs are present in the environment as

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36.7

complex mixtures of congeners that differ from the original Aroclor mixtures. The toxicity of PCB mixtures depends on the type of congeners in the mixture and the number and position of chlorine atoms on each congener. PCB congener metabolites may also exert toxic effects (Soto et al. 1995). Individual congeners have been associated with dioxinlike effects, neurotoxic effects, estrogenic and antiestrogenic activity, interference with thyroid hormone homeostasis, and enzyme induction. Recognizing that risk assessments based on total PCBs may not address dioxinlike toxicity, USEPA advocates use of a toxic equivalency quotient (TEQ) approach to evaluate possible dioxinlike toxicity of PCB mixtures. However, several investigators note that this approach does not account for PCB toxicity by other mechanisms (Safe 1994, Wolff et al. 1997). Therefore, Wolff et al. (1997) propose congener groupings according to these different mechanisms for use in future epidemiologic studies. Hansen (1998) provides a detailed description of why such groupings are important to improve understanding of the toxicity of complex PCB mixtures. Some studies of PCB toxicity may be confounded by other contaminants. In many studies, the polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) content of PCB test materials is not provided, so its contribution to PCB-induced toxic effects is not known (Safe 1994). In epidemiologic investigations, PCB concentrations in environmental media (i.e., food, soil, and water) might be correlated with PCDF, polychlorinated dibenzodioxin (PCDD), and methyl mercury concentrations, which could potentially confound analyses.

Health Effects of PCBs Following Accidental Dietary Exposures In 1968 and 1979, two Asian communities were accidentally exposed to PCBs, PCDFs, polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs), and polychlorinated quaterphenyls (PCQs) in contaminated rice oil (Schecter 1994). Exposed individuals developed chloracne, pigmentation of skin and nails, swelling of limbs, jaundice, paresthesias, headache, dizziness, altered immunoglobulin levels, and increased incidence of lung and liver cancer. Yu et al. (1997) detected increased mortality from chronic liver disease and cirrhosis 13 years after the poisoning incident in Taiwan and recommended additional study of the young cohort. Offspring of exposed adults were born with low body weight and exhibit slight learning deficits and hyperactivity (Rogan et al. 1988, Chen et al. 1992, Guo et al. 1995). In both incidents, people were primarily exposed to PCBs. However, laboratory studies exposing rodents to simulated rice oil PCBs or reconstituted PCB and PCDF mixtures resembling the distribution of these compounds in Yusho patients show that PCDFs were more potent than the PCBs. Safe (1994) concluded that this evidence, combined with the observation that some poisoning victims had serum PCB levels similar to those of industrial workers who did not exhibit adverse effects, suggests that PCDFs are the major etiologic agent in these incidents (Safe 1994).

Cancer Human Evidence. Epidemiologic data from occupational cohorts provide mixed evidence of PCB carcinogenicity. In at least one of nine occupational cohorts, there was a positive association between PCB exposure and the following cancer sites: rectum, liver, biliary, pancreas, skin, prostate, kidney, brain, and the lymphatic system (Longnecker et al. 1997). However, PCBs do not appear to cause consistent increases in one or more cancers in the occupational setting, except possibly kidney cancer (Longnecker et al. 1997). Rothman et al. (1997) detected a strong dose-response relationship between PCB exposure and non-Hodgkins lymphoma in a case-control study of a nonoccupational

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.8

INDOOR POLLUTANTS

population. PCBs can suppress the immune system, and immunosuppression is a risk factor for non-Hodgkins lymphoma, although only severe changes in immune function have been linked with this cancer (Rothman et al. 1997). The authors caution that this finding should be considered hypothesis-generating rather than conclusive evidence of an association. Several epidemiologic studies examined the possible association between PCB exposure and breast cancer (Krieger et al. 1994, Hunter et al. 1997, Hoyer et al. 1998, Moysich et al. 1998, Kimbrough et al. 1999). Longnecker et al. (1997) and Laden and Hunter (1998) conclude that these investigations generally do not support an association between breast cancer and PCBs. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Classification. USEPA concluded that there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in human populations (USEPA 1999b, Bertazzi et al. 1987, Brown 1987, Sinks et al. 1992). Therefore, it classified PCBs as probable human carcinogens (group B2) based on animal toxicity data. PCBs generally test negative for genotoxic activity (ATSDR 1999). However, initiation-promotion studies for several commercial mixtures and congeners show tumor-promoting activity in the lung and liver and begin to reveal significant contributors to cancer induction (Silberhorn et al. 1990). A 1996 study found liver tumors in female rats exposed to Aroclors 1260, 1254, 1242, and 1016, and in male rats exposed to 1260 (Brunner et al. 1996, Mayes et al. 1998). Earlier studies detected statistically significant incidences of liver tumors in rats ingesting Aroclor 1260 or Clophen A60 (Kimbrough et al. 1975, Norback and Weltman 1985, Schaeffer et al. 1984). Congeners present in the four Aroclor mixtures tested by Brunner et al. (1996) span the range of congeners most often found in environmental mixtures, although they are not identical to any particular mixture found in the environment. PCBs suppressed tumors in mammary glands of Sprague-Dawley rats, and enhanced tumor formation in the thyroid gland of the males and the liver of both sexes, but primarily in the liver of females (Mayes et al. 1998). Some PCB congeners persist in the body, remaining biologically active after exposure ceases (Anderson et al. 1991). In one study, rats exposed to a persistent mixture (Aroclor 1260) developed more tumors than did rats exposed to a less persistent mixture (Aroclor 1016) (Brunner et al. 1996). To explore the possible effect of persistence, some rats were dosed for one year, then allowed to live one more year without exposure before being sacrificed. Brunner et al. (1996) found that one-half lifetime (i.e., 52 weeks) exposure to Aroclor 1260 resulted in more than one half the tumor incidence associated with lifetime (i.e., 104 weeks) exposure. Consequently, there may be greater than proportional effects from less-thanlifetime exposures to persistent mixtures (Cogliano 1998). Mayes et al. (1998) recommend that PCB risk assessment distinguish among different PCB mixtures because they differ in tumor-inducing potency. In fact, current USEPA guidance for PCB risk assessment requires that such a distinction be made (USEPA 1999b). Dioxinlike PCB Congeners. Several congeners appear to have 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzop-dioxinlike activity (Safe 1994). Strong evidence points to a common aryl hydrocarbon (Ah)-receptor signal transduction pathway mechanism of action. A toxic equivalency (TEQ) approach has been developed to represent the fractional toxicity of PCB congeners relative to TCDD for congeners exhibiting the following characteristics:

