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Geo-Institute, ASCE
January 23-26, 2005
Unsaturated Soil Mechanics Problems Described in Theoretical Soil Mechanics by K. Terzaghi (1943)
Unsaturated Soil Mechanics in Engineering Introduction Challenges to Implementation Description of the Stress State Fundamental Constitutive Relations Role of the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve Use of SWCC in the Constitutive Relations Solution of a Series of PDEs Modeling Unsaturated Soils Problems
Objectives To illustrate the progression from theories and formulations to practical engineering protocols for solving a variety of unsaturated soil mechanics problems (e.g., seepage, shear strength and volume change), through use of direct and indirect characterization of unsaturated soil property functions To describe the Challenges Faced and the Solutions Generated in moving towards the Implementation of Unsaturated Soil Mechanics
Gradual Emergence of Unsaturated Soil Mechanics 1950s: Independent measurement of pore-air and pore-water pressure through use of high air entry ceramic disks 1960s: Laboratory testing of unsaturated soils 1970s: Constitutive relations proposed and tested for uniqueness for unsaturated soils 1980s: Solving formulations for classic Boundary Value Problems 1990s: Establishing procedures for determination of unsaturated soil property functions 2000+: Implementation into routine engineering practice
Solution #1:
Solution #2:
Solution #3:
Solution #4:
Solution #5:
Solution #6:
Transition zone Air entry value Boundary effect zone Residual condition
1.0 10. 100. 1000. 10,000 100,000 1000,000
t90/10
Water
Liquid water density B PN
Surface tension = 75 mN/m; Equivalent stress = 140,000 kPa Water-molecule distribution across the air-water interface (modified from Kyklema, 2000)
Solution #1:
Designation of independent Stress State Variables based on multiphase continuum mechanics principles
(ua - uw) yx
Definition of stress state at a point in an unsaturated soil (ua - uw) (y - ua) Defines the stress state at a point in a continuum State variables are independent of soil properties yx yz xz xy zy (ua - uw) (x - ua)
Derivation of the Stress State is based on the superposition of equilibrium stress fields for a multiphase continuum
Stress Tensors form the basis for a Science because we live in a 3-D Cartesian coordinate world
(yua)
yx
zx zy
Solution #2:
- New instrumentation such as the high suction tensiometers and indirect thermal conductivity suction sensors provide viable techniques for the laboratory and the field
Measures the dielectric constant for the soil around the rods. Dielectric constant varies with the water content of the soil TDR ThetaProbe, ML2x manufactured by AT Delta Devices, U.K.
In Situ Matric Suction measurements using Thermal Conductivity sensorsVersus1.0 -to m to 1.3mDepth Range roadway Matric Suction at Time 1.0 1.3 m below
200.0
T 1-3 T 2-8 T 3-11 T 4-14
Frost
T 2-8
Equalization
5-Oct-00 25-Oct-00 14-Nov-00 Time (Days)
T 3-11
4-Dec-00
24-Dec-00
Time (Days)
Direct, high suction sensor used to measure suctions greater than one atmosphere on the side of a triaxial specimen (Meilani, 2004)
Pore air pressure control Top cap O - ring Coarse corundum disk Filter paper Silicone rubber grommet Rubber membrane Latex rubber, to seal the rubber membrane and grommet Mini suction probe
Specimen
Solution #3:
- Constitutive relations for saturated soils needed to be extended to embrace the effect of changing degrees of saturation
tr al s rm no - u a) t ( Ne
ess
uw h = +Y wg
dh vx = k wx dx dh v y = k wy dy dh vz = k wz dz
Darcys law (1856) for flow in the x-, y-, and z-direction
Coefficient of permeability, kw is a function of matric suction; therefore, the flow law is nonlinear and subject to hysteresis
Shape of the water permeability function for glass beads tested by Mualem (1976 )
Coefficient of permeability (m/s)
1.E-01 1.E-02 1.E-03 1.E-04 1.E-05 1.E-06
0.1 1 10
Drying
Wetting
Drying Drying
Wetting Wetting
The SWCC for the glass beads showing hysteresis during drying and wetting
100
Degree of saturation, %
80 60 40 20 0 0.1 1
Drying
Drying Wetting
