ENMA 101 – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Calculus is a branch of mathematics which started to develop in the 17 th

century. Sir Isaac Newton (English, 1642-1727) and Wilhelm Leibniz (German, 1646-
1716) created calculus independently of each other and amazingly at about the same
time. The invention of Calculus by these two remarkable men has provided the
scientists a mathematics that could handle many of the difficult problems about
motion and things that change. Today, calculus has important applications in almost
every field of the study that uses mathematics.

The word “calculus” is derived from the Latin word for stone or pebble. In
ancient times, pebbles were used for counting. This calculus roughly means a
“method of calculation”. The technique of calculation developed by Newton and
Leibniz was undoubtedly remarkable so much so it was called the CALCULUS.

In the study of calculus, the first important concept or idea which must be
introduced is the concept of limit. Actually, as you will notice, the whole structure of
calculus is based upon the limit concept.

LEARNING MATERIAL 1:

LIMITS

Functional Notation

The function concept is needed when discussing the principles of calculus in

general terms. Recall that a function is a certain law of correspondence. It is
generally associated with a formula. For instance, area of a circle, A = π r2. For each
value assigned to r, there corresponds a value of A. We say that A is a function of
A = f ( r ).

In general, if there is a relation between two variables x and y such that for each
value of x, there corresponds a value of y, then y is said to be a function of x.

y = f (x) where: y is the dependent variable while x is the independent variable

Examples:

1) Volume of a right circular cylinder as a function of h and radius : V = π r2h ;

V = f ( r,h )
2) Circumference of a circle in terms of diameter: C = πd ; C = f( d )

3) Equation of a line in terms of slope and y - intercept: y = mx + b ; y = f ( m, b )

4) Equation of a line passing through (4,-7) and has slope 3. Using point slope form
 formula:

y - y1 = m (x - x1) ; y - (-7) = 3(x - 4) ; y + 7 = 3x -12 ; y = 3x - 19 ; y = f ( x )

5) Velocity ( S ) in terms of distance ( d ) and time ( t ) S = d/t ; S = f ( d , t )

Limit of a Function

Limits are the foundation of calculus. Being able to work with limits and to
understand them conceptually is crucial, because key ideas and definitions in calculus
make use of limits. This topic examines a variety of limit problems and makes the
intuitive idea of continuity formal by using limits. Many later problems also involve the
use of limits, so although limits may go away for a while during your calculus studies,
they’ll return!
Consider the function y = 3x + 1 and assign some values to x near, but not equal to a
specific number say 2. For each value of x in the neighborhood of 2 the value of y is
determined.

x 1.500 1.890 1.999 2.009 2.050 2.160 2.300

y 5.500 6.670 6.997 7.027 7.150 7.480 7.900

The table shows that when x is near 2, whether a little less or a little greater than 2,
y = 3x + 1 is nearer 7. In other words, “3x + 1 approaches the number 7 as a limit
when x approaches 2”.

The symbolic form for this statement is 3x + 1 → 7 as x → 2

We may also say that “the limit of 3x + 1 as x approaches 2 is 7”

limx2 (3x  1)  7

“The limit of…” “…..the function f…..”

Notation: lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑥→3

“…..as x approaches 3”

The symbol lim means we’re taking a limit of something.

Properties of Limits:

Constant Function Rule:

limxa c  c

Example:

limx2 10  10

Identity Rule:

lim xa x  a

Example:

lim x4 x  4

Limits Sum Rule:

limxa  f x   g x   limxa f x   limxa g x 

Example:

limx5 2 x 2  x 
limx5 2 x 2  limx5 x
25  5  55
2

Limits Difference Rule:

limxa  f x   g x   limxa f x   limxa g x 

Example:

lim x1 3x 3  8 x 

lim x1 3x 3  lim x1 8 x
31  81  3  8  5
3

Limits Product Rule:

limxa  f x   g x   limxa f x   limxa g x 

Example:

lim x 2  x  8 x  7 
lim x 2  x  8  lim x 2  x  7 
2  82  7   10 5  50
Limits Quotient Rule:

limxa f x 
limxa  f x   g x  
limxa g x 

Example:

