Abaqus

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL METHODS IN ENGINEERING
Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng. 45, 801820 (1999)

ADAPTIVE FINITE ELEMENT REMESHING IN A LARGE
DEFORMATION ANALYSIS OF METAL
POWDER FORMING
AMIR R. KHOEI
AND ROLAND W. LEWIS

Institute of Numerical Methods in Engineering; University of Wales Swansea; Singleton Park;
Swansea SA2 8PP; U.K.
SUMMARY
In this paper, a general framework for the nite element simulation of powder forming processes is presented.
A large displacement formulation, based on a total and updated Lagrangian formulation and an adaptive nite
element strategy based on error estimates and automatic remeshing techniques are utilized. To describe the
constitutive model of the highly non-linear behaviour of powder materials, an elliptical cap model based on
a hardening rule to dene the dependence of the yield surface on the degree of plastic straining is applied.
The interfacial behaviour between the die and powder is modelled by using a plasticity theory of friction in
the context of an interface element formulation. Finally, the powder behaviour during the compaction of a
set of complex shapes are analysed numerically. The simulation of the deformation is shown as well as the
distribution of relative density contours at dierent time stages. The results clearly indicate that the algorithm
makes it possible to simulate the powder forming problems eciently and automatically. Copyright ? 1999
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS: Lagrangian formulation; error estimation; adaptive remeshing; cap model; plasticity theory of friction; inter-
face element
1. INTRODUCTION
The nite element method has been widely used in the analysis of forming processes [13]. By
using the method, various forming conditions of non-linear behaviour, hardening, boundary friction,
boundary geometry and loading can be considered and unsteady forming processes can be simulated
for very large deformations. The analysis undoubtably plays an important part in the design of the
tool and billet geometry, material properties and the processing conditions, which otherwise rely
largely on experience. However, an improperly constructed mesh or a distorted mesh, which often
results during the analysis of a large deformation problem, may induce large discretization errors
or make further analysis impossible. A great deal of work has been done by employing an error
estimation and adaptive remeshing in the analysis of forming processes.
An alternative error estimator was suggested by Cheng [4] in 1986, using the sum of the
dierence between the eective strains of each element and its adjacent elements, but no application
of the method has been observed in the literature. The method was rst applied to the simple
Correspondence to: Amir R. Khoei, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wales Swansea, Singleton
Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K. E-mail: a.r.khoei@swansea.ac.uk
CCC 00295981/99/19080123$17.50 Received 15 June 1998
Copyright
?
1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Revised 25 August 1998
802 A. R. KHOEI AND R. W. LEWIS
cylinder upsetting problem by Zienkiewicz et al. [5] and then developed to both compressible
and incompressible forming analyses of forging and extrusion problems [6]. Many applications
of the ZienkiewiczZhu estimator have been seen in the analysis of forming processes. Dyduch
et al. [7] applied a local nite dierence method to the ZienkiewiczZhu error estimator with
various smoothed elds and interpolation error indicators for the elasto-viscoplastic analysis of
forging problems. They used an error indicator for strain rates and its interpolation for the local
renement during the adaptive remeshing procedure.
An analysis of error estimation was presented in the framework of visco-plasticity problems
for incompressible and non-linear materials by Fourment and Chenot [8]. They applied two er-
ror estimators, based on the ZienkiewiczZhu estimator and an estimator for the velocity error
according to the L
2
and L
norms, to an industrial problem of extrusion. It was then developed

