Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1937-49
World War II and Civil War
PHILIP JOWETT was tlorll
in Leeds In nit and flu
tlnn inrernted In military
history for as IOn'il as he un
remember. His lirst Osprey
boo_ wu Ihe 'iI,Oundbru_lng
Men-at-Arms 305: Clllrll!'n
Civil War Armit's 1P1l-4'; III
hu sinn putl.ished a tllree-
pan nquenn on the /la#an
Anny IMenat-Arms
"olumn 3.0. 3.' " 3$31.
A rugby 'ugue enUluslasl
and amaleur 'ilenu'oglsl.
lie is mnried and "Yn in
STEPHEN WALSH studi.d
art at Ille Nortll Ent Wain
Institute. tll.n, II.
hu worhd mainly lor th.
hlstorleal tlO"rd
market, fulfilling
Iifelon'il Internt In hlsto/le,,1
sUbjeets. His Am.rle"n works
inelude the bnt-niling
Sertlen of Calan. H. h"s
"Iso m"ny
01 artwork Insplr'd tly J R R
Tolkien. He Is married with
lWO and llyn in
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Historical background: the Kuominlang the Comunuusts
-Japanese ambitions in Manchuria
CHRONOLOGY
THE NATIONALIST ARMY 1937-45
Strength. organization and character
Weapons
Nationalist guerrillas
THE NATIONALIST ARMY 1945-49
Strength. organization and character
Weapons
UNIFORMS 1937-45
SlUIillIer lmifonns: hillieS - trousers - puttees footwear
Headgear: lmifonn headgear- steel helmets-
other headgear
Officers' clothing
Winter tmifOlms
InsigJua: collar patches - identification patches ann
badges - lillit badges - annbands
Field equipment
ArlIloured crews
Militia & guerrillas
UNIFORMS 1946-49
Summer lUIifonns
Headgear
"Model 1946" wimer clolhing
Insignia
Officers' unifonns
Parallulitaty U1ufonns
THE PLATES
INDEX
3
6
13
16
20
39
42
48
Men-at-Arms 424
The Chinese Army
1937-49
World War II and Civil War
OSPREY
PUBLISHING
Philip Jowett Illustrated by Stephen Walsh
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Dedication
To mylamily
Ac know led ge men ts
The autllo< would lil<e to express h;s app,eciaHon to lhe rollowinOJ
Paul Cornish, Colin RGreen, Joseph Liu, D.Y.Louie. Kevin Mahoney,
Eric McChesney, Robert E. Passlnini & Phil Piazza 01 the MefTilrs
Marauders Association, aoo Paul V.Walsh. Finally, lhanl<s to
Stephen Walsh lor h;s ha'd worl< on the p1ales aoo lor squeeziJl\l
in the e><l,a "OJu,es
Editor's Note
For darity, COOIese place names in lhis lext are spelt accordinOJ
10 the conventions employed in the 1940s, as beif19 more lamiliar
to Western readers - e.OJ PeI<iJl\l rather lhan Be;jifl9. Canton rather
than GuaJl\lzhou, etc
Artist's Note
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the colour plates in this I>0oI< were PfeP'lred are available lor
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inlo@!stevewatsh.co.uk
The Publishers re<;jret that they can enter into 00 correspondence
upon lhis matter.
THE CHINESE
INTRODUCTION
ARMY 1937-49
A soldier of th, 1UOs,
rern.Jl1llably will klll,d 0\1'
fOr tIM Chinen Army. wllh
kIgps.x:lI ,n wtll l; U .... ruek
.1IId c.<Invu .1mmunition
b.1ndoIier. Tht .:Ilmosl unl .... rs...
Kuomintx\9 sunbunt b.1dOjlI, In
white on tllIM .n.. mel, Is plnn,d
to his t;;Ip. His ,.. nk. equlval,nt
to l:ane.-eorpor:;oJ Of pt......" tlrsl
clus.. Is indle.1ttd by the lh,..
trWlgIes on lin. eolour.d metsl
or plntic: eoll.1r p.1tehn; lilt
small whit, o;:otton pnsoul
identific.;nion P.11dl ,1boy, hi,
Itft breUI ,ums 10 r.. Dord,r,d
in blue, whkh IS now Ihoughl
to 11<I.,. d'"Olld .111 , .. nk' Junior
to mOljor. Th' kh,1kl eOIOlir Of
ChinIw uniforms uri..:! 'ilfUtly:
!his two-button 'skl'type
Ileld c:.1p ,md lunie sum to bt
of one of 1h, d,1rker 'ilrunlsh
or brownish ,h.:ldn.
,
ag:ainst the KMT. and subsequently against the Japanese ill\"aders. In
future years this guerrilla doctrine was to ha\'e enormous influence on
conflicts elsewhere in the world. and the ultimate failure of the KMT
armies to defeat it taught parallellessolls.
Japan and Manchuria
While the Kuomilllang campaigned successfully ag:ainst its remallllllg
warlord riyals and the Communists in the early 1930s. elements in the
Japanese ruling class were planning: the seizure ofManchuria - Ihe huge
and underpopulated region in the north of China.
Since Japan's \'ictOlY there O\'er Russia in 1905 she had exercised
influence in Manchuria. planting: settlers in the southern part of the
reg:ion and garrisoning: it with her KwannUlg AIUlY. Rich in the natural
resources which Japan needed for her industrializalion and exploding
population. Manchuria was essentially a no-man's-land nominally ruled
by the last great Chinese regional warlord, Marshal Chang Tso-lin.
whom the Japanese at firsl supported. Howewl". extremist right-wing
factions in the Imperial Japanese Anny were conspiring: 10 dominale the
To1..1'0 goyernment and to secure for Japan the resources of Manchuria.
In June 1928 Ihey assassinated Marshal Chang by blowing: up his train:
in September 1931 they created an incident at Mukden which g:.n-e the
Kwanhmg Anny a prelexi for mO\'ing in to 'restore order'. in defiance
of orders from Tol-yo: and inJannary 1932 Ihey renamed Manchuria as
Ihe new state of Manclmkuo. ostensibly OIled by the puppet Chinese
emperor Pu-Yi. but acmally by the KWalltlLUg Army.
Japan was in ffiIlnoil during the early 19305: there were a series of
assassinations and coup attempts. during which the
amlY steadily increased its influence and support .