4x2
lim x9
1 x
lim x9 4 x 2
lim x9 1  x
4 lim x9 x 2
lim x9 1  lim x9 x
4  92
 81
1 9

Power Rule:

limxa  f x   limxa f x 
n n

Example:

limx0 x  6
2

limx0 x  62
0  62  36
Solved Problems:

1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒) = (2)2 + 3(2) + 4 = 𝟏𝟒 𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫

𝒙→𝟐

2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙 + 𝟒) √𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 = (2 + 4)√2(2) + 5 = 𝟏𝟖 𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫

𝒙→𝟐

1 √𝟐+𝟏
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛450 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛450 = 1 + = 𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫
𝒙→𝟒𝟓𝟎 √2 √𝟐

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 2 sin 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 1

4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝟎 = = 2 cos 𝑥 = 2 cos(450 ) = 2 (2) = 𝟏 answer
𝒙→𝟔𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 sin 𝑥

𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 1−cos 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥 1 1 𝟏

5. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = (1+cos 𝑥)(1−cos 𝑥) = 1+cos(0) = 1+1 = 𝟐 answer
𝒙→𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙

𝟐𝒛𝟐 −𝟏𝟕𝒛 + 𝟖 (𝟐𝒛 − 𝟏)(𝒛 − 𝟖)

6. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = −𝟏𝟓 answer
𝒛→𝟖 𝟖−𝒛 𝒛→𝟖 −(𝒛 − 𝟖)

𝒚𝟐 − 𝟒𝒚 − 𝟐𝟏 (𝒚 − 𝟕)(𝒚 + 𝟑) 𝒚+𝟑 𝟐
7. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑𝒚𝟐 −𝟏𝟕𝒚 − 𝟐𝟖 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟑𝒚 + 𝟒)(𝒚 −𝟕) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟑𝒚 + 𝟒 = 𝟓 answer
𝒚→𝟕 𝒚→𝟕 𝒚→𝟕

Note: In examples 1 to 3 direct substitution was applied while in examples 4 and 5 the
use of trigonometric identities is essential in finding the limits of trigo functions.
Exercises:

1. lim (2𝑥 + 3√𝑥 − 4 + √3𝑥 − 2 − 𝑥 2 )

𝑥→0

2. lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥

𝑥→600

(4𝑥−3)(𝑥 2 +5)
3. lim
𝑥→3 √3𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
4. lim𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑥→
3

√6𝑥+2−(𝑥)3
5. lim
𝑥→2 (2𝑥−1)3

INDETERMINATE FORMS

Consider the function defined by

𝑁 (𝑥 )
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ; 𝐷 (𝑥 ) ≠ 0
𝐷 (𝑥 )

Suppose at 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑁(𝑎) = 𝐷(𝑎) = 0

𝑁(𝑎) 0
𝑓 (𝑎 ) = = = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝐷(𝑎) 0

Solved Problems:

𝒙𝟐 −𝟒 (2)2 −4 0
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = 0 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝒙→𝟐 𝒙−𝟐 2−2

𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
Therefore, lim = = 2 + 2 = 𝟒 𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥−2

𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙 +𝟐 (2)2 −3(2)+2 0

2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙−𝟐
= 2−2
= 0 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝒙→𝟐
𝑥 2 −3𝑥 +2 (𝑥−2)(𝑥−1)
Therefore, lim 𝑥−2
= 𝑥−2
= 2 − 1 = 𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫
𝑥→2
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 𝑡𝑎𝑛(0) 0
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝜽→𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2(0) 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 1 1 𝟏
Therefore, lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1; = 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫
𝜃→0 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2(1)2

𝒙 0 0
4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = 0 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝒙→𝟎 √𝒙+𝟏−𝟏 √0+1−1