to 3-D forming problems by employing an anisotropic remeshing procedure to optimize the num-
ber of elements for highly oriented ows [9]. An automatic, adaptive remeshing scheme with a
new, independent mesh was developed by Dyduch et al. [10] to enable nite element simulations
of forming processes with complicated die geometries. Dyduchs mesh generation procedure was
based on a variable density mesh generator, where high density points are dened in the centre
of grossly distorted elements. An application of Dyduchs method, based on element distortion
checks, has recently been applied to forging problems by Dutko et al. [11] where corner angle
and element slenderness may also trigger remeshing.
Despite the extensive application of adaptive FEM strategy in the industrial manufacturing and
processing operations, powder forming technology has been mostly based on experience and trial
and error methodology, rather than methods arising from a rigorous scientic approach. It is only
recently that the numerical simulation has matured suciently to practically inuence industrial
powder forming operations [1217]. However, to date little has been done to extend an adaptive
procedure to powder forming processes. Recently, an implementation of nite element techniques
using adaptive remeshing has been reported by Tran et al. [14] for simulating the powder com-
paction processeshowever, from their results on a ange component, it can be seen that the
rened mesh appeared coarser during the varying stages of compaction which can lead to unreal-
istic results, especially at the corner region where intensive shear takes place.
The purpose of the present paper is to extend an adaptive FEM strategy into the large displace-
ment nite element formulation of powder forming problems developed by Khoei and Lewis [18].
This model was obtained by employing a posteriori error estimator developed by Zienkiewicz and
Zhu [19] and using an L
2
norm of strain by a recovery procedure in which the improved value
of nite element solution is the basis of an adaptive procedure [20]. An h-renement adaptive
procedure using unstructured meshes is also employed for the computation of the new element
size. The adaptive procedure was applied as follows [20, 21];
(i) an error and mesh control component,
(ii) remeshing of the deformed body,
(iii) mapping of history dependent variables from the old to the new mesh and
(iv) a restart of the simulation.
For a successful modelling of the highly non-linear behaviour of the powder compaction process,
a combination of the MohrCoulomb and elliptical cap model, which reects the stress state
and degree of densication, was applied to describe the constitutive model of powder materials.
A plasticity theory of friction in the context of an interface element formulation was employed in
the constitutive modelling of the frictional behaviour between the die and powder.
Copyright ? 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng. 45, 801820 (1999)
LARGE DEFORMATION ANALYSIS OF METAL POWDER FORMING 803
2. LARGE DISPLACEMENT FORMULATION
As the compaction process involves a very large reduction in volume, the formulation adopted
must be capable of representing this physical process. Thus, the process is described by a large
displacement nite element method based on a total and updated Lagrangian formulation [18].
Applying the standard nite element Galerkin discretization process to the standard displacement
formulation with the independent approximations of displacement, u dened as u =N
T
u
u, we obtain
the following algebraic equation:
_
B
T
A d + M
u f
u
=0 (1)
where
M=
_
N
T
u
jN
u
d, f
u
=
_
N
T
u
jb d +
_
t
N
T
u
t d (2)
where A is the total stress, b is the body force accelaration, j is the density of powder and

B is
the well known strain matrix relating the increments of strain and displacement (i.e. dU =

Bd u).
If displacements are large, the strains depend non-linearly on displacements and the matrix

B is
dependent on u. Thus, we can write the denition of the tangential stiness matrix K
T
, used in
the rst term of equation (1), in terms of the linear and non-linear displacement stiness matrix
as
K
T
=
_
B
T
D
T

Bd
=
_
(B
L
+ A
0
G)
T
D
T
(B
L
+ A
0
G) d (3)
where B
L
is the matrix as for a linear innitesimal strain analysis and only B
NL
=A
0
G depends on
the displacement. A
0
is a suitably dened matrix operator which contains displacement derivatives
(X) and G contains the Cartesian shape function derivatives (X =G
T
u).
In order to complete the numerical solution, dierential equation (1) is integrated in time by the
generalized Newmark scheme (GNpj method), an unconditionally stable direct solution procedure.
Applying the GN22 scheme for displacement and then the NewtonRaphson procedure for non-
linear iteration, the matrix of the solution can be given by the following expression:
[M
n+1
+ K
Tn+1
[t
2
]
i
{o(