Structurally similar to PCDDs and PCDFs Bind to the Ah receptor Elicit dioxin-specific biochemical and toxic responses Persistent and accumulate in the food chain (Van den Berg et al. 1998).

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TEQs are calculated as follows: TEQ where PCBi TEFi n [PCBi TEFi] n

concentration of dioxinlike PCB congener i toxic equivalency factor for PCB congener i (unitless) provided in Table 36.2 number of PCB nonortho, monoortho, and diortho congeners in mixture of concern

PCBs with coplanar structure are similar to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Congeners with no chlorine substitutions or only one substitution in the ortho positions (2, 2, 6, 6) are regarded as coplanar (Fig. 36.1). TEFs for these congeners are derived from results of quantitative structure-activity studies (Table 36.2). The single TEQ value then represents the calculated concentration of dioxin equivalents in a sample. In its review of the USEPA dioxin reassessment, the Science Advisory Board expressed concern that dioxinlike PCB congeners contribute more than 90 percent of the calculated TEQs in many cases, emphasizing the importance of exploring antagonistic relationships between dioxin- and nondioxinlike congeners (USEPA 1995). There is some concern about relying too heavily on TEF and TEQ values for PCB risk assessment (Safe 1999). This approach assumes additivity among congener effects, neglecting possible synergism or antagonism. Safe (1999) describes nonadditive antagonistic interactions between AhR agonists (PCDDs, PCDFs, and dioxinlike PCB congeners) and other PCB congeners. Safe (1999) concludes that these nonadditive interactions along with the wide range of TEF values observed for some individual congeners compromise applications of the TEQ approach. Birnbaum (1999) acknowledges these nonadditive effects, but notes that the variability in TEFs for specific congeners narrows when pharmacokinetic factors are taken into account (DeVito and Birnbaum 1995). Safe (1999) recommends more research on the utility, applications, and limitations of the TEQ approach. Birnbaum (1999) advocates use of the TEQ approach until a better
TABLE 36.2 Toxic Equivalency Factors for Selected PCB Congeners PCB congener chlorobiphenyl structure 3,3,4,4 3,4,45 2,3,3,4,4 2,3,4,4,5 2,3,4,4,5 2,3,4,4,5 3,3,4,4,5 2,3,3,4,4,5 2,3,3,4,4,5 2,3,4,4,5,5 3,3,4,4,5,5 2,2,3,3,4,4,5 2,2,3,4,4,5,5 2,3,3,4,4,5,5 Toxic equivalency factor (TEF) 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0005 0.0001 0.0001 0.1 0.0005 0.0005 0.00001 0.01 Withdrawn Withdrawn 0.0001

IUPAC number 77 81 105 114 118 123 126 156 157 167 169 170 180 189

Source: Van den Berg et al. (1998).

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.10

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approach is developed, especially given that several studies reveal correlations between predicted and observed responses based on TEQ evaluations.

Reproductive Effects Reproductive toxicity observed in animal studies of PCBs include fetal death in rabbits; fetal toxicity, resorption, abortion, low birthweight, and impaired ovulation in monkeys; reproductive failure in mink; and fetal death, reduced litter weight, and male fertility effects in rats (Safe 1994). There is limited information describing possible reproductive developmental effects of PCBs. Postnatal lactational exposure of infant male rats to Aroclor 1254 resulted in adverse effects on mating behavior and reproductive success (Sager 1983). Women occupationally exposed to PCBs gave birth to children about 60 g lighter than children born to women from the same plant with less exposure (Taylor et al. 1989). No relationship was found between occupational PCB exposure and decreased sperm motility (Emmett et al. 1988). Studies of populations with relatively low levels of PCB exposure provide conflicting results about possible adverse reproductive effects. Some studies suggest that PCBs are associated with low birthweight (Fein et al. 1984, Wasserman et al. 1982), but others suggest increased birthweight (Dar et al. 1992, Smith 1984). No association was found between blood PCB levels in women living near the Great Lakes and spontaneous abortion (Dar et al. 1992, Mendola et al. 1995).