.. I When the League of Nations belatedly protested
against her aggression in Manchuria. Japan simply
left the League in March 1933. Furtheryiolations of
t Chinese telTitolY S01W fighting in and around the city
of Shanghai in 1932, the Japanese ill\'asioll of J ehol
.. province ill 1933. and (l c1l1ndestine campaign in
Suiyuan in 1936. In NO\'ember 1936 Japan and
Germany signed the Anti-Comintenl Pact: and the
following lIlonth President Chiang Kai-shek was
reluctantly forced to agree to a 'united front' with
the COllllllunists to concentrate on fighting the
invaders. The clllllpaigns of 1932-36, 1Iithough
bitterly fought. had been reillti\'ely small sCllle
affairs. and were to be o\'ershadowed by the
oUlbreak of all-out war in July 1937,
That war would destroy the SII"UCIUl'e ofsociely
throughout much of the COIlllllY, weakening the
political authority and militluy control of the
Kuomintang go\'emment. It would also empty the
regime's coffers. and reduce milch of the
population of all already chronically backward
country to beggary and stalyation: between 1937
and 1945 hyperinflation would see prices rise by
2.500 per cellI. 5
1939:
10 Fl'brmll)' Hainan Island occupied by Japanese.
27 March Fall ofNanchang.
22 Junl' Port of Swato\\'. south China. taken by Japanese.
14 Sl'ptl'mbl'l' First battle ofChallgsha Jllp:lllese ,il to tllke the city.
Nonmbl'l'-Dl'cl'mbl'1' Chinese winter offensive ends ill defeat.
CHRONOLOGY
1938:
Mal'Cb-Aplil Chinese \'lctory at Taierhchnang by forces led by
General Li Tswlg-jen: al about 16.000. Ihe losses suffered by the
Japanese 10th Diy and Ihe Chinese forces are ronghly equal.
Fall of coastal cities of.'\Jnoy and Foochow.
6 JUDl' Fall of Kaifeng.
Octobl'l' Fall of Canton; and ofWuhan defended 'on paper'
by lO7 Chinese diyisions lotalling 800.000 men. Nationalist go\-emmelll
withdraws to somh-westem city of Chungking.
Dl'cl'mbl'l' President Roose\'e1t's US gO\'ernment makes loan of $25
million to Chiang Kai-shek.
1940:
30 Japanese install Wang Ching-wei at head of puppet
'Reorganized Government' in Nanking. to govel'll occupied China.
10 JIIIIl' Japanese lake Ichang 011 Yangtze rher.
July Refused US support. Britain is forced 10 agree to Japanese demand
to dose Ihe 'Bunna Road'. NalionaliSI Chinll's only stlpply route finn
Bunna. India and the West (12th). ModeraleJapanese go\'ernmelll of
Adml Yonai replaced by that of Prince Konoye (16th). US gOYelllmelll
announces limited iron. steel and hie! embargoes Oil Japan in gesture of
support for Chiang Kai-sllek (26th).
August Vichy French regime forced to agree to Japan installing
garrisons in Ilonhern French Indochina. Ihreatening Nationaiisl
positions in Kwangsi proyillce.
Sino-Japanese War 193741
.,'.. 1937:
7 A proyocatioll at Lukuochiao Oil the outskirts of
Peking - the 'Marco Polo Bridge incident' is used as a
pretexi by Japan to innde China.
July Japanese occupy Peking.
13 August Fighting breaks OUI in Shanghai. where a Chinese
anllY of 500.000 lIIen in 71 di'isions face 200.000 Japanese
troops. Chiang Kai-shek's Nalionalist China and the USSR sigll
a nOIl-aggresslOll pact.
3 Sl'ptl'mbl'f Fall ofKalgan. Inner Mongolia.
12 l'\onmbl"f Fall of Shanghai. \\;th estimated Chinese losses
of 300.000 men.
13 Dl"ct>mbl'f Fall ofNalionaJist capilal. Nanking. to Japanese
troops. followed by seyeral weeks of pillage. massacre and
atrocity: scores of thousands of Chinese ci,;lians are killed. and
eye\\;mess repons arollse anti-Japanese indignalion in the We;;L
In th. crisis 01 1137 wom.n
W.f. r.cruiltd Into volunt ..r
units; this young girt soldl.r
of th. Clliun COfPS
If.nch In
S.pt.mb.r 1937. Sh.
th. pnk.d ollh.
CTC. light shirt
br..chts with punlts.
rubb.r
typ. boots.
worn th.
ov., th. I.tt should.,
sltm to b. h., only .qutpm.nt.
(Ad.q RlSourclS Incl
,
SOVIET UNION
MONGOLIA
L/-SUO'UAN
. .,..-""
I '-
'.i -..
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
\ ..-'
,',
-, , ---
.. ,
'. eY_
e1M_, . ..I
--"
'. , .
su
' SHENSl
, , HONAN
,..'
, ..' . .'--,
,- ...
HUPEH
1943:
l\1aI'rlt Gen Chennault is appointed
to cOlllmand new US 14th Air Force in
China.
Throughout year. Gen Stilwell
supen'ises re-training
and re-equipmenl programme around
Ramgarb. in Bihar stale. India. for
Chinese Iroops from Burma. From
Orlobn reillforcemenls are floun back
from China 011 Iransport aircraft
emply to Ledo. Assam. from
supply flighls 'O\'er the HUlllp' to
Kmuning. Since Ihese are now the only
Allied means of supplying Chiang Kai-
shek. il is easier 10 bring Chinese troops
to Ihe supplies than to take Ihe supplies
to China: and by the end of Ihe year
four effe<:liye Chinese di\'isiOtlS ha\'e
been built in India. Meanwhile. working
fonvard from Ledo. under US
Gen Lewis Pick construct a road to link
up eyemually with the Burma Road. In
October Stilwell's forces slowly advance
south-eastwards into the Hukawng
Valley in north cenlral Burma.
2 O"e"mbH Iu China.
baule of Changteh in Hunan province:
an offensive by lOO.OOOJnpanese troops
is pushed bnck 10 its Slal't line ill a costly
Chinese ,'ictOly. whose henvy casualties
include three divisional commnnders.
after 140-mile retreal Oil foot (15th): his
22nd & 38th Di\'S v..;llllller form lhe core
of 'X-Force'. Lasl British Empire troops
lea\'e Bunna (20th).