u
n+1
)}
i
= {G
u
}
i
n+1
(4)
where G
u
stands for the vector evaluated from the known initial values. The parameter [ is chosen
in the range of 01 [22].
3. ADAPTIVE FEM STRATEGY
Despite the advantage of the Lagrangian description in which deformation history dependent vari-
ables (strain hardening) can easily be taken into account and the changing shape of the formed
product can be followed, one of the signicant limitations of this approach is the progressive
distortion which can sometimes lead to entanglement of the nite element mesh. This can result
in severe distortion of nite element mesh where intensive shear takes place [17]. The distortion
can cause large approximation errors or make the Jacobian determinant negative and make fur-
ther analysis impossible. In most cases it is necessary to redene the mesh after some stages of
deformation.
Another reason to change the discretization and regenerate the mesh is that due to a complicated
die geometry, where the initially generated mesh may not have sucient local degrees of freedom
to describe the details of material ow because of the die boundary conditions. This usually
happens when a part of the workpiece is in contact with the curved die border and therefore a
much ner mesh is necessary. In order to solve this problem, an ecient way is to use error
estimates and adaptive remeshing, which not only control the discretization error, but automates
the simulation process. This consists in dening a new appropriate nite element mesh within the
updated, deformed geometry and interpolating (mapping) the pertinent variables from one mesh
to another in order to continue the simulation.
The objective of adaptive techniques is to obtain a mesh which is optimal in the sense that the
computational costs involved are minimal under the constraint that the error in the nite element
solution is acceptable within a certain limit. Since the computational eort can be linked to the
number of unknowns of the nite element mesh the task is to nd a mesh with a minimum number
of unknowns, or nodes, for a given error tolerance. To obtain an optimal mesh, in the sense of
an equal solution quality, it is desirable to design the mesh such that the error contributions of
the elements are equidistributed over the mesh. In a practical scheme for an adaptive analysis
in plasticity, the mesh must be changed when the error is more than a prescribed value. After
changing the mesh, all state variables must be transferred to the integration points of the new
mesh. In general, the procedure can be executed in three parts; an error estimation, an adaptive
mesh renement and the mapping of variables.
3.1. Error estimation
The aim of error estimation in any analysis is rstly, to determine the error for the chosen,
perhaps distorted, mesh and secondly, to reduce this error to a permissible value by automatic
adaptive remeshing. The discretization error represents the dierence between the exact and the
approximate (e.g. the nite element) solutions for the mathematical model. Since exact solutions
for practical, non-linear problems are usually not available, an estimated error, instead of the real
error, is adopted to guide the nite element analysis. Thus, the error in strain, e
c
, may be dened
as
e
c
U U U
U (5)
where U is the discontinuous strain derived by a nite element solution and U
represent an
improved, or recovered, solution. With a good recovery process, accurate estimates of error can
be made in any desired norm providing the values of U
are available throughout the problem