Neurodevelopmental Effects PCBs may be neurodevelopmental toxicants. Neonatal hypotonia (decreased muscle tone) or hypoflexia at birth was found among babies in the top fifth to tenth percentile of prenatal PCB exposure for a North Carolina cohort, with slower motor development until 2 years of age (Rogan and Gladen 1992). In a Michigan cohort, children born to frequent fish consumers exhibited hyporeflexia at birth more often than did children born to fish abstainers (Jacobson et al. 1990a, 1990b). This effect was not as apparent when prenatal exposure levels were based on measured blood concentrations. A study in the Netherlands also found increased incidence of hypotonia among babies with greater PCB exposure, but PCB levels were correlated with dioxin levels that might confound study results (Huisman et al. 1995). Jacobson and Jacobson (1996) found that prenatal exposure to PCBs in the Michigan cohort was associated with lower IQ scores, with the strongest effects related to memory and attention. The authors concluded that in utero exposure to PCBs in concentrations slightly higher than background concentrations found in the general population can have a long-term impact on intellectual function. Jacobson and Jacobson (1996, 1997) note that much larger quantities of PCBs are transferred to the infant postnatally via breastfeeding than across the placenta. Despite this fact, data from Michigan and North Carolina cohorts indicate greater vulnerability when the exposure occurs in utero. None of the measures of physical, cognitive, or motor development were related to the level of postnatal PCB exposure. Yucheng mothers were advised not to breastfeed infants and largely complied, so it is not possible to assess effects of postnatal exposure among the children of these women. Rice (1997) reviewed epidemiologic and animal study evidence of PCB neurobehavioral effects and concluded that PCB concentrations typically observed in individuals in industrialized countries may result in neurotoxicity to offspring.

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Immune System Effects Svensson et al. (1994) and Weisglas-Kuperus et al. (1995) found that PCB exposure can result in alteration of lymphocyte subtypes, but these changes were detected in populations where dioxins or fatty acids from fish might confound the PCB-lymphocyte relationship. PCB exposure was associated with the frequency of infectious illness in the first 4 months of life in a Wisconsin cohort (Smith 1984), but not in a Dutch cohort of breastfed infants in the first 18 months of life (Weisglas-Kuperus et al. 1995).

Endocrine System Effects The National Research Council (NRC) reviewed (1999) the potential endocrine-disrupting effects of PCBs and other hormonally active compounds. Specifically, the NRC summarized evidence of reproductive, immunotoxic, estrogenic, and carcinogenic effects related to disruption of endocrine function. PCB congeners may be estrogenic (Soto et al. 1995, Li and Hansen 1995) or antiestrogenic (Moore et al. 1997). Exposure to PCBs is associated with decreased thyroid hormone levels (Koopman-Esseboom et al. 1994, Desaulniers et al. 1997). In mothers and their children from Rotterdam, background PCB exposures were associated with lower maternal T3 and T4 levels and higher infant TSH levels (Koopman-Esseboom et al. 1994). However, hormone levels were within normal limits and observed associations might be due to dioxins, which were highly correlated with PCB concentrations (Longnecker et al. 1997). Morse et al. (1996) found that orally administered doses of Aroclor 1254 were associated with decreases in fetal, neonatal, and weanling plasma total thyroxine and brain T4 concentrations, possibly due to selective accumulation of a hydroxylated PCB metabolite in fetal plasma and brain. Some adverse effects may be thyroid-mediated. Haddow et al. (1999) found that undiagnosed hypothyroidism in pregnant women may adversely affect their fetuses, possibly by impaired neuropsychological development. In addition, in utero exposure to PCBs has been linked to reduced serum concentrations of thyroid hormones (Koopman-Esseboom et al. 1994). Goldey et al. (1995) prenatally exposed rats to Aroclor 1254, causing a reduction in circulating thyroid hormones that might have resulted in observed hearing deficits. This evidence collectively suggests that prenatal PCB exposure could cause adverse effects via thyrotoxicity.

Dermatologic Effects Relatively high occupational exposures have been associated with chloracne and other skin abnormalities (Meigs et al. 1954, Fischbein et al. 1982). Consistency among studies leaves little doubt that PCBs cause chloracne (Longnecker et al. 1997).