July Stilwell appointed to command
new US China-Bunna-India Theater.
1944:
J:mulU'}' Since Chiang Kai-shek insists upon Allied offensi,'es III Burma
to re-open his supply lines before his armies can make any real
contribution 10 Allied strategy, British Adml Mountbanen (Supreme
Allied COllllllnnder Soulh-East Asia Command. SEAC) plans with Gen
Stilwell the joill1 Operalion 'Thursday'. Stilwell's Chinese X-Force are to
ad"ance against the Japanese 18th Diy to seize Shaduzup. Mogaung and
Myitkyina in north central Burma. before swinging north-east illlo
China: and the Ledo Road will be pushed forward. SOUlh of the Chinese.
se"eral Brilish/Indian 'Chindil' "ill be inserled by air 10 cut the
rear lines of Ihe Japanese facing Stil,,-ell. Meanwhile. in nOflheast
8 Bunna, Gen Wei Li-Huang's Chinese V-Force from Yunnan is to adnnce
ABO'v'E LtG.n Jouph W.
Stilw.. 11U3.IU'I. 'Vln'in
Joe' W<IS ob'tlou$ thOlt. 10 b.
wniof US miHury ....
In h. $Iudi.d Itt.
In p.klni In Ih. "20$.
and h.1d bun US miHury
1S35039. Arri'tlni in lU2.
M WU thl.fof
5ti1ff by
unl to utrlut.
I13rd-9rns.cl Chinn. lortn
in All., Ih. uh3u$tlni
into h. h3d 10
wilh u ....
$imulUn.aus tnk$: to r..qulp
m th. trOOP$ In to
0Wf'SM the ov.r$tr.tth.el
01 $upplln to 10
k.D b.twun Ih. US go.... rnm.nt
and Chi.1ng o r th. tondutt 01
lhlI w3r: 3nel ntu3I1y, to Inel
!hi Chinn. fortn b3tk Inlo
Burma. AllhoUih 3
;nd offit." SUlw.1I
$klll$: h.
r.unt.el Prnld.nt Roou.... II$
0fdIn, W3$ 3lmo$1 op.nly
tOnltmplUOU$ of
qUMftIl.d wllh USAAF Gtn
CMM3Ult, WU $ull.nly
suspitiou$ of Iht Brlll$h
IIItIO wtr. tarrying by Ih.
grt3ltl" burdtn In Burm,. In
oc:tobIr lU4 hl$ ulllm31um Ih31
M _ tompl.1t tOmm3nel
of Chinest lortn ltel to hl$
(US Corp$1
against the Japanese 56th Di\' on the Salween ri\'er frail!. to
open the Bunua Road bel\veen Lashio and Kunming.
5-6 :\f:U'ch Stilwell's Chinese (and 'Merrill's Marauders'.
5307th Composite brigade. the only US AnllY combat unit in
SE Asia) defeat Japanese at Maingkwall and Walawbaum.
5-12 March Chindit brigades are flO\\11 into Kaukkwe
Valley: they set up strongholds. beat offJapanese reaction.
and cut Mandalay-Myitkyilla railway.
7/8 :\t:u,<,h Unsuspected by the Allies. Japanese Gen
Mutaguchi's 151llAnny (33rd. 15th & 31st Din;) laullches U-
Go Offensiw against British Gen Slim's 141h Anuy on
Chindwin ri\'er frolll ill nOl1hwesl Burma a major Ihmst
illlo Assam to seize fhe \'ital base at Imphal before pushing
on imo India.
i\'IlIrch-Junr In fierce figilling around Tiddim. Tamu.
Imphal and Kohima. Slim's forces defeal Japanese with hea\")'
losses.
April Chindits pass under Stilwell's cOlllmand. His X-Force
makes slow progress against Japanese north of Mogaung
and MyitL.")'ina.
In China. the Japanese lchigo OffellSin (with objecliws including
seizure of US bomber bases) captures large areas oflerritory in Hunan
and Kwangsi provinces.
11-12 Y-Force opens Chinese offellSin on Salween fronl. but fails
10 re-open Bunua Road.
17 Merrill's Marauders caplUre Myitkyinll airfield. but the
Japanese reinforce the town. and the fighting bogs down into a siege.
JlIlll' In China. fIrSt USA.AF 8-29 raid on Japan from airfields around
Chengtu near Chungking (15th). First major Japanese offensive since
1938. by 11th & 23rd Armies. captures Changsha (18th). In Bunna.
Slilwell sacrifices the exhausted Chilldits to capture Mogaullg (26th).
11 July Defeated and slaning. Japanese 15 th Anny is ordered to retreat
from Assam.
3 August Stilwell's X-Force fmally captures Myitkyinll.
8 August In China. Hengyang falls toJapanese.
19 Octobl'l' Gen Stilwell is recalled to the USA. through political
machinations by Chiang Kai-shek.
31 OcfolH'r Chinese coumer-offensive begins in China.
In Burma. the chain of command is re-organized. US Gen Albert
Wedenueyer takes over liaison with Chiang Kai-shek. Gen Drmiel Sultan
takes command of Northern Combat Area Command (NCAC) -
Chinese New 6th Anuy (Gen Liao Yao-hsiang: 14th. 221ld & 50th Divs).
New 1st Anny (Gen Sun Li-jen: 30th & 38th Din). plus British 36th Di,'
and US Mars Force (fonner Menill's Marauders). Gen Raymond
Wheeler becomes Deputy Supreme Allied Commander. SEA.c.
The next phase of operations is planned to trap and desTroy Japanese
33rd Anuy (Gen Honda) in north central Burma. by Gen Slim and Gen
Sultan making simultaneous ad\'ances from the nonh-west and north:
meanwhile Y-Force will again attack from the north-east. these Chinese
ad"ances finally allowing the linking of the Ledo and Bunua roads.