domain.
The error estimates which we shall use here will be presented in the L
2
norm of strain. For
instance, the L
2
norm of the strain error e
c
can be written as
e
c
= U
U
=
__
(U
U)
T
(U
U) d
_
1}2
(6)
and the recovered solution can be obtained by a global smoothing using the interpolation function
N
u
and nodal parameter U
as
U
=N
u
U
(7)
where
U
=
__
N
T
u
N
u
d
_
1
_
N
T
u
U d (8)
and we can obtain the square of each L
2
norm dened in equation (6) by summing element
contributions as
e
c
2
=
m
i=1
e
c
2
i
(9)
where i represents an element contribution and m is the total number of elements. Indeed for an
optimal mesh in which the distribution of the estimated error is uniform over the whole domain,
we shall generally try to make the contributions to this square of the norm equal for all elements.
The uniform distribution of error is usually used as a criterion for calculating the new mesh size,
as described in the next section.
3.2. Adaptive mesh renement
Adaptive remeshing of nite element solutions refers to improving the quality of the solutions
by enriching the approximation in some manner so as to achieve the best solution for a given
computational eort. The adaptive mesh renement strategy depends on the nature of the criteria
on accuracy which we wish to satisfy. A very common requirement is to specify the achievement
of a certain minimum percentage error in the L
2
norm. Thus, we require that after remeshing
each element will have the same error and the overall percentage error is equal to some target
percentage error, i.e.
p =
e
c
U
6
e
c
aim
U
= p
aim
(10)
where p
aim
is the prescribed target percentage error. If we assume that the error is equally dis-
tributed between elements the above requirements can be translated into our placing a limit on the
error in each element. Thus, for each element we require that
(e
c
i
)
aim
=
1
m
U p
aim
(11)
and the new element size can be predicted by the following equation:
(h
i
)
new
(h
i
)
old
=
_
(e
c
i
)
aim
(e
c
i
)
old
_
1}z
(12)
In this study, z is assumed to be 2 when quadratic triangular elements are used and 1 when a
linear triangular element is employed. The new element size (h
i
)
new
of element i can be calculated
by equation (12). This information is used to compute the appropriate mesh sizes in a particular
element for the continuing renement. It must be coupled with an ecient mesh generator which
allows the new mesh to be constructed according to a predetermined size distribution. Such a
generator was developed for triangular elements by Peraire et al. [23] and is used in this research.
3.3. Mapping of variables
Once a new mesh is generated, state variables and history-dependent variables need to be mapped
from the old nite element mesh to the new one. The state variables consist of the nodal displace-
ments and the variables of the contact algorithm. The history-dependent variables consist of the
Cauchy stress tensor, the strain tensor, the plastic strain tensor and a vector of internal variables.
Several important aspects of the mapping process have to be addressed [24, 25], i.e.,
(i) consistency with the constitutive equations,
(ii) requirement of equilibrium,
(iii) compatibility of the history-dependent internal variables transfer with the displacement eld
on the new mesh,
(iv) compatibility with evolving boundary conditions,
(v) minimisation of the numerical diusion of the transferred state elds.
Let u
old
denote the displacement eld given by the old nite element mesh and u
new
the dis-
placement eld given by the new nite element mesh, where both nite element models occupy
the same domain . The displacement mapping process can be stated as
u
old
() u
new
() (13)
The mapping process for the other variables can be stated in a similar manner as
l
old
() l
new
() (14)
where l
old
and l
new
are the list of history-dependent variables of the old and new nite element
models i.e.,
l
old
={A
old
, U
old
, U
old
, q
old
}, l
new
={A
new
, U
new
, U
new
, q
new
} (15)
Before the solution variables can be transferred from the integration points of the old nite
element mesh to the nodal points of the new nite element mesh, we must rst determine which
element in the old mesh contains the node n in the new nite element mesh. Since this task has to
be performed for every nodal and integration point in the new nite element mesh, it is important
that a reliable and computationally ecient procedure be used.
In this study, we have employed the superconvergent patch recovery SPR method developed
by Zienkiewicz and Zhu [26, 27] to project the values from the old Gauss points to the old nodal
points. In this case, we rst obtain the smoothed nodal point values for each of the variables in
the list l
old
, then use the inverse mapping technique to transfer these variables to the nodal points
of the new nite element mesh and nally the corresponding values at the new Gauss points can
be calculated using interpolation functions in the new nite element mesh.
4. PLASTICITY MODEL FOR POWDER MATERIAL
The powder forming process is of great importance in the manufacturing of hardmetal compo-
nents from powders. If, in this process, inhomogeneities are introduced or if fracture occurs, the
Figure 1. A combination of the MohrCoulomb and Elliptical Cap models (MCEC)
component will be rejected or it will perform badly in its intended use. Thus, it is of great interest
to be able to accurately predict the mechanical behaviour of the powder during a compaction
process. In order to adequately reproduce powder material behaviour under cyclic loading, as
a sequence of loading}unloading}reloading, modications have to be introduced to the classical
constitutive models. The success for an elasto-plastic solution to a problem is dependent on
(1) a reasonable elasto-plastic constitutive model which can reproduce powder material behaviour
under complicated loading conditions;
(2) an accurate and stable integration algorithm for the elasto-plastic constitutive relation.
In the present study, the behaviour of the powder during compaction is simulated by a cap
plasticity constitutive model [2830]. A double-surface plasticity model based on a combination
of a convex yield surface consisting of a failure envelope, such as a MohrCoulomb yield surface
and a hardening elliptical yield cap (Figure 1), has been developed for non-linear behaviour
of powder materials in the concept of the generalized plasticity formulation for the description
of cyclic loading. This model reects the yielding, frictional and densication characteristics of
powder along with strain and geometrical hardening which occurs during the compaction process.
The model generally comprises two surfaces, one to reect shear failure and the second to capture
densication. The solution yields details on the powder displacement from which it is possible to
establish the stress state in the powder and the densication can be derived from consideration of
the elemental volumetric strain.
A hardening rule is used to dene the dependence of the yield surface on the degree of plastic
straining. The evolution of the yield surface must respond to either hardening or softening. The
hardening is caused by the elimination of voids with an increase in particle resistance to plastic
ow and consequently the powder material itself becomes harder. Conversely, softening is caused
due to void expansion, the compacted powder may crack especially at corners or at other points
of high stress concentration, which will cause a reduction of the ultimate strength of the nished
component.
The hardening behaviour of the material is reected in a movement of the densication line and
its intersection with the shear envelop and chosen so that
L(o
c
) =o
c
=
_
o
c
if o
c
0
0 if o
c
0
(16)
Table I. Constitutive model for the non-linear behaviour of powder materials
(i) The failure envelope
F
1
(A) =J
1
}3 sin [ +
_
J
2
cos 0
_
J
2
}3 sin 0 sin [ c cos [=0 for A
m
o
c
(ii) An elliptical cap model
F
2
(A, o
c
) =J
2
+ M
2
[(o
m
+ o
c
)
2
(o
c
+ c}tan [)
2
] =0 for o
m
o
c
(iii) The hardening parameter
L(o
c
) =o
c
=
_
o
c
if o
c
0
0 if o
c
0
(iv) Critical stress
o
c
=[(c
p
v
) =o
c0
exp( c
p
v
} ,)
(v) Eective volumetric plastic strain
c
p
v
=
_
c
p
v
if c
p
v
60, or o
c
o
m
and o
c
0
0 otherwise
(vi) Volumetric plastic strain
c
p
v
=