𝑥 √𝑥+1+1 𝑥(√𝑥+1+1) 𝑥(√𝑥+1+1)

Therefore, lim ∙ = 2 = = √𝑥 + 1 + 1 = 𝟐 answer
𝑥→0 √ 𝑥+1−1 √𝑥+1+1 (√𝑥+1) −(1)2 𝑥+1−1

√𝟕+𝒉−√𝟕 √7+0−√7
5. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉 0

2 2
√7+ℎ−√7 (√7+ℎ−√7)(√7+ℎ+√7) (√7+ℎ) −(√7)
Therefore,lim = =
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ(√7+ℎ+√7) ℎ(√7+ℎ+√7)

7+ℎ−7 1 𝟏
= = = answer
ℎ(√7+ℎ+√7) √7+ℎ+√7 𝟐√𝟕
Note: In indeterminate forms you cannot directly substitute the given limits because
it will be meaningless(indeterminate). The use of factoring methods, conjugates and
trigo identities helps in determining the limit of a function.

Exercises:

𝑥 3 −64 𝑥 3 −13𝑥+12
1. lim 𝑥2 −16 2. lim 𝑥3 −14𝑥+15
𝑥→4 𝑥→3

𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑥

3. lim 2𝑥3 −5𝑥2 +5𝑥−6 4. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥→0 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

tan 2𝑥 (3𝑥−1)2
5. lim𝜋 6. lim
𝑥→ sec 2𝑥 𝑥→1 (𝑥+1)3
4

𝑥2 − 4 𝑥−1
7. lim 𝑥2 −5𝑥+6 8. lim √𝑥2
𝑥→2 𝑥→1 + 3−2

(𝑥+ℎ)3 − 𝑥 3 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2
9. lim 10. lim
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+3

INFINITY
Let: 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 ) = +∞

it means that, as x approaches a, f(x) eventually becomes and thereafter remains

greater than any preassigned positive number, however large. In such a case, we say
that f(x) approaches +∞ as x approaches a.

Similarly, let: 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −∞

it means that as x approaches a, f(x) eventually becomes and thereafter remains less
than any preassigned negative number. In that case, we say that f(x) approaches −∞
as x approaches a.

Examples:
1
1. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0 = +∞
𝑥2
−1 −1 −1
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 (𝑥−1)2 = (1−1)2 = = −∞
0
1 1
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0 𝑥 = 0 = +∞
1
4. 𝑙𝑖𝑚0+ 𝑥 = +∞ as x approaches 0 from the right( that is, through positive
numbers), 1/x is positive and eventually becomes larger than the preassigned
number.
1
5. 𝑙𝑖𝑚0− 𝑥 = −∞ as x approaches 0 from the left( that is, through negative
numbers), 1/x is negative and eventually becomes larger than the preassigned
number.
1
6. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 = 0
1 1
7. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→+∞ (2 + ) = (2 + (+∞)2) = (2 + 0) = 2
𝑥2
Limit at Infinity
A function 𝑓(𝑥) may have a finite limit even when the independent variable 𝑥
becomes finite. This statement “𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒” is customarily expressed in
symbol by “𝑥 → ∞”. Let f(x) be a function. If we make 𝑓(𝑥) as large as possible by
making x close enough but not equal to a real number , then we describe in writing

lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎

1 1
Consider a function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 it can be shown intuitively or formally that approaches
𝑥
1
a finite limit (the number zero) as 𝑥 increases without bounds. That is, → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞
𝑥

𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟎
𝒙→∞ 𝒙

𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 ∞ ∞
Note: =𝟎 = 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 =𝟎 = 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 = 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅
𝟏 𝟎 ∞ ∞ 𝟎

Solved Problems:
𝟏 1 1 1 1 1 1
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟑 = lim (𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥) = lim 𝑥 ∙ lim 𝑥 ∙ lim = 𝟎 answer
𝒙→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