1 Sonmbl'l' Y-Force relakes Lunglillg.
15 Dl'crwbE'T Chinese I.<.t Army enters Bhamo.
9
10
us LIGen 01nlel Ul,IlUn (figlll)
look our Irom sTIIWen In
nu n eomm1ndlng
genel11 of us In ttle CBI
ttluue of 1nd of ttle
comm1nd NCAC, Hete
tie to members
ot ttle Chine" npeditJon1ry
tOlce in Bl,lrmi, Wl'lO wur "I
helme", British KO Sl'Ilrts 1nd
shorts. 1nd BritiSh 31 p1ltern
webbing with 01 11rg. pnks,
1945:
J:lllUflry In the north-west. British 14th Anny
makes rapid progress into centm] Bnnna. reaching
IlTawaddy riyer and threatening Mand"lay. In
the lIo11h-east. Chinese lsI Anny and Y-FOlt:e
meet. and Ledo and Burma roads are joined at
MOlIgyu (2ith).
21 British 361h 01", operating as
NCAC's right flank. captures Myitson.
V-Force. ad\'ancing down Burma Road.
captures Lashio (7th). Didsioll from Chinese
6th Anny links \\llh V-Force at Hsipaw 011 Burma
Road (24Ih).
This essentially marks the close of actiw
Chinese operalions in Bnmla.
Augusl USAAF drop atomic bombs 011 Hiroshima
(6th) and Nagasaki (9th). USSR fmally declares war 011 Japan. and
iU\'ades Manchuria (9th). Sino-Russian treaty signed (l4Ih). recognizing
Chiang Kai-shek's and agreeing to withdraw So\-iet troops
from :\1:anclmria after Japanese defeat. Emperor Hirohito broadcasts
surrender announcement (15th).
Almost immediately. US forces begin to transport by sea and air nearly
500,000 Nationalist troops to strategic ports and cities in Manchuria and
nordlern China. This allows the Nationalists to mO\"e into areas that had
been lost to the ConUllunists during the Japanese occupation.
Augnst 1945-Janulu")' 1946
America. fearful of fumre So\-iet im'olnment in a Chinese ci\il war.
anempts 10 broker a peace between Chiang Kai-sllek's Nationalists and
Mao Tse-nmg's Communists. 80th sides pay lip sen'ice to the plan willie
actually preparing 10 resume outright WlIr, Meanwhile, the USSR delays
withdrawal from Manchuria. transferring captured Japanese weapons
to the Communists and allowing them to consolidate their hold in
lllany areas. There is constant low le\'el fighting between Nationalists
and Communists in Manchuria. In NO\'ember 1945, against US ad\ice.
Chiang decides to commit his best Allied-lrllined llnd equipped troops
to Manchuria as soon as the So"iets withdraw,
The Civil War 1946-49
1946:
13 Ja11ual"}' Ceasefire in Manchuria brokered by US peace III1SS1011
headed by Gen George C.Marshall.
15 Jalluary Despite ceasefire. KMT forces capture Mukden.
April Communists capture Changchun and Harbin.
l\'by KMT defeat Communists south ofSungari ri\"er, retake Changchun
and capture Szepillg. Comlllunists adopt tide of People's Liberation
Allny (PLA).
JUliE' Marshall mission negotiates another brief truce.
July General ciyil war breaks out between KMT and PLA.
The broad strategies of the two sides are opposed, In simplified tenns.
Chiang's KMT annies - with an initial nUlllerical ad\'antage of abom
3 million 10 I million - ....ill seek to controlnorthsouth COilullunicalions.
confident of dividing the PLA and pushing it
westv.'llIds into the wildemess fOI" final destmction.
In 1946-47 the KMT will invest far too hea\'ily in
occupying and holding cities in Manchuria and
nOl1hem China. tying down men and resources in
position.11 defences which the Communists can
affccd to ignore. at the end of a precarious 1.000-
mile supply line through the strongest areas of
ConIDlluUst support.
Outside Manchuria. the PL'\ intend to thmst
eastwards frOI1l Shensi pro\'ince to reach the coast
and separate the KJ.\fT forces in north and south
fi:c destruction in detail. They will increasingly
dominate the coullIryside. isohuing and strangling
Kc\1f centres. Meanwhile a cmmbling away of
SUppOl"t and losses in men and equipment will
reduce Chiang's numerical advantage and lift the
RA 10 equality in maleriel by mid-1948: and by
early 19.;J9 the PLA \\ill achien superiority in both
mell and weaponry.
1947:
PLA forces uuder Gen Lin Piao
nlOlUlt series of allacks on Nationalists along
ri\"er south of Harbin. Manchuria. Best
Kl\1f Iroops. wilh motorized equipmelll. are tied
<b.\1l guarding cities and railways in deep. narrow salienl. This slretches
north-east frOI1l Peking and Tientsin into Manchuria. \ia Chinchow to
MukdetL Szeping. Changchun and Kirin.
14 ::\1:udl Symbolic but otherwise pointless victOlY for Nationalists when
dll.')' take old pre-1945 Communist capital of Yenan.
r.tJy Gell Lin Piao's 270.000 PLA troops drive Nationalists back
150 miles and inflict hea\)' casualties.
December PLA cut rnillinks into Mukden and isolate all Kl\fT garrisons
in Manchuria.
1948:
MmdJ. Nationalisl commander in Manchuria, Gell Liao Yao-hsiang.
OIooS K.MT garrisons wilhdntwn from Kirin and Szeping to Mukden.
111<11 city. held by Gen Wei LiHIl:lllg with 200.000 men. and Changdllln.
widl 40.000 nnder Gell Cheng TUllg-kao. are now only KM:T holdings in
Mrulcluuia norlh of Chinchow uilhead and supply base.
St'ptl'mlwr After feinling towards Mukden. Lin Piao threatens
Chinchow. Further soul1l. PLA attack key city of Tsinall on the Yellow
river in Shantung pro\ince. held by 80.000 Ki\1T troops (14th). 200.000
!fOOPS encircle Mukden (17th). Tsinan garrison surrenders (24th).
1lUl}' joining Ihe PLA. Mukden ganison ordered 10 relie\'e Chinchow
with 15 di\'isions (25th). bUI Gen Wei hesitates.
OctolX't Gen Wei sends 11 di\'isions in sOl1ie fmm Mukden lowards
duncllO\\' (9th). ordering Gen Cheng to break out ofChangchun and
wldxlrnwon Chinchow: laner order ne\'er acknowledged. At Chincho\\".