36.5 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY TOXICITY CRITERIA FOR PCBs

Carcinogenic Effects USEPA recommends a tiered approach to assess cancer risk associated with exposure to PCBs (USEPA 1999b). Studies to date suggest that more highly chlorinated, less volatile

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INDOOR POLLUTANTS

congeners are associated with greater cancer risk. These congeners tend to persist in the environment in soils and sediment and bioaccumulate in biota. If congener data are not available, the exposure pathway can be used to indicate how the potency of a mixture might have changed following release to the environment. For example, more volatile, less chlorinated congeners are more likely to be metabolized and eliminated than are highly chlorinated congeners that persist in environmental media and bioaccumulate in biota. Therefore, a higher cancer slope factor [upper-bound estimate 2.0 per (mg kg)/day, central estimate 1.0 per (mg kg)/day] is used to evaluate risk from exposure to highly chlorinated congeners or exposure via pathways that tend to involve highly chlorinated congeners. This higher slope factor is used for (1) food-chain exposure; (2) sediment or soil ingestion; (3) dust or aerosol inhalation; (4) dermal exposure, if an absorption factor has been applied; (5) presence of dioxinlike, tumor-promoting, or persistent congeners; and (6) early-life exposure (all pathways and mixtures). A lower cancer slope factor [upper-bound estimate 0.4 per (mg kg)/day, central estimate 0.3 per (mg kg)/day] is used for more volatile PCB congener mixtures that are less persistent. This lower slope factor is used for (1) ingestion of water-soluble congeners, (2) inhalation of evaporated congeners, and (3) dermal exposure, if no absorption factor has been applied. If congener or isomer analyses verify that congeners with more than four chlorines comprise less than 0.5 percent of total PCBs, USEPA (1999b) recommends use of an even lower cancer slope factor [upper-bound estimate 0.07 per (mg kg)/day, central estimate 0.04 per (mg kg)/day]. Cogliano (1998) states that bioaccumulated PCBs appear to be more toxic than Aroclors (Aulerich et al. 1986, Hornshaw et al. 1983) and more persistent in the body (Hovinga et al. 1992). However, cancer studies to date use Aroclor mixtures as test materials; therefore, Cogliano (1998) recommends conducting a cancer study comparing commercial and bioaccumulated PCB mixtures. With congener data, the slope factor approach can be supplemented by analysis of dioxin TEQs to evaluate dioxinlike toxicity. USEPA recommends that risks from dioxinlike congeners should be added to risks from the rest of the mixture estimated using an appropriate PCB cancer slope factor. However, because PCB test materials used in the 1996 cancer study contain some amount of dioxinlike congeners as well as PCDDs and PCDFs (Mayes et al. 1998), adding these risks together could be overly conservative if the PCB carcinogenicity is due, at least in part, to the dioxinlike congener content.

Noncarcinogenic Effects Table 36.3 lists reference doses (RfDs) for PCBs. USEPA defines RfDs as estimates (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of a daily exposure to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is likely to be without appreciable risk of adverse effects. RfDs are compared to estimates of average daily dose to determine whether noncancer effects are likely to occur. RfDs assume that a concentration or dose threshold exists, below which no adverse effects are expected. USEPA last revised the RfDs in Table 36.3 in November 1996. The RfD for Aroclor 1016 is based on studies of perinatal toxicity and long-term neurobehavioral effects in infant monkeys. In this study, decreased birthweight and possible neurologic impairment were observed among infants born to exposed monkeys. The Aroclor 1254 RfD also is based on a study of monkeys. Preliminary analysis of reproduction and histopathology data suggest that effects on female reproductive function may occur at doses as low as 0.005 (mg kg)/day and the RfD is derived from this value.

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TABLE 36.3 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Reference Doses (RfDs) for PCBs

CAS number

Compound

Chronic oral RfD, (mg kg)/day Study type

Target organ or critical effect

Uncertainty modifying factors

1336-36-3 12674-11-2 Monkey reproductive bioassay Reduced birth weights

Polychlorinated biphenyls Aroclor 1016

* 7.00 3 1025

100

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

36.13 Monkey clinical and immunologic studies NA

11104-28-2 11141-16-5 53469-21-9 12672-29-6 11097-69-1

Aroclor 1221 Aroclor 1232 Aroclor 1242 Aroclor 1248 Aroclor 1254

NA NA NA NA 2.00 3 1025

Ocular exudate; inflamed and prominent Meibomian glands; distorted growth of finger- and toenails; decreased antibody response to sheep erythrocytes

300

11096-82-5

Aroclor 1260

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*Appropriate Aroclor mixture RfD is used to evaluate noncancer risk. Not available. Source: U.S. EPA Integrated Risk Information System Database, 1999.

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.14

INDOOR POLLUTANTS

Both RfDs were revised in 1996, but the PCB toxicity literature continues to grow. They are both based on animal studies rather than human studies, primarily because it is not possible to specify the type of PCB mixture, pattern of exposure, and route of exposure in most human studies.

36.6 INDOOR AIR PCB CONCENTRATIONS

Table 36.4 summarizes indoor air concentrations of PCBs reported in the literature for offices, homes, and laboratories. Outdoor air concentrations were provided where these measurements were collected simultaneously. Indoor air concentrations typically exceed outdoor air concentrations by at least a factor of 10. Except for indoor environments with known PCB sources, measurements in the mid- to late 1990s (Vorhees et al. 1997) are lower than measurements made in the early to mid-1980s (MacLeod 1981, Oatman and Roy 1986). Comparison of these numbers is complicated by the differing laboratory analytic and PCB quantification techniques used. However, the difference might reflect a general decline since the mid-1980s as the number of possible PCB sources decreases. PCB concentrations as high as 580 ng/m3 have been measured in the indoor air of homes not identified as being affected by any local PCB source (MacLeod 1981). Much higher PCB concentrations have been measured in buildings with known PCB sources. For example, Balfanz et al. (1993a, 1993b) measured indoor air levels as high as 7500 ng/m3 in buildings with PCB-containing permanently elastic sealant composed of about 40% PCBs by weight. Fromme et al. (1996) measured PCB concentrations as high as 7360 ng/m3 in school community rooms with PCB-containing caulking compound.