z
cF
co
i)
o
i)
where o
c
is the critical stress governed by the function of volumetric plastic strain c
p
v
, as
o
c
=[(c
p
v
) =o
c0
exp
_
c
p
v
,
_
(17)
where o
c0
is the initial hydrostatic stress of compaction which is derived from a consideration of
die lling and assumed to be uniform, and , is the plastic hardening coecient which is derived
from an uniaxial compression}relaxation test. c
p
v
denotes the eective volumetric plastic strain,
given by the dierential relation [18]
c
p
v
=
_
c
p
v
if c
p
v
60, or o
c
o
m
and o
c
0
0 otherwise
(18)
For convenience, the basic equations governing the constitutive model for the non-linear
behaviour of powder materials have been summarized in Table I.
5. PLASTICITY THEORY OF FRICTION
The inuence of powdertool friction on the mechanical properties of the nal product is signicant
in pressing metal powders. Friction between the powder and tool aects the density distribution
in the compact. A non-homogeneous density distribution induces cracks and residual stresses dur-
ing compaction which is detrimental to the strength of the component. Contact friction is often
associated with very complex geometries and non-linear constitutive behaviour. Thus, it is impor-
tant to predict the behaviour of the powdertool friction.
The objective of the mathematical theory of friction is to provide a theoretical description of
motion at the interface of bodies in contact. In order to formulate such a theory of friction several
requirements have to be considered [3133],
(1) Stick (or adhesion) law: a mathematical description of the stress state under sticking (elastic)
conditions,
(2) Stick-slip law: a theoretical description of the relationship between stress and stick-slip
(elasto-plastic) conditions,
(3) Wear and tear rule: a hardening and softening rule during sliding,
(4) Slip criterion: a yield criterion indicating the stress level at which relative slip motion
occurs,
(5) Slip rule: a ow rule indicating the relationship between stress and slip motion.
Following standard formulation of the theory of elasto-plasticity, the tangential relative displace-
ment at the contact interface can be decomposed into the sum of two parts [31]; one reversible,
called stick (or adherence), can be attributed to the elastic deformation of asperities and denoted
by u
A
1
and the other irreversible, called slip, may be attributed partly to the plastic deformation
of these asperities and denoted by u
S
1
, i.e.
u
1
=u
A
1
+ u
S
1
=u
e
1
+ u
p
1
(19)
In order to perform the decomposition of the relative displacement into stick and slip, a slip
criterion should be introduced. A slip criterion is interrogated to decide which one of the two
modes, sticking or slipping, occurs. If stick reaches (i.e. drops below) a certain threshold, called
the slip or stick limit, then the relative motion contributes exclusively to slip (stick) respectively.
In the present study, a type of slip criterion based on MohrCoulombs law with a tension
cut-o model, as illustrated in Table II, has been considered. The direction of slip is governed
by an appropriate slip rule which can be derived from the gradient of a convex potential Z. In
order to avoid the slave body separation from the contacting surface, a non-associated ow rule
is typically adopted [18].
The interface behaviour between the boundary of the tool and the deforming material is modelled
by using interface elements. The stress vector at the interface element is assumed to have only
two components; normal stress o
n
and shear stress t. In the incremental manner, these two stress
components are related to the strains through the material property matrix D
[
, as follows:
A =D
[
U or
_
t
o
n
_
=
_
G
[
0
0 E
[
_ _

