Modular Forms in Number

Theory
Karl Mahlburg (HMC 01)
C.L.E. Moore Instructor (MIT)

December 7, 2006
Outline

Sums of squares
Divisor Sums
Fermats Last Theorem
Perfect power Fibonacci numbers
Partition congruences
Modular Forms
Whats the pattern?

70 = (-2)
2
+ 4
2
+ 7
2
+ 1
2

773 =

10
2
+ 12
2
+ 23
2
+ 0
2

1503 =

19
2
+ 2
2
+ (-7)
2
+ 33
2

28 =

5
2
+ (-1)
2
+ (-1)
2
+ 1
2


76742198 = 369
2
+ 8742
2
+ 17
2
+ 428
2

Lagranges Theorem

We observed that several integers can be
written as the sum of 4 squares.

Theorem (Lagrange 1770): Every positive
integer is the sum of at most 4 squares.

Proof idea: Norm formulas for quaternions!
Jacobis Enumeration
So, any integer can be written as the sum of 4
squares but in how many different ways?

Lets keep track of both orders and signs

Definition: For a positive integer n,

( ) { } n n n n n n n n n n r = + + + e =
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
4
4 3 2 1 4
| , , , # : ) ( Z
Example:
1 = (1)
2
+ 0
2
+ 0
2
+ 0
2
=

0
2
+ (1)
2
+ 0
2
+ 0
2
=

0
2
+ 0
2
+ (1)
2
+ 0
2
=

0
2
+ 0
2
+ 0
2
+ (1)
2


Thus, r
4
(1) = 8.

Similarly, r
4
(2) = 24, r
4
(3) = 32, r
4
(4) = 24.
Theorem (Jacobi 1829):

=
n d
n d
d d n r
| 4
|
4
. 32 8 ) (
Proof sketch: Define the generating function

e
+ + + = =
Z n
n
q q q q . 2 2 1 : ) (
4
2
u
Then

>
=
0
4
4
. ) ( ) (
n
n
q q n r u
Jacobis proof uses elliptic functions to
find the Lambert series expansions

Elliptic functions symmetries in Fourier
transforms (more on this later).


Note: This was the precursor to modern
modular forms!!!
A 2-line proof
(q)
4
is a modular form of weight 2 and level
4.

The series
n
n
n d
n d
q d d

>
|
|
.
|

\
|

0
| 4
|
32 8
is also a modular form of this type.


Nice modular forms lie in finite-
dimensional vector spaces (actually,
graded rings)

Weight 2 and level 4 forms are only a 2-
dimensional vector space

2 matching coefficients gives equality!!!

Divisor Sums
Definition:
( ) . :
|

=
n d
k
k
d n o
Example:
3
(4) = 73,
7
(2) = 129


Recall that
k
(n) is multiplicative.

- But thats not all
Fact:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

=
+ =
1
1
3 3 3 7
120 :
n
j
j n j n n o o o o
Why?
( )
( ) ... 61920 480 1 480 1
... 2160 240 1 240 1
2
1
7
2
1
3
+ + + = +
+ + + = +

>
>
q q q n
q q q n
n
n
n
n
o
o
are modular forms of weight 4 and 8.

Dimension one 2
nd
is 1
st
squared!
Elliptic Curves

Let E denote
solutions to the
equation:

y
2
+ y

= x
3
- x
2

Points over finite fields
Were actually interested in local
behavior:
F
p
= finite field with p elements
E(F
p
) = solutions to y
2
+ y

= x
3
- x
2
in F
p


Example:
E(F
3
) = { (0,0), (0,2), (1,0), (1,2) }
An unrelated(?) series
Define a q-series
( ) ( ) . 1 1 : ) (
2
11
2
1
n
n
n
q q q q f =
[
>
This is an eta-product, which are modular forms.

Three main types:
1. Theta functions (quadratic forms)
2. Eisenstein series (divisor sums)
3. Eta-products (infinite products)
An amazing coincidence
f(q) = q + 2q
2
q
3
+ 2q
4
+ q
5
+ 2q
6
- 2q
7
- 2q
9
- 2q
10

+ q
11
- 2q
12
+ 4q
13
+ 4q
14
q
15
- 4q
16
- 2q
17
+


p #E(F
p
) b(p)=1
st
-2
nd

3 4 -1
5 4 1
7 9 -2
11 10 1
13 9 4
17 19 -2
An amazing coincidence
f(q) = q + 2q
2
q
3
+ 2q
4
+ q
5
+ 2q
6
- 2q
7
- 2q
9
- 2q
10

+ q
11
- 2q
12
+ 4q
13
+ 4q
14
q
15
- 4q
16
- 2q
17
+


p #E(F
p
) b(p)=1
st
-2
nd
3 4 -1
5 4 1
7 9 -2
11 10 1
13 9 4
17 19 -2
Modularity of Elliptic Curves
The pattern continues -- if f(q) = a(n) q
n
,
then
a(p) = b(p)
for (almost all) primes.

Relation to the coefficients of modular form
E is modular.

Theorem (TaniyamaShimura-Wiles 1999):
Every elliptic curve is modular.

In fact, the modular forms always have
weight 2.

The technical statement involves modular
L-functions.
Fermats Last Theorem
Theorem (Wiles-Taylor 1994): If n 3, then
there are no integer solutions to
x
n
+ y
n
= z
n
.


Proof Idea: A solution (a, b, c)
A non-modular elliptic curve
Contradicting Taniyama-Shimura!