Offices, Schools, and Laboratories Canadian Laboratories. Williams et al. (1980) measured PCB concentrations in a laboratory in Ottawa where PCBs contaminated sample blanks. Air samples as well as caulking material samples were analyzed to isolate the source of PCBs in sample blanks. Indoor air samples were collected on Florisil and a filter using MDA Accuhaler, model 808, personal sampling pumps at rates from 1 to 2 L/min. PCBs were quantified using gas chromatography with electron-capture detection. Concentrations in the laboratory ranged from 120 to 320 ng/m3. Levels elsewhere in the laboratory building ranged from 21 to 294 ng/m3. Chromatograms for indoor air samples resembled Aroclor 1254. The caulking material contained 28 to 36% PCBs, also exhibiting an Aroclor 1254 congener pattern. The PCBs contaminating sample blanks were attributed to this caulking material. North Carolina Office Buildings and Laboratories. MacLeod (1981) measured PCB concentrations in an industrial research facility, an academic laboratory building, and a shopping complex. Outdoor air concentrations were measured outside two laboratory buildings when indoor and outdoor air temperatures were similar. All laboratories and offices contained fluorescent lights. Indoor air samples were collected on polyurethane foam plugs (PUFs, 0.022 g/m3 density), using the low-volume mine safety appliance (MSA) portable pump model S and the Du Pont constant-flow sampling pump model P4000A. Sampling rates ranged from 2.5 to 4.0 L/min for 8- to 16-h sampling periods. Outdoor air samples also were collected on PUFs, using a Bendix hurricane pump to collect at rates of 100-500 L/min. Samplers were

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TABLE 36.4 PCB Concentrations Measured in Indoor Air* Indoor Air Outdoor Air

Location

Mean ( standard deviation), ng/m3 Range, ng/m3 Ref. Range, ng/m3

Mean ( standard deviation), ng/m3

Laboratory in Ottawa, Canada with PCB-containing caulking Laboratory Basement Floor 1 Floor 2 Floor 3 120320 44294 21124 26128 41200

265 68 108 81 63 37 72 30 96 48

Williams et al. (1980)

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

36.15 200240 80110 150580 4 192881 355628

MacLeod (1981) 418 Oatman and Roy (1986) Oatman and Roy (1986)

North Carolina Laboratories Laboratory offices Shopping complex office Homes Kitchen Living room Bedroom Basement Library Garage

44

NA 39 170 120 400 64

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Minnesota Buildings with transformers Offices Laboratory

460 220 498

TABLE 36.4 PCB Concentrations Measured in Indoor Air (Continued) Indoor Air Outdoor Air

Location 78384 114303

Mean ( standard deviation), ng/m3 Range, ng/m3 Ref. Range, ng/m3

Mean ( standard deviation), ng/m3

Buildings without transformers Offices Schools

230 110

Office building in Germany with PCB-containing sealant 1250 (maximum)

440 355

Benthe et al. (1992)

Office buildings in Germany with PCB-containing sealant 407500

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

36.16 7360 (maximum) 6490 7.961 5.251 1.5 4.9 4.6 0.6 3.3

1200

Balfanz et al. (1993a, 1993b)

Community rooms of schools and childcare centers in Germany with PCB-containing sealant

114

Fromme et al. (1996) Wallace et al. (1996) Vorhees et al (1997) 0.453 0.18.2

18 1.8

Public buildings in Indiana Homes in Massachusetts Near Superfund site (n 18) 14 mi away from Superfund site (n 16)

10 1.8

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*Blank cells () indicate statistic not available. Geometric mean geometric standard deviation.