KMf 93rd Diy defect: city falls (15tb). Gen Liao Yao-hsiang killed ill
Maretl 1U5: Sherman
ot the Chlnne ProYisional Tank
Group tronlng the Ham You
riyer during YForte's adnnte
on Lnhio. The trew wear ski
typelleld with KD tlothing.
Hote the tolourful 'tiger
on lhe mantlet
turret front, lhe 'tlaws'
on the In front
of the drlyer'S position.
(US Corps)
11
12
,
A column 01 soldi.rs Singing
patriolic songs match along
a dirt road during a wlnlfr
off.nsiYf. Th.y WUt wlnlfr
w.igM skltyp. ups wilh Ih.
Ut flaps li.d on top. Th.lr
wadd.d conon jachlS and
ttounrs ;It. In ditf.r.nt shadn
01 blu'lIr.y. MOSI olth.n m.n
;It. ;ltm.d wilh Ih. Hanyang II
but IWO m.n al th. ftOnl /l;IY.
lalft Maunt mod.rs.
_ PLA attack Oil his HQ. Chiang
Kaj-shek flies from Nanking
to Peking to take personal
command. but his direct
orders to individual diyisiollal
commanders add 10 confusion.
Changchull falls. after defec-
tions from garrison (19th).
Gen Wei's sOl1ie defeated west of
Mukden (27th). Disintegration
ofIO.1T anllies in Manchuria.
2 Mukden falls:
huge numbers ofmell and Ja..IT
weapons and supplies captured.
5 NO\"f,mbn POrl of Yingkow
falls. after only about 20.000
KMT troops manage to reach
it and lake ship somh. The campaign has cost the
Nationalists about 300.000 men and ,"ut resources.
De<:isi,-e battle for Hsucho\\'. ,-ital hub of Ilorth-
southfeast-west railways. commanding mo\"emenl from Peking to
Nanking and somh 10 the Yangtze. Helped by treachery ofKMT general
staff officer Gen Liu Fei. PL4. 2nd & 3rd Field Anuies (Gen Chen Yi).
aboUl 500.000 strong. manoeU\Te to en\'elop KMT Oen Tu Yu-ming's
150.000-strong garrison from west. south and easl. QnraLi KMT field
operatiolls around Hsuchow. by four amlY groups tOlaLiing 300.000
men. are commanded by incompetent political appointee Gell lin
Ch'ih. Early DE'cE'mbE'l", Hsuchow ilself abandoned. and to sOUlh of it
140.000 K...VlT troops surrounded al Suhsiell. where attempt at relief
defeated with great loss (6th).
1949:
Nationalist forces surrender south of Hsuchow (10th): PIA
claim 327.000 prisoners. and tOlal KMT casualties in campaign are
about 500.000. Many prisoners w:illjoin PLA after 're-education'. PIA
take Tientsin (15th). and Peking POth). on which date Chiang Rai-shek
resigns presidency to Li Tsung-jell.
Ff'bI"UllI1'-i\brch General advance by PLA sOllthwards to Yangtze river.
KM:T government under Sun Fo llIove to Calltoll. and attempt
negotiations with Mao Tse-tung. Still director general of KMT pmt)'.
Chiang transfers gold reserves to Fotlllosa. and prepllres Nlltionalist
redoubt 011 thllt islllnd.
AIJlil Negotiations brellk down (19Th). PLA cross Yangtze lit severnl
points. Fall ofTlliyuan: lind of Nanking (23rd),
27 Fall of Shanghai.
JUlIE'-Dl'Cl'lIlbl'l' The rest of mainland Chinll and Inlier Mongolia moe
o\'errun by the PLA against only lighT resistance.
1 Octobn In Peking. Mao Tse-Illllg proclaims the People's Republic of
China.
150ctobf'f Fall of Callion. gO\'emmenl flees 10 Chungking. then
Chengtu.
8 DE'CfoWbn Chiang Kai-shek and leadership wilhdraw fl:om
mainland 10 Taipei. Forulosa.
Nationalist Army Field Organization
CtW Tl.<.lrl = 2 CJ: mxe arrries
kmf. CJIun T(.l,)II = 2 CJ: mxe corps
COp$. C/I(n = 2 CJ: mxe dolSions
l:M'Ul, SNIt '" 2 CJ: rrae lr'Iar*Y
13
THE NATIONALIST ARMY
1937-45
-
19
through Ihtlr
.... t1l elOlhtd tor wlnlfr in
.... eotton trounrs.
hts doutlltl)ruslfd
Tht two ottietrs
(rlghl) h"yt ilddtd shouldtr
to Ihtlr
Thty ....urln'il Iht USSlylt
puhd nrylet Wilh Iht
. Iht KMT sun
bordtrtd In rtd. In 'il0ld wrulh
(nt H1). Tht
el"lms mtn
lormtr CommunislS.
(US Arehiyul
Weapons 194649
Small anus used by Ihe Nationalists included all pre\'iously acquired
Mauser 7.921lUll rifle types. both imported and locally made. Additional
rifles came from among the large number of Japanese 6.5mm and 7. 7nUll
Arisakas captured in 1945. The .3Ocal Springfield M1903 and Enfield
1\11917 rifles had been supplied in large numbers by the USA pre-1945;
brn while significant numbers of Ml carbines were proyided. as far as
is known no Garand MI rifles were supplied. Sub-machine glUIS were
usually either ,45cal Thompsons (imported. or \'arious copies).
Canadian-made 9mm Stem. or the Chinese Type 36 copy ofthe US .45cal
M3 'grease gun'. Lighlmachine guns used during the Ci\'iJ. War were the
Czech-designed 7.92mlll ZB26 and a Canadian-made 7.92nun Brell gun.
TIle mOSI common hea\")' machine gUll throughout the war was the
archaic-looking Type 24. a copy of the 7.92nun Gennau MG08 Maxim.
TItis mix of so lllallY types of weapon taking at least si.x types of
ammunition mllst have made the lives of ordnance officers aud
quartermasters a hell 011 earth.
Roughly speaking. about
30 per ceut of Nationalist
small arms were of US origin.
30 per ceut captured Japan
ese. and the remainder from
various Chinese sources.
Huge numbers of Japanese
weapons had been captured
in August 1945. including
629.544 rifles and 27.745 light
and hea\}' machine guns.