This is now known as the modularity
approach.

The Frey curves are
E: y
2
= x(x - a
n
)(x - b
n
)

Important: No repeated roots


a
n
+ b
n
= c
n
Discriminant of E is impossible

Impossibility comes from comparing
Galois representations of E and modular
Galois representations.


Approach has other applications

Perfect Power Fibonacci #s

Definition: The Fibonacci numbers are
given by
F
0
= 0, F
1
= 1,
F
n+2
= F
n+1
+ F
n
.


The Lucas numbers start with
L
0
= 2, L
1
= 1.
The sequences begin:
{F
n
}= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,
{L
n
}= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,
199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,
The sequences begin:
{F
n
}= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,
{L
n
}= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,
199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,

There are a few squares
The sequences begin:
{F
n
}= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,
{L
n
}= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,
199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,

There are a few squares
There are cubes
The sequences begin:
{F
n
}= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,
{L
n
}= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,
199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,

There are a few squares
There are cubes
Appears to be no more?
The sequences begin:
{F
n
}= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,
{L
n
}= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,
199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,

Theorem (Bugeaud, Mignotte, Siksek 06):
There are no other perfect powers.
Proof uses modularity approach
combined with many other techniques:

1. Combinatorics of F
n
and L
n
2. Algebraic Number Theory -
factorization in Z[ (1+5) / 2 ]
3. Diophantine height bounds
4. Computational bounds
Partitions

Definition: A partition of n is a non-
decreasing sequence of positive integers

1

2

k
1 that sum to n,
n =
1
+
2
+ +
k
.

The partition function p(n) counts the number
of partitions of n.

Example: The partitions of 5 are

5, 4+1, 3+2, 3+1+1, 2+2+1,
2+1+1+1, 1+1+1+1+1,
so p(5) = 7.


Remark: In a partition, the order of parts
doesnt matter in contrast to r
4
(n) from
earlier.
Ramanujan Congruences
Theorem (Ramanujan 1919): For n 0,
p(5n+4) 0 (mod 5)
p(7n+5) 0 (mod 7)
p(11n+6) 0 (mod 11)


Remark: These are striking multiplicative
properties for a purely additive function!!
Partition generating function
Simple combinatorics

[
> >
+ + + + + =

=
1
4 3 2
0
. 5 3 2 1
) 1 (
1
) (
n
n
n
n
q q q q
q
q n p
Remark: This is an infinite product
hints of a modular form?
Dysons Crank

Conjecture (Dyson 1944): There is a crank
statistic that explains the congruences.

Theorem (Andrews-Garvan 1987): The
crank exists!
Definition: Suppose a partition has r ones.
1. r = 0 crank = largest part,
2. r > 0 crank = u r,
where u = # parts > r.

Example:
crank(3+2+1+1) = 1 2 = 1
crank(4+3+2) = 4


Definition: N(s, m, n) = # partitions of n with
crank s (mod m)

Andrews-Garvan-Dyson:
N(s, 5, 5n+4) = p(5n+4) / 5
N(s, 7, 7n+5) = p(7n+5) / 7
N(s, 11, 11n+6) = p(11n+6) / 11

Modular forms and crank
In fact,

n
n
q
m
n p
n m s N

>
|
.
|

\
|

0
) (
) , , (
is always a modular form!
Remark: For the Ramanujan congruences, this
modular form is identically 0.
Onos congruences
Theorem (Ono 2000): For any prime m > 3,
there are A, B so that
p(An + B) 0 (mod m)

Proof idea: p(n) are the coefficients of a
modular form, so arithmetic comes from:
- Galois representations (Serre), combinatorics
(Hecke), prime distributions (Tchebotarev)
Theorem (M. 2005): For any prime m > 3,
there are A, B so that
N(s, m, An + B) 0 (mod m)

Corollary: Onos congruences!

Remark: The Ramanujan congruences are
very special in general the crank is
unequal.
Proof idea: N(s, m, n) and p(n) are related
through the modular form

n
n
q
m
n p
n m s N

>
|
.
|

\
|

0
) (
) , , (
But its not very nice

Lots of work before using the
earlier tools!
Modular Forms
The q-series are actually Fourier series:
q = e
2iz
for z in H

A modular form f(z) of weight k has two
symmetries:
1. f(z + 1) = f(z) (periodicity)
2. f(-1 / z) = z
k
f(z) (Mellin transform)

Composition Group of transformations

( ) ) ( : ) ( z f d cz
d cz
b az
f
d c
b a
z f
k
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

for 2 X 2 matrices w/ determinant 1.

Size of matrix subgroup level.

Alternatively view as (nearly) invariant functions
on 2-dimensional lattices
Fact: Nice modular forms lie in finite-
dimensional vector spaces.

Note: Nice = technical analytic conditions

Series for p(n) and crank fail badly
No longer finite-dimensional!
Challenge: Transform into something nice
Interplay between:
Combinatorics of coefficients
Arithmetic modulo m
Analytic transformations

Example: Modulo 5,
( ) ( )
[ [
> >

1
24
1
5
5
1 1
1
1
n
n
n
n
n
q q
q
Left-side coefficients: related to p(n)
- especially if (n,5) = 1
Modularity Approach vs.
Generating Functions (Coefficients)

Recall the modularity approach:
Convert solutions to an impossible E
Specific modular form is unimportant

Coefficients can be very interesting
themselves!!
Sums of squares, Divisor sums, Partitions,
Warning:

Work in math.

And this could
happen to
you!!!