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

36.17

positioned 1 to 2 m above the floor. All laboratory analyses of PUF extracts were conducted using a Tracor 222 gas chromatograph equipped with a 63Ni electron-capture detector. PCB concentrations were reported as Aroclors 1242 and 1254. Average laboratory indoor air concentrations exceeded outdoor air concentrations by a factor of 5. Laboratory indoor air concentrations ranged from 200 to 240 ng/m3, higher than those in the laboratory offices (80 to 110 ng/m3). PCB concentrations in the shopping center office were lower, with a mean of 44 ng/m3. Minnesota Office Buildings and Schools. Oatman and Roy (1986) provided background concentrations of PCBs in five state-owned office buildings and two elementary schools in 1984. All buildings used fluorescent lighting. All samples were collected on PUFs, using a Bendix high-volume pump to collect at rates of 570 to 590 L/min. Samplers were positioned 0.75 m above the floor. Both PUFs and filters were extracted for analysis with a Varian 3700 gas chromatograph equipped with a 63Ni electron-capture detector. PCB concentrations were reported as Aroclors 1242 and 1254. The average PCB concentration in buildings with transformers exceeded the concentration in buildings without transformers by a factor of 2 (460 and 230 ng/m3, respectively). Overall, concentrations were slightly higher than those measured by MacLeod (1981). German Office Buildings. Benthe et al. (1992) measured indoor air PCB concentrations in an office building where a PCB-containing sealant was used to join fabricated concrete elements. Samples were collected on Florisil at a sampling rate of 2.5 L/min. Analyses were conducted with a Varian gas chromatograph 3500 equipped with an electron capture detector. Indoor air concentrations in 45 rooms ranged from non-detected values to 1200 ng/m3. Nearly all of these concentrations were contributed by the most volatile congeners. Balfanz et al. (1993a, 1993b) measured PCB concentrations in more than 100 buildings in Germany with PCB-containing permanently elastic materials. These products were used mainly in buildings constructed from fabricated concrete. Some buildings also contained particleboard ceiling panels with PCB-containing coatings. Samples were collected on polyurethane foam plugs and glass fiber filters at a sampling rate of about 50 L/min. Both PUFs and filters were extracted for analysis with a HewlettPackard model 5890 gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector. About 80 percent of PCBs passed the filter and adsorbed onto the PUFs. Concentrations were reported for six PCB congeners: IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) numbers 28, 52, 101, 153, 138, and 180. Detected concentrations for the sum of these congeners ranged from 40 to 7500 ng/m3 (Balfanz 1993a, 1993b). The more volatile the PCB commercial mixture contained in the sealant, the higher the measured indoor air PCB concentration. German Schools and Childcare Centers. Fromme et al. (1996) collected indoor air samples in German schools and childcare centers to determine any impacts from PCB-containing elastic sealants. Average PCB concentrations in 308 community rooms of schools exceeded concentrations in 102 childcare centers by about a factor of 4 (geometric means of 230 and 48 ng/m3, respectively. About 15 percent of schools and 3 percent of childcare centers had concentrations greater than 300 ng/m3, and 5 percent of schools had concentrations greater than 3000 ng/m3, the level warranting intervention under German law. Indiana University Offices and Laboratories. Wallace et al. (1996) collected indoor air samples from a number of public buildings on the Indiana University campus from 1987 to 1995. One high-volume and two low-volume sampling techniques were used over this period. Two techniques employed PUFs, while one low-volume technique involved a

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.18

INDOOR POLLUTANTS

diffusion denuder. All samples were analyzed with a Hewlett-Packard model 5890 gas chromatograph with an electron-capture detector. Outdoor air PCB concentrations ranged from 1 to 2 ng/m3. Indoor air PCB concentrations sometimes exceeded outdoor air concentrations by a factor of 100. Indoor air PCB concentrations were highly correlated with building construction date. The highest concentrations were detected in the oldest buildings constructed prior to the ban on manufacture and use of PCBs. Capacitors might be the source of PCBs measured in this study. However, other sources (e.g., PCB-containing caulks and sealants) could not be ruled out.

Residences North Carolina Residences. In addition to laboratory and office measurements, MacLeod (1981) measured PCB concentrations in nine private residences, using the same sampling and analytic methods. PCB concentrations were reported as Aroclors 1242 and 1254. Outdoor air concentrations were measured outside one home when indoor and outdoor air temperatures were similar. Indoor air concentrations ranged from 39 to 580 ng/m3. The air outside one home contained 4-ng/m3 PCBs while indoor air collected on the same day contained 310 ng/m3, a factor of 10 higher than the outdoor air. Four of the nine homes sampled had pre-1972 fluorescent lighting fixtures in their kitchens, but there was no correlation between lighting and PCB concentrations. MacLeod (1981) postulated that electrical appliances might be the source of PCBs detected in this study. Residences Near the New Bedford Harbor Superfund Site. Vorhees et al. (1997) analyzed PCB concentrations and congener patterns in indoor and outdoor air in homes surrounding the New Bedford Harbor Superfund site during dredging of highly contaminated harbor sediments. PCBs volatilize from harbor sediments or waters, exposing residents living in nearby neighborhoods. The study was conducted while the most highly contaminated sediments (hot spot sediments) were dredged and piped to a confined disposal facility (CDF) along the western shoreline of the harbor about 1.5 km south of dredging activity (Fig. 36.3). The study assessed PCB levels in residential indoor air during disturbance of these highly contaminated harbor sediments. PCBs are ubiquitous in the environment (Eisenreich et al. 1981; Gregor and Gummer 1989; Hoff et al. 1992a, 1992b). Therefore, samples were collected concurrently in an appropriate comparison neighborhood removed from the harbor to discern the portion of contamination attributable to harbor proximity. Indoor and outdoor air samples were collected for 34 homes between April 1994 and April 1995 on days when harbor dredging was scheduled (Fig. 36.3). These homes were recruited from five neighborhoods: three harbor neighborhoods (Acushnet, Fairhaven, and New Bedford hot spot) immediately downwind of the hot spot and CDF (based on prevailing winds during fair weather when warm temperatures induce the greatest amount of volatilization from sediments and water) and two comparison neighborhoods (Dartmouth and New Bedford downtown). On each sampling day, two homes were sampled: one harbor neighborhood home and one comparison neighborhood home. Because higher PCB concentrations have been measured historically in urban areas than in rural areas (Eisenreich et al. 1981), rural Dartmouth homes were paired with rural Acushnet and Fairhaven homes and urban New Bedford downtown homes were paired with urban New Bedford hot spot neighborhood homes. Outdoor air samples were collected concurrently from a central site in each neighborhood (Fig. 36.3). All samples were collected on quartz fiber filters followed by PUFs. Indoor air sampling rates ranged from 5 to 10 L/min, while outdoor airflow rates ranged from 190 to 230 L/min.