III their turn. the Nationalists
were to lose equally stag-
gering numbers of weapons
captured from them by the
PLA. Qne US miliHuy source states IbM between September and
Noyember 1948 the NationalislS lost 230.000 rifles to the Communists:
by the start of 1949 the lotal figure had reached over 400.000. ofwhich
at 1easl 100.000 were US types.
The Nationalist artillety was equipped mainly with Japanese pieces.
of which some 10.300 had been captured: among. the more modern US
,gUllS the 75mlll pack howitzer was the most common type. E\'en though
large numbers ofDS I05mm and some 155m howitzers had been sel.ll
to China the anillery in the field still relied heaYily on mountain and
light field gUllS.
Armour was poorly utilized. The Nationalists had only one annoured
brigade. equipped with Stuart M3A3 liglll tanks and cOlllmanded by
Chiang Kai-shek's son. Other armour included more thlln 300 outdated
Japanese captures. and eyen some older lefto\'ers such as the Soyiet T-
26. Any armour not on Ihe strength of the single armonred brigade Wit>
distributed piecemeal among the nrious Nationalist commanders.
Annoured trains were still in use by the Nationalists. in usually furile
attempts to defend their nJinerable snpply lines.
1937-45 UNIFORMS
The ullifonn oflhe Chinese Anny in 1937 was practical. reflecting the
dO\Hl-to-eanh nature of the ordinary fighting man. Parade-ground
smanness was rarely insisted upon ours ide the occasional elite or
bodyguard units. Si.x years of experience in small scale campaigns
against the Japanese on the Manchurian borders had taught die
Chinese how 10 kit out their troops from the limited resources ofa poor
nation, in l.lIility uniforms for both summer and winter conditions, The
high turnoyer of manpower meant that many millions of Chinese
soldiers had to be dressed
and equipped during
the course of the ml',
These huge demllnds are
exemplified by production
figures from 1945, Dtuing
thllt year Chinese gowm-
ment factories supplied 5
million S\lits of sUlllmer
clothing and up to 4
million winter uniforms.
plus 10 million sets of
underwear. In addition.
I million mililaly blankets
were produced (which
gi\'es pause for thought -
was only I soldier in 4
issued with a new blanket?).
Much of the cotton aOO
other material needed iar
the uniforms had to be
imported from India.
In Flbrury 1Ut. til,
uuu a
unit 01 tllroUllh
Ill. SUUIS of Th .,
u. drnud In wlnln
uniforms wilh gt ., totton Ski
caps. Th. Ironl un. <lIf' armld
with Thompsons, ud lilt
Slcond r<llnk with US MI
carbinn ;lind <ll a.lllian Mrt 30
<llutomUlc rlllt. Furth,r b,1ck In
Ill. column ar, min ",mld with
M<lluser ,IfIn <lind Ze26 IIIJht
machln. guns.
20
Summer uniforms
At the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War the Chinese Alluy wore both
a lightweight summer and a heavier winter uniform. Generally speaking_
the summer unifolln was made up ofa light cotton jacket and trousers
WOI"II with pultees. and either a peaked (yisored) sen'ice cap_ a peaked
'ski-type' field cap_ or Yanous models ofhelmel.
The standard summer IUnic during the Sino-Japanese War was a light
khaki cotlon jacket with a slalld-and-faIJ collar. four pockets and fiye
fronl buttons: both the breast and waist pockets had bultol1ed flaps. The
buttons were made of anything from wood to plaslic and e\'ery other
malerial in between. Allhough usually described as lighl khaki_ the tunic
varied widely in both colour and quality. wilh many shades of khaki.
brown and green seen in use. Because Ihe Chinese AmlY relied far more
than 11I0st a1lllies upon dispersed local manufaclure. the I}-pe and
quality of cloth used were as \-aned as the colour. Howe\er. the basic
design of Ihe jackel does seem 10 ha\-e been adhered to in Illost cases_
Rank patches ,,-ere displayed on Ihe collar. and Ihe soldier's identifi-
calion patch ab<)\-e the left breast pockel (see 'Insignia'_ below).
Most soldiers wore conon trousers. CUI baggier in Ihe thigh than Ihe
caJ( which were confined by pUllees of woollen or other c10lh tied wilh
tapes al the top_ Generally the trousers would be issued in Ihe same
c10lh as the jacket. and seem 10 han faded unifonuly. Long_ ba!Lll)'
shorls were also worn: Ihese came tojusl abO\-e the knee_ and were also
usuaUy worn with puttees. lea\-ing the knees exposed.
Bools were not usually WOOl by Chinese soldiers during the 1937-45
period_ the most common fonn of footwear being brown or black
leather shoes. Other Ihan for parade and guard units these were usually
left unpolished_ The traditional Chinese black can\-as plilllsoll-lype
shoes were also yery widely wom. as they had been by soldiers for many
generations: these were wonl in summer witholll socks and in winter
with white stockings. Soldiers are often seen with a spare pair of cam-as
shoes strapped to their packs. so Ihey must han been cheap and easily
obtainable_ In summertime homemade straw sandals were also WOOl by
yelY many soldiers. either for comfort. to sa\-e wear and tear on shoes, or
because nothing else ,,,as a\-ailable.
The X- and V-Force units which were trained in India and Western
China by the Allies received a mixlUre of British Mid US uniform
clothing. British khaki drill (KD) was the most common_ and could be
made lip of a KD shirt with eifher long trousers or shorts. More often
than not the soldiers continued the practice of wearing puttees with
both trousers and shorts. Many types ofIndianmade uniforlll items worn
by the British in Asia found their way into use by the Chinese. including
woollen pullovers. The Chinese were at the back of the queue for the
new British purpose-made jungle green (JG) uniforms. bUI lIlay ha\-e
recei\'ed the green-dyed K.D c10fhing which preceded these as a stop-gap.
Uniform headgear
The Chinese AllUY of the early to mid 1930s wore two types of cap. a
peaked sep,ice cap being mosl popular in Ihe north and a ski-type field
cap being worn in the sOUlh_ Howeyer. in the Chinese context there are
no hard and fast mles: one unil was photographed near the Bunllese
border in the far somh of China wearing the sen-ice cap in July 1937_ 21
22
1338: sOlcll,rs
with th, famous Maunr
pistol In this
to JUd'i!' Irom th'
numerous
th, Astra or G,rman
R713 mocl,1
01 fully fir"
01 Itns of thouuncls
wert impon'd b,'o" 1337. Th'
thl
Maunr a wupon,
without
HOWlVtr, fully 'ire
a! 15 rounds ptr Is
absurdly ' i'l Is
almost imposslbl' to maintain
th, aim on a m,nslucltar'i!"