c
n
_
(20)
where the matrix D
[
needs to capture the details of the physical processes taking place such as
asperity contact, adhesion and the consequent stick-slip behaviour. In equation (20), E
[
is chosen
as an arbitrary large number for numerical convenience. The frictional non-linearity is modelled by
an appropriate variation of G
[
which can be obtained from the shear stressstrain (t) relationship
for the stick and slip region [18, 34].
Table II. Constitutive model for the plasticity theory of
friction
(i) The stick-slip law
u
1
= u
A
1
+ u
S
1
= u
e
1
+ u
p
1
(ii) Linear constitutive equation
o
n
= E
[
c
n
t = G
A
(iii) Slip criterion

[
1[
=o
n
=0
[
2[
=|t| + o
n
tan [
[
c
[
=0
(iv) Slip rule and potential surface
=

z
cZ
ct
Z =|t|, =

z
t
|t|
The stiness matrix of an interface element is dened in the standard nite element manner as
K
[
=
_
B
T
[
D
[
B
[
d (21)
where the B
[
matrix is equal to (1}w)N with w denoting the width of the interface element
considered to be very small, i.e. w0. It should be noted that t and o
n
are decoupled in the
stiness matrix K
[
. However, in the stress calculation o
n
is evaluated rst so that t can then be
obtained from the (t) relationship. Also, if a positive value of o
n
is registered, then the tension
cut-o condition is applied, i.e. [
1[
=0, and consequently t =0.
6. NUMERICAL SIMULATION RESULTS
Following the large displacement nite element formulation described in preceding sections, the
elasto-plastic incremental solution strategy is used which integrates the constitutive equation and
iterative scheme to solve the equilibrium equation. In order to illustrate the applicability of the
present formulation, the powder behaviour for the compaction of a plain bush, a shaped tip, a
rotational anged and a multi-level component are analysed numerically. The problems have been
solved with displacement control by increasing the punch movement, d, and by predicting the
compaction forces at dierent displacements.
The iron powder properties chosen in the analysis for all examples are E =400 N}mm
2
, v =035,
c =50 N}mm
2
and [=30
. These values are used for the modied MohrCoulomb yield criterion
with a cap model. The die wall friction is simulated using a set of interface elements with the
Coulomb friction coecient j =008. The initial relative density is j
0
=04, the plastic hardening
coecient , =016 and the initial hydrostatic stress of compaction o
c0
=02 N}mm
2
.
6.1. A plain bush component
The rst example is chosen to show that the Updated Lagrangian Description (ULD), using
a combination of the MohrCoulomb and Elliptical Cap (MCEC) model, can give good answers
in simulating the metal powder during compaction. The nite element modelling of a plain bush
component using the triangular quadratic continuous displacement elements (T6C) and the six-
noded quadratic interface elements (I6C), with a single movement of the top punch, is performed
employing an axisymmetric representation which is illustrated in Figure 2(a). The deformed meshes
at dierent powder movements of the top punch are also plotted in this gure.
The predictive compaction forces at dierent displacements of the top punch surface are
shown in Figure 2(b). Also plotted in this gure are the experimental results and numerical
solutions corresponding to a plain bush component in References 14, 34. Obviously the Mohr
Coulomb constitutive model fails to predict the compaction forceshowever, the results can be
improved signicantly when a combination of the MohrCoulomb and elliptical cap model is
adopted.
6.2. An axisymmetric shaped tip
The second compaction example is of an engineering tip component in hard metal powder
which includes several complications not present in the plain bush compaction. Some problems
are caused by discontinuities in geometry, for example ow around corners and multipunch set up,
i.e. an upper and lower punch. In order to illustrate a comparison between the density distribution
obtained by the ULD nite element formulation and those of Reference 15, the simulation has been
performed using the remaining pressing distance from above of 30 mm and an under-pressing of
145 mm.
The nite element modelling of a shaped tip component, using the eight-noded quadrilateral
elements (Q8C) and six-noded quadratic interface elements (I6C) are illustrated in Figure 3. In
Plate 1(a), the deformed meshes at the half and nal stages of a double-ended compaction are