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
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36.19

FIGURE 36.3 Residential indoor air and outdoor air sampling locations (Vorhees et al. 1997).

All analyses were conducted with a Hewlett-Packard 5890 series II gas chromatograph, using a 63Ni electron-capture detector. Indoor Air and Outdoor Air PCB Concentrations. On each sampling day, 24-h indoor and outdoor air samples were collected simultaneously and analyzed for 65 PCB congeners

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.20

INDOOR POLLUTANTS

to evaluate the relative importance of the harbor and indoor sources for human inhalation exposure. Outdoor air concentrations were highest in neighborhoods closest to the harbor (0.4 to 53 ng/m3) and contained slightly higher proportions of volatile PCB congeners compared to outdoor air concentrations from comparison neighborhoods (0.1 to 8.2 ng/m3). Indoor air concentrations in homes near the most contaminated part of the harbor (7.9 to 61 ng/m3) were slightly higher than concentrations in homes distant from this area (5.2 to 51 ng/m3). In all neighborhoods, indoor air concentrations exceeded corresponding outdoor air concentrations (mean ratio 32), suggesting the importance of indoor PCB sources even near a highly contaminated waste site. Figure 36.4a and b depicts daily indoor and corresponding outdoor air PCB concentrations for all harbor and comparison homes, respectively. With few exceptions, indoor air concentrations exceed outdoor air concentrations, regardless of neighborhood. In winter, these ratios increase, probably because colder outdoor temperatures reduce PCB volatilization from outdoor sources, while indoor temperatures remain relatively constant throughout the year. Indoor air PCB concentrations were not found to be significantly correlated with outdoor air PCB concentrations, regardless of neighborhood. Indoor air and outdoor air PCB concentrations in harbor neighborhoods often exceed concentrations in comparison neighborhoods. PCB Concentrations and Congener Patterns on Filters. Filters were analyzed for a subset of indoor and outdoor air samples collected over the range of ambient temperatures that occurred during the study. The results of this filter analysis were used to assess the congener pattern and PCB mass fraction retained on filters under different sampling conditions. Filters are expected to collect the particulate-phase PCBs while gas-phase PCBs adsorb to the PUF. However, separation of the gas- and particulate-phase PCBs is hindered by the sampling procedures used in this study and most others (high-volume air sampling using a filter and solid adsorbent). Previous studies in which PCBs were quantified on both filters and PUFs from the type of high-volume air sampler used in this study demonstrate that nearly all the PCB mass ends up in the PUF (Ligocki and Pankow 1989, Manchester-Neesvig and Andren 1989, Foreman and Bidleman 1990), where the rate of particulate-phase PCB loss from filters is primarily a function of sampler flow rate and ambient temperature. In this study, sampling condition differences in indoor and outdoor environments could result in different congener patterns and masses on filters. The indoor sampler flow rate is lower and subject to more constant indoor temperatures relative to outdoor temperatures. Gas/particle concentration ratios for PCBs rise with temperature (Manchester-Neesvig and Andren 1989); therefore winter air filters may contain more PCBs than do filters collected in summer. On average, indoor air filters (n 12) contained 6 percent of the PCB mass found on corresponding PUFs, while outdoor air filters (n 12) contained only 1 percent. No obvious pattern difference was observed between indoor and outdoor air pairs, regardless of outdoor temperature during sampling. As other investigators have detected (Foreman and Bidleman 1990, Hoff 1992a, Duinker and Bouchertall 1989, Burdick and Bidleman 1981), all indoor and outdoor air filter congener patterns consistently show a higher proportion of more highly chlorinated congeners than PUF congener patterns. Influences on Indoor Air PCB Concentration. Although indoor air PCB concentrations appear to be affected by neighborhood location, other factors may influence indoor PCB levels. These factors include the number of potential indoor PCB sources present during sampling and past or present occupational exposure to PCBs of residents. Residents were asked to provide their occupational histories and the number of potential PCB sources in their homes so that the relationship between these factors and indoor air PCB concentration could be explored.

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

36.21

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 36.4 Comparison of indoor air and outdoor air PCB concentrations for homes located (a) adjacent to New Bedford Harbor in Massachusetts and (b) in Dartmouth, Massachusetts, nearly 4 mi away from New Bedford Harbor.