𝟒 1 1 1 1 1
2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐 = 4 lim = 4 lim (𝑥 ∙ 𝑥) = 4 lim 𝑥 ∙ lim = 𝟎 answer
𝒙→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
1 1
𝟏 1 4 1 4
3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏 = lim ( ) = [ lim ] = 𝟎 answer
𝒙→∞ 𝒙𝟒 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

3 6
𝟒𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔 4+ − 3 4+0+0
4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = lim 𝑥 𝑥
5 3 = 2+0+0 = 𝟐 answer
𝒙→∞ 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟑 𝑥→∞ 2+ 2 + 3
𝑥 𝑥

2 1
𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 6+ + 2 6+0+0 𝟔
5. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟓𝒙𝟐− 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒 = lim 𝑥 𝑥
3 4 = 5−0+0 = 𝟓 answer
𝒙→∞ 𝑥→∞ 5− 𝑥 + 2
𝑥

Exercises:
6𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5 8𝑥 − 5
1. lim 2. lim
𝑥→∞ 8𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 3 𝑥→∞ √4𝑥 2 + 3

3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥3
3. lim 4. lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 + 1 𝑥→∞ (2𝑥 − 1)2

4𝑥 + 5 (𝑥 + 2)3 −(𝑥 − 2)3

5. lim 6. lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥2

𝑥3 + 𝑥 + 2 √9𝑥 2 + 4
7. lim 8. lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥2 −1 𝑥→∞ 6𝑥 + 1

7𝑥 9 −4𝑥 5 +2𝑥−13 −2𝑥 3 +7

9. lim 10. lim
𝑥→∞ −3𝑥 9 +𝑥 8 −5𝑥 2 +2𝑥 𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS with SOLUTION:

𝑥−4 𝑥−4 1 1 1
1. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→4 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→4 (𝑥+3)(𝑥−4) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→4 𝑥+3 = 4+3 = 7
𝑥 2 −𝑥−12

𝑥 3 − 27 (𝑥−3)(𝑥 2 +3𝑥+9) (𝑥 2 +3𝑥+9) 9

2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→3 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→3 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→3 =2
𝑥 2 −9 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+3) (𝑥+3)

√𝑥 2 +5 − 3 √𝑥 2 +5 − 3 √𝑥 2 +5 + 3 𝑥 2 −4 1
3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→3 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→3 ∙ √𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→3 =3
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 +5 + 3 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)√𝑥 2 +5 + 3

√𝑥 2 +5 – √30 √𝑥 2 +5 – √30 √𝑥 2 +5 + √30 𝑥 2 −25

4. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→5 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→5 ∙ √𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→5 (𝑥
𝑥–5 (𝑥 – 5) +5 + √30 – 5)√𝑥 2 +5 + √30

(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 5) 5 5
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→5 = =√
(𝑥 – 5)√𝑥 2 + 5 + √30 √30 6

3𝑥2 − 1 1
3𝑥 2 −1 3− 2 3−0 3
𝑥2 𝑥
5. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 2𝑥2 + 20 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 2𝑥2 + 20
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 20 = 2+0 = 2
2+ 2
𝑥2 𝑥

2𝑥3 3𝑥2 7 3 7
2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 7 + 3 + 3 2+ + 3 2+ ∞+ ∞
𝑥3 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
6. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 𝑥2 3𝑥
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→∞ 1 3 4 = ∞+ ∞+ ∞ = ∞
𝑥2 + 3𝑥 + 4 + +
4 + +
𝑥3 𝑥3 𝑥3 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3

1 5 9 1 5 9
𝑡 2 −5𝑡−9 𝑡 4 ( 2 − 3 − 4) − − 0
𝑡 2 𝑡3 𝑡4
7. 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡→−∞ 2𝑡 4 +3𝑡3 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡→−∞ 𝑡 4 𝑡 3 𝑡 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡→−∞ 3 =2=0
𝑡 (2 + ) 2+
𝑡 𝑡