Wetting
10
Soil suction (kPa) Soil suction (kPa) Hysteresis in the SWCC produces hysteresis in the Permeability function
Water storage function is the slope of the SWCC; Required for transient seepage analyses
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1E+6
v ay = k ay
du a dy
Ficks law for flow in the x-, y-, and z-direction Coefficient of permeability, ka is a function of matric suction; therefore, the flow law is nonlinear and subject to hysteresis
du a v az = k az dz
Observation: Soil properties for unsaturated soils become nonlinear functions and are hysteretic in character
= c + ( n ua ) tan + (ua u w ) f1
' '
f1 = function showing the rate of increase in shear strength with matric suction
(ua-uw)
Shear strength,
Air entry value
c
Net normal stress, ( - ua)
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1
AEV = 60 kPa
10
100
100000 1000000
250 200 150 100 50 0 0 (f - ua)f = 72.6 kPa AEV = 60 kPa (f - ua)f tan = 34.6 kPa c = 10 kPa 400 300 100 200 Matric suction, (ua-uw) (kPa) 500 = 25.5
Multistage direct shear test results on compacted glacial till (Gan et al., 1988)
Specific volume
v = (1+e)
Cs
Log()
VolumeMass Constitutive Surfaces for Regina Clay Preconsolidated at 200 kPa (Pham, 2004)
Void ratio, e
2.5
2
Yield Yield
2.5
2
Void ratio
1.5
1
0.5
Residual value
Net t
Void ratio
1.5
VolumeMass Constitutive Surfaces for Regina Clay Preconsolidated at 200 kPa (Pham, 2004)
Water content, w
SWCC
0.8 Gravimetric water content 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
0 .0 1 .1 Lo 0 gs 1 oil 10 su 100 0 ct i on 100 0 (kP 1000 000 a) 100 e+06 1
Yield
Yield
0.8 0.6 Air entry value 0.5 0.4 0.3 Gravimetric water content 0.7
0.2 0.1 0
So
il s
uc tio n
10 00 0
10 00
10 0
10
Log
ss l stre ta Net to
VolumeMass Constitutive Surfaces for Regina Clay Preconsolidated at 200 kPa (Pham, 2004)
Degree of saturation, S
1.25
Degree of saturation (S)
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
Residual value
0.75
0.5
Ne
G vim tric w te co te t ra e a r n n
0.2
0.25
0.15
SWCC
0.2
0.1
0.15
0.05
0.1
Degree of saturation, S
1.25
D g eo sa ra n e re f tu tio
1.25
0.75
0.5
0.75
0.25
0.5
Lo g
Lo g
so il su cti on
0 0. 01 . 1 0
0.25
D g eo sa ra n e re f tu tio
G vim tric w te co te t ra e a r n n
Water content, w
0.3
AEV
0.3
0.25
SWCC
Residual value
0.2
0.15
0.1
Net t
G vim tric w te co te t ra e a r n n
Solution #4:
- Indirect, estimation procedures have been developed to obtain unsaturated soil property functions based on SoilWater Characteristic Curves
Water content
Suction (kPa)
- Water permeability - Air permeability - Shear strength - Thermal flow - Incremental elasticity
Sand
Residual Value
AEV = 10 kPa
20
Residual = 62 kPa
Pressure Plate Apparatus to Measure Void Ratio and Water Content While Applying Total Stress and Matric Suction
20 16 12 8 4 0 0.1 1
Drying
Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3
Wetting
10 100 1000
w ( ) = C ( )
{ln[ e + (
ws a
f
) n f ]} m f
Rate of desaturation
Correction Factor
C ( ) = 1 ln(1 +
r) r)
= Soil suction
Fredlund and Xing (1994)
ln[1 + (1000000
Hysteresis in the Soil-Water Characteristic Curve Hysteretic SWCC Models will eventually be available for geotechnical usage Presently, the Geotechnical Engineer must decide which curve to use: Select wetting curve or drying curve based on process being simulated Hysteresis loop shift at point of inflection: Sands: 0.15 to 0.35 Log cycle Average: 0.25 Log cycle Estimation Loam soils: 0.35 to 0.60 Log cycle Values Average: 0.50 Log cycle
Model measurements of water content and matric suction showing the SWCC relationship from water contents and matric suctions during wetting and drying simulations (Tami et al, 2004) Section B Section M Section T Volumetric water content, w
0.4 0.3
III-W III-D IV&V-D I&II-D III-W
10
10
SWCC predictions from grain size & Atterberg limits Parameters for numerous models
Decreasing accuracy
30 20 10 0.0 0.1
Fredlund et al,1997
1 10 100 1000 10000 1E+5 1E+6
Suction (kPa)
Unsaturated soil property functions rely on the saturated soil properties PLUS the
soil-water characteristic curve, SWCC Therefore, MUST have an indication of the SWCC
Permeability Models