Potential indoor sources were defined as electrical appliances and fluorescent lights more than 10 years old. No significant correlation was found between indoor air concentration and the number of potential indoor PCB sources reported by residents. The nonsignificant test result must be considered in light of the fact that electrical appliances and

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.22

INDOOR POLLUTANTS

fluorescent lights are the most obvious PCB sources, but do not necessarily represent all possible indoor sources. Three residents with occupational exposure lived in harbor neighborhoods. Of the three homes with residents who were occupationally exposed to PCBs, one resident was currently employed in a PCB-using industry, one had not worked for 13 years, and the third resident had not worked for 30 years. After excluding these three homes, harbor and comparison indoor air concentrations were still significantly different (p 0.008). This result suggests some influence of harbor contamination on indoor air. PCB Congener Patterns in Indoor Air and Outdoor Air. Volatility decreases and molecular weight generally increases with increasing IUPAC congener number. Therefore, it is not surprising that congener patterns reflect a high proportion of the most volatile congeners. Figure 36.5 compares average congener weight-percent patterns in indoor air and outdoor air. In 30 of 34 homes, congener patterns in indoor air closely resemble the patterns in outdoor air. However, Fig. 36.5 shows a slightly higher proportion of more volatile congeners in outdoor air compared to indoor air. This difference reflects four homes with congener patterns that include high proportions of less volatile congeners. Indoor air in one home closely resembled Aroclor 1254. These heavier patterns may suggest indoor sources.

Importance of Exposure to PCBs in Indoor Air There are no applicable indoor air quality guidelines for PCBs in private or public buildings. Occupational limits for PCBs are listed in Table 36.5. Indoor air PCB concentrations in Table 36.4 do not exceed regulatory limits, except in buildings with known indoor PCB sources. However, occupational limits are applicable to 8-h/day exposure periods for adults and do not necessarily protect against adverse health effects for commercial and residential exposure scenarios. Office and laboratory concentrations ranged from 6 to 7500 ng/m3. Potential cancer risk for adults associated with these concentrations can be calculated using standard USEPA default exposure parameters for the workplace, the average daily inhalation dose equation (USEPA 1989), and the cancer slope factor of 0.4 (mg kg)/day for inhalation exposure (USEPA 1999b). Using this information, potential cancer risk estimates range from 4 10 7 to 5 10 4 for this range of indoor air concentrations. Residential concentrations range from 5 to 580 ng/m3. Potential cancer risk estimates associated with these concentrations range from 5 10 7 to 7 10 5. The non-cancer-hazard quotient for adult residents ranges from 0.07 to 2.3; a hazard quotient of 1 is typically the upper bound that is acceptable to regulatory authorities. These hazard quotients were estimated using the RfD for Aroclor 1016 because this commercial mixture might more closely resemble congener patterns in air than does Aroclor 1254. The highest potential cancer risk estimates (i.e., 5 in 10,000 and 7 in 100,000) and potential noncancer hazard estimates (i.e., 2.3) represent levels of possible concern to many federal and state regulatory authorities. However, people are likely to experience greater risk from consumption of PCB-contaminated seafood, meats, and dairy products.

36.7 REDUCING EXPOSURE TO PCBs IN INDOOR AIR

The ubiquitous nature of PCB contamination makes it difficult to reduce exposure. However, indoor air PCB concentrations appear to be declining over time as PCB-containing materials

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POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

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FIGURE 36.5 Comparison of indoor air and outdoor air PCB congener patterns. Error bars indicate one standard deviation.

6 8 19 18 15/17 24/27 16 26 31 28 33 22 45 52 49 44 37 41 74 70 66 95 60 84 101 99 97 87 136 77/110 151 135 149 118 146 153 105 141 138 187 183 128 167 174 177 171 156 157/201 180

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 36.24

INDOOR POLLUTANTS

TABLE 36.5 Occupational Regulations and Guidelines for PCB Indoor Air Concentrations Agency or government U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) U.S. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Federal Republic of Germany (former) Chlorodiphenyl 42% chlorine, mg/m3 1 Chlorodiphenyl 54% chlorine, mg/m3 0.5

Acronym* PEL-TWA

REL-TWA

0.001

0.001

TLV-TWA

0.5

MAK-TWA

1.1

0.7

*Key: MAKmaximum concentration values in the workplace; PELpermissible exposure limit; RELrecommended exposure limit; TLVthreshold limit value; TWAtime-weighted average exposure concentration for a conventional 8-h (TLV, PEL) or up to a 10-h (REL) workday and a 40-h workweek. Source: ACGIH (1999).

are gradually discarded. Despite this trend, some buildings have unacceptably high concentrations of PCBs in indoor air (Balfanz et al. 1993a, 1993b; Fromme et al. 1996). Indoor air exposure to PCBs can be reduced by properly disposing of old appliances, fluorescent lighting, and other indoor sources of PCBs. Track-in of PCBs from the outdoor environment can be decreased through use of doormats and removal of shoes on entering buildings. PCBcontaining building materials are more difficult to identify and remove. Therefore, these PCB sources might impact indoor air for some time.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Portions of the research described in this section were made possible by grant 5 P42 ES05947 from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, with funding provided by USEPA and a grant from the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis. Its contents are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of the NIEHS, NIH, or USEPA. The contributions of Alison C. Cullen, Sc.D., Larisa M. Altshul, Jeffrey Silverman, Craig De Ruisseau, Raisa Stolyar, and Thomas Dumyahn are greatly acknowledged and appreciated.

REFERENCES
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 1999. Toxicological Profile for Polychlorinated Biphenyls (update). Draft for public comment. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). 1999. Guide to Occupational Exposure Values1999. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, Inc.

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