shown. The distribution of relative density on this tip component is presented in Plate 1(b) at the
nal stage of compaction as 3-D plots where the third direction represents the relative density.
It shows a good agreement between the density distributions obtained by the present formulation
and those of Reference 15.
As the crucial numerical problem in this more practical geometry is associated with the distorted
mesh, an adaptive FEM analysis has been carried out during the complex movements of the top
and bottom punchs. In this case, the whole compaction process has been performed by a bottom
punch movement of 40 mm at the rst stage, then a top punch movement of 40 mm at the second
stage, and a further bottom punch movement of 30 mm in the third stage of compaction as shown
in Figure 4. The initial relative density for this tip component is j
0
=02.
The computations begins with an initial uniform mesh as given in Figure 4. The non-linear
solution is carried out for various loading steps until the estimated error exceeds a prescribed
value, or the sign of the Jacobian determinant becomes negative. At this time a new mesh is
generated using appropriate renement criterion. The rst adaptive analysis is employed after
the rst bottom punch motion for a specied target error p
aim
=40 per cent and followed by
transferring the information from the old integration points to the new ones in the new mesh.
The analysis is continued with a second adaptive mesh renement after the top punch motion
takes place for a specied target error p
aim
=30 per cent. After transferring all the state variables
Figure 2. An axisymmetric plain bush component: (a) Finite element modelling and deformed meshes; (b) predicted top
punch compaction forces at dierent displacements
Copyright 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng. 45 (1999)
(a) (b)
Plate 1. (a) Deformed meshes at the half and final stages of powder movement; (b) density distribution at the final stage of compaction
Plate 2. Relative density contours at different powder movements for an axisymmetric tip component
Plate 4. Relative density contours at different powder movements for a flange component
Plate 3. Density distribution at the final stage of compaction for an axisymmetric tip component
Plate 5. Density distribution at the final stage of compaction for a flange component
Plate 6. Relative density contours at different powder movements for a multi-level component
Figure 3. Finite element modelling, geometry and boundary conditions of an axisymmetric shaped tip component
from the old mesh to the integration points of the new mesh, a second bottom punch movement
is applied to obtain the nal stages of compaction. In Plate 2, the relative density contours at
dierent stages of movement are presented. Also plotted is the 3-D distribution of relative density
for this tip component in Plate 3 at the nal stage of compaction.
6.3. A rotational anged component
This third compaction example is of a multi-level component which is modelled by an axisym-
metric representation, as illustrated in Figure 5. Since a single top, or a single bottom, punch motion
results in severe distortion of nite element mesh which can cause large approximation errors, or
make the Jacobian determinant negative, and make further analysis impossible, a double-ended
compaction process was applied by authors in Reference 17 to avoid the mesh distortion using
a xed mesh analysis. Here, we have employed an adaptive FEM analysis during the complex
movements of the top and bottom punchs. The whole compaction process involves a top punch
movement of 344 mm at the rst stage, then a bottom punch movement of 770 mm at the second
stage, and nally a further top punch movement of 262 mm in the third stage of compaction, as
shown in Figure 6.
The analysis commences with an initial uniform mesh as given in Figure 6(a). The rst adaptive
mesh renement is carried out on the deformed mesh obtained by the rst top punch motion for
a specied aim error p
aim
=40 per cent and a new mesh is generated. After changing the mesh,
all state variables are transferred from the old mesh (Figure 6(b)) to the integration points of the
new mesh (Figure 6(c)) by using nodal points as the reference points for storing the information.
The computation is continued on the new mesh starting from the beginning of the step. A second
8
1
4
A
.
R
.
K
H
O
E
I
A
N
D
R
.
W
.
L
E
W
I
S
Figure 4. Adaptive analysis for a shaped tip component
C