kr = kw/ksat
Burdine (1953)
1 ( ) n 2 [1 + ( ) n ] m kr ( ) = [1 + ( ) n ]2n
m =1 2 n
kr ( ) = ( ) 2 3
Mualem (1976)
Permeability Models
kr = kw/ksat
kr =
ln( ) b
(e y ) ( )
ey
ln( aev )
(e y ) s
e
y
2 b kr = ( ) aev
b = Ln (1000000) () = Soil water content y = Dummy variable of integration representing the logarithm of integration
Usage of several functions to predict permeability functions from the SWCC for a particular soil and a suggested lower limit for the permeability function
1.E-04 1.E-05 1.E-06 1.E-07 1.E-08 1.E-09 1.E-10 1.E-11 1.E-12 1.E-13 1.E-14 1.E-15 1.E-16 1.E-17
Experimental data Van Genuchten - Mualem Brooks and Corey Van Genuchten - Burdine Vapor Kv Fredlund and Xing Overall Kw + Kv Campbell
0.1
10
100
1000
Shear Strength Constitutive Equation Written in Terms of SWCC Vanapalli et al. (1996)
r = s r
SWCC
= c ' + (
Shear strength
Intercept of the MohrCoulomb failure envelope on the shear stress axis Net normal stress on the failure plane
Stress Analysis (for Shear Strength Problems) Constitutive Relations in Terms of SWCC Fredlund et al. (1996)
d = SWCC s
Fitting parameter used for obtaining a best-fit between the measured and predicted value
Solution #5:
Adaptive mesh (grid) generation techniques in computer technology facilitates convergence
50 40 30 20 10 0 90 100 110 120 130 140
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Boundary
Boundary Boundary
Utilize general purpose PDE Solvers to solve partial differential equations for saturated-unsaturated soil system
Problem Solving Environments, PSEs, for Soil Mechanics Partial Differential Equations, PDEs All classic areas of soil mechanics can be viewed in terms of the solution of a Partial Differential Equation Water flow through porous soils (Saturated or Unsaturated) Air flow through unsaturated soils Stress analysis for slope stability, bearing capacity and earth pressure Stress-Deformation volume change and distortion
Incremental elasticity Elasto-plastic models
k h h k h h w h w + ky + + k = m2 w 2 2 x x y x y y t
2 w x w x 2 w y
Time
2 u a k a u a k a u a 2ua + + ka ka + 2 2 x x y y y x
e w a g u a = S a u a m2 1+ e RT t
Time
Convergence of Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations Convergence is the single most pressing problem facing modelers Most successful solutions have involved Adaptive Grid Refinement methods, AGR (Oden, 1989; Yeh, 2000) Mesh is dynamically upgraded during the solution based on error estimates AGR becomes extremely important when solving the nonlinear PDEs associated with Unsaturated Soil Mechanics
Equipotential lines
Stress analysis PDE combined with the Dynamic Programming procedure to compute the factor of safety
DP Ge ne ra te d Critic a l S lip S urfa ce
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20
FOS = 1.3
Shape and location of the slip surface are a part of the solution
DP Search Bounda ry
40 Dista nce
60
80
SVFlux
0
Depth, m
1 2
Flux = 0
C L
3 0 3 6 9 12
Can have one optimized Adaptive Mesh generated for seepage model and another for the stress-deformation model
Concrete slab
C L
2 3 0 3 6 9 12
Matric Suction at Ground Surface after One Day of Infiltration for Various Infiltration Rates
Distance under slab Matric suction, kPa
500 400 300 200 100 0 0 2 4 6 8
C L
10
12
SVFlux
Heave,(mm)
20 15 10 5 0 0
C L
q = 60 mm/day
q = 50 q = 40 q = 30 q = 10 q = 20
10
12
SVSolid
Solution #6:
- Educational materials and visualization tools have been produced to better teach and understand unsaturated soil mechanics
Concluding Remarks
Unsaturated Soil Mechanics needs to be first understood from the standpoint of the Constitutive equations describing soil behavior Constitutive Equations can be written in terms of the SWCC for the soil which are then known as Unsaturated Soil Property Functions, USPF Direct and Indirect procedures are available for the assessment of the SWCC It is always possible to obtain an estimate of the required Unsaturated Soil Property Functions for geotechnical engineering applications
Karl Terzaghi deserves credit not only for the fundamentals of saturated soil behavior but also for the fundamentals of unsaturated soil behavior
Thank You