Inn 2S yuds' r'n'i!'. Th,n
soldi,rs take aim on parade,
without ma'i!nlnu 'in,d, Th'y
mort smartly lurn'cl out
and b'"lr ,qulpp'd than thl
anra'i!' NationaUsl soldl", and
u, almoSi unalnly a boclY'i!utd
unil. Th'I' 'polo'4yp' pilh
hllmlls would pruumably han
bun "pluld by stul hllmlts
lor It avallabl"
non-r''i!ul,tion Iltms as then
hudgur wert by
to impron
thl olth,lr 'lilt
units. $u PI,t, 81, (Rob,n
Hunt Libr,ryl
At the oUlbreak of the fighting in the 110l'lh Ihat month. Illany of the
lroops facing the Japanese still wore the service cap. This came in Slumner
CO!fon and winter wool versions. and had a black or brown leather peak
and chin strap. w-ith an enamelled KNIT sunburst badge on the front. Mer
Ihe \"inual destlUction of the northe1'll Chinese annies in 1937 the sel\'ice
cap went OUi of common use.
By far the most common type of headgear wom by the Chinese Army
throughout the period cO\"ered by this book was Ihe ski.type field cap.
based on caps worn by alpine troops of Ihe German and Austro-
Hungarian annies. The cap had a cloth peak and a fold-down side
curtain. which was usually worn faslened up and held in place at die
front by one or two buttons. A one button \'ersion was more common in
the early 19305. and the two-bullon \'anety was seen most cOllunollly
from the late 19305 onwards. Field caps were made from a \'anery of
materials. bUl nonnally from light conon for snmmer wear and hea\-ief"
cotton or wool for wimer. The standard KMT enamelled badge of a
white sunburst on a circular blue background was WOOl at the from of
the crown alxwe the buttons. This cap was in continuous service finn
1930 umil the [mal defeat of the Nationalists in 1949. but became 1ess
common after 1942.
Another type ofstiff field cap. based on the German Nazi SA kepi. \\3;
used by some Nationalist troops in the early 19305. This had a leather
peak and a single small metal bullon at the front. again with the
sun badge. This type ofcap was mainly seen worn by soldiers during the
1933 Jehol campaign. and seems to ha\'e been more or less phased au
by the mid 19305. A softer clothpeaked \"ersion of this cap was WUJ.I
during the 19405. but not \\idely.
Hea\'ier duty \"ersions of the skitype field cap were wom with die
wimer lUlifofln. and were made of quilted or wadded conon. nlis \\3;
basically a bulkier\"ersiotl of
the summer cap but with a
substantial fold-down side
curtain to protect the
cheeks and neck. The side-
pieces were nOflllally wom
fastened on top of die
crown with a butlon or
tapes. The standard winter
version of the cap. 1Il
woollen cloth. had the smile
IWO bUllons at the front as
Ihe smnmer Illodel. Various
\'ersions were in service wid}
different units: one pattem
with (l quilted lining and no
front buttons was wom by
froops of the 29th A.l.111Y.
Steel helmets
The hislory ofsteel hehnets
worn by Ihe Chinese
Anny in the 1930s-40s is
complicaled by the wide rnnge of types in ser...ice.
especially before 1937. The mnin types used
before 1937 were the British Mk I or Its Americnn
MI917Al counterpart. Ahhough other models
are seen. these two almost identical types were by
fur the most commonly WOI'l1 during the fighting
of 1931-37.
Three other types were WOIll by Nationalist
troops. The firsl was the 'plum blossom' model.
which was based on the Japanese helmet of ...ery
similar design (see Plate my' A second model had
a pot-shalX'd s,},:ull with a brim that ",-as slightly
wider at the front. gi\'ing it the appearance of
haxing a peak: this type seems laI",!Zely 10 ha\-e gone
out of use by 1937. but probably sun.-i,-ed in some
umts. Finally. a third model of distincti'-e Chinese
design (see Plate A3). similar in shape 10 a
flanened Gennan 'coalscunle' helmet. ",-as seen in
use from 1932 until 1937. TIlis model was unique in
shape. but may han been based on the US
eXlX'rimental Model 2A design which ",-as later
denloped into the MI of World War II fame.
The steel helmet that WliS really representati...e
of the Chinese AI'I11Y of 1937-45 was the Gennan M35. This model was
introduced after the arri\'al in China in 1933 of the Gennan training
mission under Colonel-General Hans "on Seeckt. Gennan advisers were
quick to recommend their own country's armament industries to supply
much of the modern weaponry and equipmelll bought by the Chinese
during the 1930s. These included approximately 250.000 M35 helmets
imported before 1936. when all exports of the helmet ceased. They
were used to equip the tell German-trained di...isions which fonned the
backbone of the Nationalist AI111Y, Although the \'ast majority of
Chinese soldiers did not recei ...e steel helmets. those that did during the
period 1937-45 were normally issued the M35. The M35 in Chinese use
retained its field-grey factory paint finish. with a white-sun-on-bluesky
Ki\ff decal on the lefl hand side: it was identical to the German model
apart from having II different liner.
Another model in fnil'1y widespread use by Nationalist troops was
the French Adrian. which was seen on a few fronts in 1937. After the
initial fighTing. howen!'. most Adrlall helmets were worn by troops in
The south-west of the coulltry. away frolll the main war fronts. In
Yunnan pro\'ince in the far south-west, adjacelll 10 the border with
French Indochina. the local warlord YUlIg Lun imported large
numbers of them. Nationalist Illsignia on the Adrians nried from a
standard KMT enamel badge to a white stencilled sun surrounded by
a rice-plant wreath.
The Allied-supplied soldiers of x- and Y-Forces wore a mixture of
British Mk II and US MI helmets. The fonner was usually wom with
Indian-made camouflage netting. while the latter bore a KMT decal on
the left side.