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
?
1
9
9
9
J
o
h
n
W
i
l
e
y
&
S
o
n
s
,
L
t
d
.
I
n
t
.
J
.
N
u
m
e
r
.
M
e
t
h
.
E
n
g
n
g
.
4
5
,
8
0
1
8
2
0
(
1
9
9
9
)
Figure 5. Shape, geometry and boundary conditions of a rotational anged component
Figure 6. Adaptive analysis for a rotational anged component
Figure 7. Predicted top and bottom punches compaction forces at dierent displacements for a anged component:
(a) three stages motion; (b) double punch motion [17]
adaptive analysis is employed after the bottom punch motion takes place as given in Figure 6(d)
for a specied aim error p
aim
= 20 per cent. Finally, a further top punch movement is applied to
obtain a fairly uniform density eld.
The variation of the top and bottom punch forces at dierent displacements are plotted in Figure
7(a). These results can be compared with the predicted compaction forces for the double-ended
Figure 8. Shape, geometry and boundary conditions of the modelled multi-level component
compaction process [17] as given in Figures 7(b). In Plate 4, the relative density contours at
dierent stages of movement are presented. The 3-D distribution of relative density on this anged
component is also shown in Plate 5 at the nal stage of compaction. The results clearly indicate
that the algorithm makes it possible to simulate the powder forming problems eciently and
automatically.
6.4. A modelled multi-level component
The last example chosen demonstrates the performance of the present formulation for the compli-
cated die geometry of a multi-level component as shown in Figure 8. The simulation of an adaptive
FEM analysis for this complex shape has been done by a top punch movement of 50 mm, then a
bottom punch movement of 80 mm, and a second top punch movement of 3.0 mm as illustrated
in Figure 9.
As in the last two examples, the computations begin with an initial uniform mesh. The rst adap-
tive remeshing is carried out on the deformed mesh obtained for the rst top punch motion for a
specied target error of p
aim
= 40 per cent. A second adaptive analysis is employed after the bot-
tom punch motion for a specied target error of p
aim
=20 per cent. The whole compaction process
of this multi-level component is illustrated in Figure 9. In Plate 6 the relative density contours at
dierent stages of compaction are plotted. It can be seen that the proposed adaptive nite element
approach is capable of simulating metal powder compaction processes in an ecient and accurate
manner.
8
1
8
A
.
R
.
K
H
O
E
I
A
N
D
R
.
W
.
L
E
W
I
S
Figure 9. Adaptive analysis for a multi-level component
C
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t
?
1
9
9
9
J
o
h
n
W
i
l
e
y
&
S
o
n
s
,
L
t
d
.
I
n
t
.
J
.
N
u
m
e
r
.
M
e
t
h
.
E
n
g
n
g
.
4
5
,
8
0
1
8
2
0
(
1
9
9
9
)
7. CONCLUSION
In the present paper an adaptive analysis of metal powder forming process has been simulated by
the updated Lagrangian nite element formulation which invariably involve elasto-plastic material
deformation and frictional contact behaviour. For the adaptive strategy, a posteriori Zienkiewicz
Zhu estimator using L
2
norm of strain by a recovery procedure was proposed. To describe the
constitutive model of non-linear behaviour of powder materials, a cap plasticity model using a
hardening rule to dene the dependence of the yield surface on the degree of plastic straining was
applied. A special formulation for friction modelling was coupled with a material formulation by
employing the interface element mesh in the contact area between the die and powder. Finally, the
powder behaviour during the compaction of a plain bush, a shaped tip, a rotational anged and
a multi-level component were analysed numerically. The predictive compaction forces at dierent
displacements and variation with time of the relative density contours are obtained. The results
clearly indicate that the algorithm makes it possible to simulate the powder forming problems
eciently and automatically. It has been shown that the proposed adaptive nite element approach
is capable of simulating metal powder compaction processes in an ecient and accurate manner.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL METHODS IN ENGINEERING

Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng. 45, 801820 (1999)

AND ROLAND W. LEWIS

norms, to an industrial problem of extrusion. It was then developed

are available throughout the problem

(iii) Slip criterion

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