2 9le aI50 1.9.1 362. 71leJapaneseAfmy 1931-45(1)
AI1hough In th. fl.ld. this mOljor
Is ImmOleulOlt.ly turn.d out in
th. smOlrtut urvlu drus
uniform with brnehu Olnd
riding boOIS. Olnd whit. p..,Old.
glovu ovt of pIOle.nn it
this Is Ol pue.tim. uueiu.
HOlnglng trom nls SOlm Brown.
b.U on his I.tt hlp Is th.
oftleus' drus dOl'il'il.r,
23
Other headgear
Some Nationalist soldiers wore a distinctive cork
pith helmet of polo style. which appears to lla\-e
been nrnished. The polo helmet was smaller
than the standard pith helmets in use widl
European colonial anllies, and its brim was dIe
same width all around instead of being drawn out
at the back to protect the neck. An enamel
Nationalist sun badge was anached to the fronl. A
pith helmet of more cOI1\'entional shape is seen in
newsreels of the rime, and this was sometimes
paillled for camouflage and covered with netting.
The British supplied their 'India pallern' pith
helmet to X-Force during its training at Ramgarh:
it bore the usual K.\fT badge on the front and
had a brown leather chin strap. Reportedly. US
pith helmets were also issued to X-Force officers
after being declared to be 'limited standard' or
obsolete by the US AmlY in 1941, Broad straw sun
or 'coolie' hats were \\"idely WOnt. usually carried
in addition to the steel helmet or cap and slung
on the soldier's back when not in use. The exact
design of the straw hat depended on the region
of China that the soldier (or the hal) came from.
Sometimes these were painted in camouflage
patterns or festooned with foliage: cOIl\"ersely.
other troops decorated them with patriotic
slogans in Chinese script. or had the KMT Slill
badge stencilled on fhem. Some helmet-shaped
headgear made of basketwork were also used (see
photographs 011 pages 33 and 45).
24
A cad.t Mltlury
Is plctur.d on
with Cnch lB21 on his
should.r. His uniform Is mad.
from hnvy wooll.n cloth, and
hn th. disc
on th. 01
Abov. his 1.lt br.nt
pock.t Is th. Id.nllty
nrvlc. and unIt
th. 1.11
appnrs to display th. slngl'
01 .Ith.r or
ncond This cad.t
comu Irom a
rnsoubly
nott th. 10unUIn p.n
protruding from his
(tWill, CHN
Officers' uniforms 1937 -45
The materials and tailoring of Chinese officers' IIniforms were of a
much higher standard than those of the lower ranks. Officers were
normally responsible for pro\'iding their own IIniforms. and since most
clime from wealthier families this was reflected in the quality of their
dress. Officers \vore a selTice dress of khaki wool comprising a ski-type
cap. a tunic, and either riding breeches with topboots or leggings, or
straight slacks worn with brown leather shoes. Theil' brown leather belts
were of 'Sam Browne' style. and supponed a pistol holster and an
officel>s dress dagger.
Caps were of the same basic paltern as those worn by enlisted men
but ofbeller qualities. depending on the rank of the individual. During
the war a few higher ranking Anny officers were seen wearing the US
officel>s peaked service cap. but these were normally worn only by Air
Force personnel.
The tunic had a stand-and-fall collar. four pockets. and fi\"e brass
front bUllons. Ahhough there were \'ariations of colour. the normal
shade was. in British ternIS. a brownish khaki. or in American usage a
brownish olive drab. Rank insignia were displayed 011 plastic or metal
(ronrin,,<Mi .", JK1g. 33)
CHINA 1937
1: f'rhrll1e, 72nd DI, 71h Army a .....p; north Ch""', "U1I1937
2: C ~ , 8&1h Dlv: Sh-.g".l, 1037
3: Priv"'to, 561h DIv; Shan"""'l, 1037
4: Sergeant. 37th DiY. 29th Army; Peking. J u ~ 1137
A
- -
CHINA 1938-39
1: Corporal, 1SUh ON, 12t1't Army, C.,ton, May 1938
2: Privale 1.t CI...; Wuh." Oct 1938
3; Prlva\lll 2nd Cia, 7th DIY; winter 1939
,
CHINA 1939-41
1: Captain, 14th ArtIllery Regt; Honan, Jan HMO
2; Major, 1!13rd Div, 60th Corp.; Changlha, Sept 1939
3: RegrnenlalalandardbeaAlf, 12th Dlv, 3rd Corps;
st.....1p r o v l ~ , May ltil41
3
c
May 1944
rthern Byrma, 944
BURMA 1943-45 38th Div, New 1st Valley, March 1
l' Private, 112th Regt'oo Div, New 6th Army; y
lance-Corporal, India, Aug 1944
3; Privata 1st ClasS;
D
,
L
,
CHINA & BURMA 1943-45
1: Tank commander, (1111 PTovl,lonal Tank Group; Burma, 1944-45
2; Major-General Sun U-jen, 38th DIY; Burma, late 1943
3: Colonel, US TAG; KU<lmlng, 1943
E
-",",""-
. --
-
-.
2 3
~ A ~
,
'"
CHINA 1944-45
1: OSS-trained soldier, ISOUthern China. Aug 1945
2: Guerrilla, ~ Regl, 15th Mabie Column;
Shantung. 1944
3: uncI-corporal; P1hu tnlnlng centre, 11144
4: Privet. hI QaM. New 10th DIY. 46th Co.,.a:
Kw"'lin.luicl'looo". Apr 1945
1
2
3
CIVIL WAR 1946-49
1: Lieutenant, 123<d Corps; ShPr'llIhal, A;K 1949
z: PrtvalB 2nd Class, 4th COtPs; Carlton, oa 1949
3: 2JM:llt, Eng;.........., 7th DIv; ShIt>chiKlw.>ana, Oc11948
.: Vt>lunt_. P.....,. Pnu""vlltion Corps: kllifenD. June 1948
,
Q
H
,
CIVIL WAR 1946-49
1: Lieutenant, 60th D1v; Fe lIM1
2: Private 111I. ClaSs, 207th Youth Div;
Mukchn, Ocll948
3: NCO, 12th Army Group;
StJ,fwallQClli.oenl, NO\I 1948
4: Corporal, 73n1 Almy; Menchun., Nov 19ot1
3
,-